CHAPTER--1

CHAPTER
Circuit Variables
The concept of electric charge is the basis for describing all of electrical phenomena
* The charge is bipolar (positive or negative)
* The electric charge exists in discrete quantities, which are integral multiples of the
electron charge (1.6022 x 10-19 C).
* Electrical effects are attributed to both the separation of charge and charges in motion.
Whenever positive and negative charges are separated, energy is expended;

Voltage
It is defined as the energy per unit charge created by separation, in other
words, it is the work done to transfer a unit charge for a unit distance and
mathematically expressed as following:-
The energy in joules
dw
The voltage in volts v=
dq The charge in coulombs

Current
It is the rate of flow of charge The charge in coulombs
dq
The current in amperes i=
dt Time in seconds
Ideal Basic Circuit Element
An Ideal Basic Circuit Element has three attributes

(1) It has only two terminals, which are the points of connection to the i
other circuit elements. +
(2) It is mathematically described in terms of voltage and/or current.v
(3) It can not be subdivided into other elements. -

* When the current is flowing from (+) to (-) sign of the voltage in any element it
is said to flowing in the direction of voltage drop (positive current).
current)
* When the current is flowing from (-) to (+) of the voltage it is said to be flowing
in the direction of voltage rise (negative current).
current)
Example 1-
1-1
The current between the terminals of the element shown in
Fig., is i
+
i=0 For t < 0 v
i = 20e-5000t A For t > 0 -
Find the total charge in (µC) entering the upper terminal of
the element. t 
dq
Solution i=  q =  i dt  qtotal =  i dt
dt t 0
0
 20 4

qtotal =  20e -5000t dt = - e -5000t 0
=-  0-1 = 4000 C
0 5000 1000
Power
It is the time rate of expending or absorbing energy, measured in (Watt
Watt)
The energy in joules
dw
The power in Watts P=
dt The time in seconds
dw dw dq
P= = * = vi
dt dq dt
*Then the power associated with any basic circuit element is simply the
product of the current in the element and the voltage across element and the
sign of the power can be determined from the passive sign convention rule:-
(1) When the current is flowing in the direction of voltage drop ( from “+” to “-” )
the power sign is (positive) and it is said to be (absorbed, consumed, or
dissipated)
(2) When the current is flowing in the direction of voltage rise ( from “-” to “+” )
the power sign is (Negative) and it is said to be (delivered)

i i i i
- -
+ +
v v v v

+ +
- -

(a) P = + vi (b) P = - vi (c) P = - vi (d) P = vi

Energy
It the work done (the capacity to do work) measured in Joules (J)
t
W =  P dt
t0
In general for any circuit, the theory of conservation of energy must be applied
 Power delivered =  Power dissipated
Example 1-
1-2
i
For the two elements shown in Fig., calculate
the power in the interconnection between A & +
A v B
B and state whether the power is flowing from
-
A to B or vice versa in the following cases:-
(a) i = 15 A , v = 20 V (b) i = -5 A , v = 100 V
(c) i = 4 A , v = -50 V (d) i = -16 A , v = -25 V

Solution
We calculate the power of element (A
A) for which the current is flowing in
direction of voltage rise

(a) PA = - iv = - (15) (20) = -300 W = 300 W (Delivered) (A B)

(b) PA = - iv = - (-5) (100) = 500 W = 500 W (Absorbed) (B A)
(c) PA = - iv = - (4) (-50) = 200 W = 200 W (Absorbed) (B A)
(d) PA = - iv = - (-16) (-25) = -400 W = 400 W (Delivered) (A B)
 CHAPTER--2
CHAPTER
Basic Circuit Elements

Active Elements Passive Elements

Sources R, L, C

Independent Dependent
Voltage Current VCVS CCVS VCCS CCCS
Passive Element:-
Element:- which can not contribute (add) energy to the-
the-circuit.
Active Element:-
Element:- Is capable of generating energy (delivers energy to
the circuit).
Sources:-- are the circuit elements that are capable of converting non-
Sources: non-
electric energy to electric energy.
Indepen. Source:-
Source:- is an active element that provides a specified
voltage or current that is completely independent of other circuit
variables.
Depend. Source:-
Source:- is an active element in which the source
quantity is controlled by another voltage or current in the circuit.
►VCVS Voltage Controlled Voltage Source
►CCVS Current Controlled Voltage Source
►VCCS Voltage Controlled Current Source
►CCCS Current Controlled Current Source
Voltage Source:-
Source:- Is the circuit element that maintains a prescribed
voltage across its terminals regardless the current flowing in those
terminals.
Current Source:-
Source:- Maintains a prescribed current through its terminals
regardless the voltage across those terminals.
Example 2-
2-1:
1:-- Using the definitions of the ideal indep.
& depen. Voltage & current sources, state which
interconnections are valid and which are not.

3A 5A
10V + 5V + 7A 10V +
- - -

(a) (b) (c)

Vx=5V Vx=5V
+ + + 4Vx 4ix + 5ix
- 3Vx - -
ix=2A
- ix=2A

(f) (g)
(d) (e)

Solution
(a) Invalid (b) Invalid (c) Valid
(d) Invalid (e) Valid (f) Valid (g) Invalid
 Electric Circuit Topology

Node

Mesh
Loop Branch
Node::- A point where two or more circuit elements meet (1,2,3,4, and 5).
Node
Path:- A trace of adjoining basic elements with no elements included more than
Path:
once.
Branch::- A path connecting two nodes (1-2, 2-3, 3-4, 3-5, 1-4,………).
Branch
Loop:- A path whose the last node is the same as the starting node (closed
Loop:
path).
Mesh::- A loop that does not contain (enclose) any other loops (A,B,C, D).
Mesh
 Basic Laws of Circuit Theory
Law:- States that the voltage v across a
1- Ohm’s Law:-
resistor is directly proportional to the current i
flowing through the resistor. + i
v = i*R (if i in the direction of the voltage drop)
R
v = -i*R (if i in the direction of the voltage rise) V

The resistance, R, of an element denotes its ability to resist -

the flow of electric current; it is measured in ohms (Ω).

R = ρ*L/A
L …. Wire Length
A …. Wire cross-section area
ρ …. Material resistivity in Ω.m

The conductance, G, of the material

is the reciprocal of resistance and
measures how well the material will
conduct the electric current.
G = 1/R (S or Ʊ)
P = vi = i2*R = v2/R
2- Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL
(KVL))
States that the algebraic sum of all voltages
around a closed path (or loop) is zero. V2 - V3 -
+ +
M
 Vm = 0
m=1
V1 +- i - V4
−v1 + v2 + v3 − v4 + v5 = 0 +

Example 2-2 - V5 +

Determine Vo and i in the circuit shown in

Figure
i 4Ω 2Vo
Solution

-
+
Applying KVL around the loop shown
+
12 V - i - 4V
-12 + 4i + 2Vo - 4 +6i = 0 +
6Ω
Applying Ohm’s law to the 6-Ω resistor
+ Vo -
Vo = - 6i
Then i = -8A, Vo = 48V
3- Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)
States that the sum of the currents entering a node
is equal to the sum of the currents leaving the
node. N
 in = 0 i1
n=1 i5
- i 1 + i 2 - i 3 - i 4 + i5 = 0
i4
Example 2-
2-3 Find the currents and i2
voltages in the circuit shown in Figure. i3
Solution:-
Applying KVL in loops 1,2 i1 i3
8Ω a
-30 + V1 + V2 = 0
+ V1 -
i2
-V2 + V3 = 0
+ +
Applying KCL at node (a) + V2 3Ω V3
30 V - Loop1 6Ω
- i 1 + i2 + i3 = 0 -
Loop2
-
Applying Ohm’s law to the 8, 3, 6-Ω resistors
V1= 8i1, V2 = 3i2, V3 = 6i3
Solving these equations together, we can get
i1 = 3 A, i2 = 2 A, i3 = 1 A and V1= 24 V, V2 = 6 V, V3 = 6 V.
Example 2-
2-3
For the circuit shown in Fig., calculate i1, V1.

0.5 V V1 +
-
29.5 kΩ
+ -
1 2.4 kΩ

i1 40i1
3V +- a 500 Ω b + 10V
-
Solution:--
Solution:
Applying KCL at node (1), gives

i500Ω= 41i1 (down)

Applying KVL at loop (a)

-3 + 29.5k (i1) + 0.5 + 0.5k (41 i1) = 0

i1 = 50 μA
Applying KVL at loop (b)
-0.5k (41i1) – V1 – 2.4k (40i1) + 10 = 0
V1 =10 - 116.5 k (50 μA)
V1 = 4.125 V
 CHAPTER--3
CHAPTER
Simple Resistive Circuits
3-1 Resistors in Series R1 R2 R3
Any two resistors are said to be connected in
series if the same current flows in both of them.
Vs +- is R4
In the first cit.
-Vs + isR1 + isR2 + isR3 + isR4 + isR5 + isR6 + isR7 = 0
R7 R6 R5
Vs = is (R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 + R5 + R6 + R7)
In the second cit.
-Vs + isReq= 0
Vs = isReq
Vs +- is Req
Then
Req = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 + R5 + R6 + R7
For N resistors connected in series:-
N
R eq = R1 + R 2 + R 3 +............ + RN =  Rn
n=1
3-2 Resistors in Parallel
Any two resistors are said to be connected in
parallel if they have the same voltage drop across
their terminals (or connected at a single node pair).
In the first cit.
is i1 i2 i3
i s = i1 + i2 + i3
Vs +- R1 R2 R3
V V V  1 1 1 
iS = S + S + S = VS  + + 
R1 R2 R3  R1 R2 R3 
In the second cit.
VS
-Vs + isReq= 0 iS =
R eq
Then
1 1 1 1 is
= + +
R eq R1 R2 R3 Vs +- Req
For N resistors connected in parallel:-
1 1 1 1 1 N 1
= + + + ............ + = 
R eq R1 R2 R3 RN n=1R n

For two resistors connected in parallel:-

R1R 2
R eq =
R1 + R 2
Example 3-
3-1
In the circuit shown in Figure, find Rab.
Solution
(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)
Example 3-
3-2
In the circuit shown in Figure, find iS, i1, and i2.
4Ω 3Ω
Solution:--
Solution:
i1 i2
R eq =  3 + 6 
18  + 4 is

9x18 120 V +- 18 Ω 6Ω
= +4=6+4
9+18
= 10 
120 V
iS = = 12 A
10  4Ω
+
V1 = 12 (6) = 72 V i1 i2
is
+ V1 18 Ω 9Ω
72 V 120 V
i1 = =4A -
18 
-
72 V
i2 = =8A
9

4Ω +
is
120 V + V1 6Ω
-

-
3-3 Voltage Divider
A-Unloaded Voltage Divider +
VS iS V1 R1
iS = -
R1 + R 2 Vs +-
R1 +
V1 = iSR1 = VS V2 R2
R1 + R 2 -
R2
V2 = iSR 2 = VS
R1 + R 2

B-Loaded Voltage Divider

R eq
VL = VS
R1 + R eq iS R1

R 2RL Vs +-
R eq =
R 2 + RL +
R2 VL RL
Substituting with Req -
R2
VL = VS
R1 1+ R 2 /R L   + R 2
Example 3-
3-3 i1
12 Ω
Find v1 and v2 in the circuit shown in
+ V -
Fig., Also calculate i1 and i2 1

and the power dissipated in the 12-Ω and

40-Ω resistors. 6Ω
i2
Solution:--
Solution: +
12*6
12
6 = =4 + 10 Ω V2 40 Ω
12+6 15 V -
40*10 -
40
10 = =8
40+10
4 8
V1 = 15 =5V V2 = 15 = 10 V
4+8 4+8
V1 5V
i1 = = = 416.7 mA 4Ω
12  12 
V2 10 V + V -
1
i2 = = = 250 mA
40  40 

P12 =  i1 
2
12 =
 V1 2= 2.083 W
12
2 +
P40 =  i2 
2
40 =
 V2 
= 2.5 W
40 + V2 8Ω
15 V -
-
3-4 Current Divider

R1R 2
V = i1R1 = i2R 2 = iSR eq = iS
R1+R 2
+
i1 i2
V R2
i1 = = iS
R1 R1 + R 2 iS R1 V

V R1
i2 = = iS -
R2 R1 + R 2
R1 R2
Generally, for Voltage division
VS VS
iS = = iS
R1  R 2 + ....... + Rn R eq +
Vs - Rj

RJ
VJ = iSR J = VS
R eq
Rn Rn-1
Generally, for Current division
+
i1 i2 iJ in-1 in
V = iS R1
R 2
........
R n  = iSR eq
iS R1 V R2 RJ Rn-1 Rn
V R eq
iJ = = iS
RJ RJ
-
Example 3-
3-4
For the circuit shown in Fig., find:
(a) v1 and v2, (b) the power dissipated
in the 3-k and 20-k resistors, and 1 kΩ
(c) the power supplied by the current i2
+ +
source. i1
3 kΩ V1 5 kΩ V2 20 kΩ
Solution:--
Solution: 10 mA
- -

R eq R eq 1 1 1 1
= + +
i1 = iS i2 = iS R eq 20 k 5 k 4 k
4 k 20 k
2 k 2 k
R eq = 2 kΩ i1 =10 mA = 5 mA i2 =10 mA = 1 mA
4 k 20 k
V1 = i1 3 k = 15 V V2 = i2 20 k = 20 V

2  V1  = 75 mW
2
P20-k =  i2 
2
20 k =
 V2 2 = 20 mW
P3-k =  i1  3 k = 20 k
3 k

P10-mA = - iS * V2 = - 10 mA * 20 V = - 200 mW
3-5 Delta
Delta--Way Transformation 1 3 R1 R2
1 3
Delta--to
Delta to--Way Conversion
R1 R2
R aR b
R1 = R3
Ra + Rb + R c
R bR c R3
R2 = 2 4
Ra + Rb + R c
2 4 Tee (T)
R aR c Way (Y)
R3 =
R a + Rb + R c
Rc Rc
Way--to
Way to--Delta Conversion
1 3 1 3
R1R 3
R a = R1 + R 3 +
R2 Rb Ra Rb Ra
R1R 2
R b = R1 + R 2 +
R3 2 4 2 4
R R Pi (π
( π) X Delta ((Δ
Δ)
R c = R 2 + R3 + 2 3
R1
Proof :-
:- R1
R XY (Way) = R1 + R 3 Rb Ra
R a (R b + R c )
R XY (Delta) = R a
(R b + R c ) =
R a + Rb + R c
R a (R b + R c )
R1 + R 3 = ................ (1) R2 R3
R a + Rb + R c Z Y
Rc
Similarly;
R c (R a + Rb )
R YZ = R 2 + R 3 = ............... (2)
R a + Rb + R c
R b (R a + R c )
R XZ = R1 + R 2 = ................ (3)
R a + Rb + R c
Subtracting (2) from (1)
R b (R a - R c )
R1 - R 2 = ............... (4)
R a + Rb + R c
Adding (3) and (4)
R aR b
R1 = .................. (5)
Ra + Rb + R c
Subtracting (4) from (3)
R bR c
R2 = ................... (6)
R a + Rb + R c
Subtracting (5) from (1)
R aR c
R3 = ................... (7)
R a + Rb + R c
On the other side, from eqns (5) – (7), we can note that
R aR bR c (R a +R b +R c )
R1R 2 + R 2R 3 + R 3R1 =
(R a + Rb + R c )2
R aR bR c
= ...................... (8)
R a + Rb + R c
Dividing (8) by (6) Dividing (8) by (7) Dividing (8) by (5)
R1R 3 R1R 2 R 2R 3
R a = R1 + R 3 + R b = R1 + R 2 + R c = R2 + R3 +
R2 R3 R1
Example 3-
3-4
In the circuit shown in Fig., Find Rab and
use it to calculate i. R1

Solution:--
Solution:
In this circuit, there are two Y-networks and
one Δ-network. Transforming just one of these R3
will simplify the circuit. If we convert the Y-
network comprising the 5-Ω, 10-Ω, and 20-Ω R2
resistors, we may select:-
R1 = 10 Ω, R2 = 20 Ω, and R3 = 5 Ω, then using
the equations shown above:-

Ra = 10 + 5 + 10*5/20 = 17.5 Ω
Rb = 10 +20 + 10*20/5 = 70 Ω Ra
Rc = 20 + 5 + 20*5/10 = 35 Ω
Rb
70 Ω║ 30 Ω = 70 *30 / 100 = 21 Ω
12.5 Ω ║ 17.5 Ω = 12.5*17.5 / 30 = 7.2917 Ω
35 Ω ║ 15 Ω = 35*15 / 50 = 10.5 Ω
Rc
Rab = (7.2917 + 10.5) ║ 21
= 17.7917 * 21 / ( 17.7917 + 21)
= 9.632 Ω
i = VS / Rab = 120 / 9.632 = 12.458 A
Example 3-
3-5
22 Ω 30 Ω
In the circuit shown in Fig., Find i1,
+
i2, V, and the power supplied by the i2
current source. V 60 Ω
i1
Answer :-
:- -
4Ω 10 Ω 1Ω
i1 = 4 A, i2 = 1.1 A, V = -6 V, and 5A
P5A = 300 W

Example 3-
3-5
In the circuit shown in Fig., Find Vo
300 Ω 200 Ω
Answer :-
:-
1.5 A 2 kΩ b 10 kΩ
Vo = -200 V c
a d
- Vo +
300 Ω
1 kΩ
i2
i1
 CHAPTER--4
CHAPTER
Techniques of Circuit Analysis
Circuit Analysis (solution):- Finding the voltage at each node and the
current at each branch in the circuit.

In this chapter, the most basic and powerful techniques for circuit
analysis will be introduced and they are
(1) Node Voltage Method (NVM)
(2) Mesh Current Method (MCM)
In addition to these two general analytical methods, we will also
discuss other techniques used for simplifying the circuit. We already
demonstrated some of these in the last chapter like series/parallel
reductions, Δ-Y transformations, and voltage/current dividers…….).
We will add some other techniques like:-
(1) Source Transformation (ST)
(2) Thevenin (Norton) Equivalent (Maximum Power Transfer)
(3) Superposition (SP)
Terminology R1 R2

Planar Circuit:-
Circuit:- Is the circuit R8
R7
that can be drawn in a plane with R6 R3
VS +-
no crossing branches (Fig.
(Fig.--a).
a)
For a circuit with cross-over R5 R4
branches, it can be considered
planar if it can be drawn without Fig.-a
any crossing branches (Fig.
(Fig.--b)
b).

Non--planar Circuit:-
Non Circuit:- It is the R1 R2
circuit that contains cross-over
branches and can not be drawn R8 R7
without them (Fig.
(Fig.--c)
c). VS + R6
- R3
The NVM can be applied for both
R5 R4
planar and non-planar circuits.
The MCM can be applied for both Fig.-b
planar and non-planar circuits. R1 R2 R3

R8
R7
VS + R6 R11
-
R9 R10

R5 R4
Fig.-c
 More on Electric Circuit Topology

Essential Node

Essential Branch

Essential Node
Node::- A point where three or more circuit elements meet (1,2,3,4, and 5).
Essential branch
branch::- A path that connects two essential nodes without passing
through an essential node (1-2, 2-3, 3-4, 4-5 1-5, 2-5, 3-5).
Example 4-
4-1
In the circuit shown in Fig., identify
(a) All nodes, (b) All essential nodes,
(c) All branches, (d) All essential R1 b
branches, (e) All meshes, (f) Two paths a
that are not loops or essential branches
and (g) Two loops that are not meshes.
V1 +- R5

Solution R2 d R3
(a) The nodes are a, b, c, d, e, f, and g c e R7
I
(b) The essential nodes are b, c, e, and g
(c) The branches are V1, V2, R1, R2, R3, R4,
V2 +- R6
R5, R6, R7, and I.
R4
(d) The essential branches are V1-R1, R2- f
R3, V2-R4, R5, R6, R7, and I. g
(e) The meshes are V1-R1-R5-R3-R2, V2-R4-
R6-R3-R2, R5-R7-R6, and R7-I.
(f) R1-R5-R6 and V2-R2 are paths and not
loops or essential branches.
(g) V1-R1-R5-R6-R4-V2 and R5-R6-I are loops
but not meshes.
Introduction to Node-
Node-Voltage Method
For any circuit of (N) essential nodes, we can write (N-1) node-voltage
equations in (N-1) unknowns. The NVM analysis can be applied in the
following steps:-
(1) Identify all essential nodes 1,2,3,………, N

(2) Select one of them to be reference node (the point at which V = 0 )

Different shapes of reference node are shown here

(3) Assign voltages V1, V2, . . . , Vn−1 to the remaining n − 1 essential nodes.
(4) Apply KCL to each of the N − 1 non-reference nodes. Use Ohm’s law to
express the branch currents in terms of node voltages.
(5) Solve the resulting simultaneous equations to obtain the unknown
node voltages.
Application of the NVM I

For the circuit shown below write down

the node voltage equations
(1) There are three essential nodes (1, 2, 3) R1 1 R3 2 R5

(2) Select node three to be reference node i1 i2 i3 i4 i5

R2 + VS2
VS1 +- R4
(3) Assign voltages V1, V2 to the remaining -

two essential nodes. 3

(4) Apply KCL to each of the two non- I
reference nodes.
At node (1)
i1 + i 2 + i 3 + I = 0 R1 1 R3 2 R5
V1-VS1 V -0 V -V
+ 1 + 1 2 +I=0
R1 R2 R3 R2 + VS2
VS1 +- V1 R4 V2
-
At node (2)
3
-i3 + i4 + i5 - I = 0
V2 -V1 V -0 V -V
+ 2 + 2 S2 - I = 0
R3 R4 R5
(5) Solving two equations in two unknowns we
can determine V1, V2
Example 4-
4-2 1Ω 2Ω

In the circuit shown in Fig., check the

power balance using the NVM 5Ω
2A
10 V +- 10 Ω
Solution
There are three essential nodes (1, 2,
3). Choosing node (3) as a reference V1 V2
1Ω 2Ω
node and assigning node voltages V1,
1 2
V2 at the remianing nodes.
2A
At node (1) 10 V +- 5Ω 10 Ω

V1-10 V -0 V -V
+ 1 + 1 2 =0 3
1 5 2
17V1 – 5V2 = 100 ………… (1) Checking the power balance
At node (2) P10V = 10 (9.091-10)/1 = 9.09 W (delivered)
V2 -V1 V -0 P2A = - 2 (10.91) = 21.82 W (delivered)
+ 2 -2=0
2 10 P1Ω= (9.091-10)^2/1 = 0.82628 W
-5V1 +6V2 = 20 ………… (2) P5Ω= (9.091)^2/5 = 16.52925 W
Solving eqns 1, 2 we can get P2Ω= (9.091-10.91)^2/2 = 1.6543 W
V1= 9.091 V,
V, V2 = 10.91 V P10Ω= (10.91)^2/10 = 11.9028 W

 Pdelivered =  Pdissipated = 30.912 W

Example 4-
4-3
In the circuit shown in Fig., calculate 5A
the node voltages.
Solution
4Ω
There are three essential nodes (1, 2,
3). Choosing node (3) as a reference
node and assigning node voltages V1,
2Ω 6Ω 10 A
V2 at the remianing nodes.
At node (1)
V1 -V2 V -0
i1 = i2 + i3  5= + 1
4 2
5A
3V1 – V2 = 20 ………… (1)
i1
At node (2)
V1 4Ω V2
V1-V2 V -0 1
i2 + i4 = i1 + i5  + 10 = 5 + 2 2
4 6 i2 i4
i3
2Ω 6Ω i5 10 A
-3V1 + 5V2 = 60 ………… (2)
Solving eqns 1, 2 we can get 3

V1= 13.33 V,
V, V2 = 20 V
Example 4-
4-4
5Ω
In the circuit shown in Fig., use the NVM + +
to calculate V1, V2, i1 and check the i1
15A 5A
power balance. V1 60 Ω 15 Ω 2 Ω V2
Solution
- -
There are three essential nodes (1, 2, 3).
Choosing node (3) as a reference node V1 5Ω V2
and assigning node voltages V1, V2 at the 1 2
remaining nodes. i1
15A 5A
At node (1) 60 Ω 15 Ω 2Ω
V1 -0 V -0 V -V
+ 1 + 1 2 - 15 = 0 3
60 15 5

17V1 –12 V2 = 900 ………… (1)

Checking the power balance
At node (2)
P15A = - 15A * 60V = 900 W (delivered)
V2 -V1 V -0
+ 2 +5=0 P5A = 5A * 10V = 50 W (dissipated)
5 2
P60Ω= (60)2 /60= 60 W
-2V1 + 7V2 = -50 ………… (2)
P15Ω= (60)2 /15 = 240 W
Solving eqns 1, 2 we can get P5Ω= (60-10)2 /5 = 500 W
V1= 60 V,
V, V2 = 10 V P2Ω= (10)2 /2 = 50 W
i1 = (V1 – V2)/5 = (60 – 10)/5 = 10 A  Pdelivered =  Pdissipated = 900 W
Node--Voltage Method and dependent sources
Node
If the circuit contains dependent source, the node voltage

equations must be supplemented with the constraint equations

4Ω
imposed by the presence of the dependent source.

The following example illustrates this case.

Example 4-
4-5 ix
2Ω 2 8Ω
1 3
In the circuit shown in Fig., determine the node
voltages.
3A 4Ω
Solution:--
Solution:
2ix
There are four essential nodes (1, 2, 3, 4).
Choosing node (4) as a reference node and
assigning node voltages V1, V2, V3 at the 4Ω
remaining nodes.
At node (1)
ix v2
2Ω 8Ω
V1 -V2 V -V v1 v3
+ 1 3 -3=0 1 2 3
2 4
3V1 - 2V2 - V3 = 12 ……………….. (1) 3A 4Ω
At node (2) 2ix

V2 -V1 V -V V 4
+ 2 3 + 2 =0
2 8 4
 - 4V1 +7V2 - V3 = 0 ……………….. (2)
At node (3)

V3 -V1 V -V
+ 3 2 + 2ix = 0
4 8
V1 -V2
But ix = 2V1 – 3V2 + V3 = 0 …………………. (3)
2
Solving (1), (2), (3) together we can get

V1 = 4.8 V V2 = 2.4 V V3 = -2.4 V

3i1
Example 4-
4-6
In the circuit shown in Fig., use the NVM to
calculate the power of each source
6Ω 1 V1 2Ω 2 V2
Solution:--
Solution:
There are three essential nodes (1, 2, 3). i1
Choosing node (3) as a reference node and + 50 V 8Ω 4Ω 5A
assigning node voltages V1, V2 at the remaining -
nodes.
3
At node (1)
V1- 50 V V - V2
+ 1 + 1 - 3i1 = 0
6 8 2
But 50-V1 31V1 – 12V2 = 800 …………………. (1)
i1 =
6

At node (2)
V2 -V1 V
+ 2 - 5 + 3i1 = 0 - 4V1 + 3V2 = - 80 ……………..… (2)
2 4
Solving (1), (2) together we can get V = 32 V V2 = 16 V i1 = 3 A
1

P50V = - 50V * 3A = 150 W (delivered)

P5A = - 5A * 16V = 80 W (delivered)
P3i1 = - 3 (3 A) (32 -16) V = 144 W (delivered)

Example 4-
4-7
In the circuit shown in Fig., Determine the node 2Ω
voltages.
Answer
4ix
V1 = 80 V , V2 = -64 V, V3 = 156 V 3Ω
1 2 3
ix
10 A
4Ω 6Ω
NVM and Voltage sources
When a voltage source (depen. Or indepen.) is sandwiched between
two essential nodes, like the circuit shown in Fig., then the NVM can
be applied according to the following sequence:- 4Ω
At node (1)
V1= 10 V
5V
At node (2) 2Ω v2
v1 + - v3
1 2 3
V2 -10 V ix
+ 2 + ix = 0
2 8 10 V +-
8Ω 6Ω
At node (3)

V3 -10 V
+ 3 - ix = 0
4 6
Adding these two equations together, we get
3V2 + 2V3 = 36
We can get the second equation by applying 5V
KCL on the loop shown + -
+ +
V2 – V3 = 5
v2 v3

- -
The Concept of “Super
“Super--node”
node”
The concept of “Super-node” arises whenever Super-node
a voltage source (depen. or indepen.) is the
4Ω
unique element between two essential (non-
reference) nodes
i4
In this case we can deal with these two 5V
2Ω v2
nodes as a single (Super-node), and we can v1 + - v3
1 2 3
write its node-voltage equation as following i1
i3
-i1 + i2 + i3 – i4 = 0 10 V +- i2
8Ω 6Ω
OR V2 -10 V V V -10
+ 2 + 3 + 3 =0
2 8 6 4
3V2 + 2V3 = 36
4Ω
The second equation is:-
V2 – V3 = 5 i4
Which is the same result like the normal 2Ω Super-node
analysis but with one step less. v1 v3
1 2 v2 3
i1
i3
10 V +- i2
8Ω 6Ω

4
Example 4-
4-8
In the circuit shown in Fig.,
determine the node-voltages and iϕ. 10iϕ
1 5Ω 2 3
Solution - +

There are four essential nodes (1, 2, 3, iϕ

4). Choosing node (4) as a reference 50 V + 40 Ω 4A
50 Ω 100 Ω
node and assigning node voltages V1, -
V2, V3 at the remaining nodes.
4
At node (1)
V2 V3
V1 = 50 V V1 5Ω
Super-node
1 2 3
At the super-
super-node iϕ
V2 -50 V V3 40 Ω
+ 2 + -4=0 50 V +
- 50 Ω 100 Ω
4A
5 50 100
22V2 + V3 = 1400 ………… (1) 4

The supplementary equation

-V2 + V3 = 10 iϕ Solving equations (1), (2) together
But iϕ = (V2 – 50) / 5 we can get:-

Substituting in the Supp. Equation

V2 = 60 V V3 = 80 V
3V2 - V3 = 100 ……………….(2)

iϕ = 2 A
Example 4-
4-9
In the circuit shown in Fig., find
the node voltages.
3Ω
Answer + vx -
V1 = 26.667 V 20 V 3vx
2 6Ω 3
V2 = 6.667 V 1 + - + - 4

V3 = 173.33 V
2Ω 10 A 4Ω 1Ω
V4 = -46.667 V
Introduction to Mesh Current Method (MCM)
Mesh analysis provides another general procedure for analyzing circuits, using mesh
currents as the circuit variables. Using mesh currents instead of branch currents as circuit
variables is convenient and reduces the number of equations that must be solved
simultaneously to be “be – (ne – 1)”. Recall that a loop is a closed path with no node
passed more than once. A mesh is a loop that does not contain any other loop within it.
While the NVM applies KCL to find unknown voltages in a given circuit, MCM applies KVL to
find unknown currents. Mesh analysis is not quite as general as nodal analysis because it
is only applicable to a circuit that is planar.
The circuit can be analyzed using the MCM according to the following sequence:-
(1) Assign mesh currents i1, i2, . . . , in to the n meshes.
(2) Apply KVL to each of the n meshes. Use Ohm’s law to express
the voltages in terms of the mesh currents.
(3) Solve the resulting n simultaneous equations to get the mesh
currents.
Application of the Mesh Current Method
For the circuit shown below write down the
Mesh Current equations:-

(1) There are two meshes, assigning two R1 b R2

a c
mesh currents i1, i2 in the two meshes.

(2) Applying KVL in the two meshes i1 + V1

V1 +
-
R3 i2 -

For Mesh (1)

- V1 + i1R1 + (i1 – i2)R3 = 0

i1 (R1 + R3) – i2 R3 = V1 .................. (1)

For Mesh (2)

(i2 – i1)R3 + i2R2 + V2 = 0

-i1 R3 + i2 (R3 + R2) = -V2 ................ (2)

(3) Solving equations (1), (2) two together, we

can get the mesh currents i1, i2.
Example 4-
4-10
In the circuit shown in Fig., use the MCM to
calculate the branch currents I1, I2, I3.
5Ω 6Ω
Solution
There are two meshes, assigning two mesh I1 I2
I3
currents i1, i2 in the two meshes. 10
Ω
For Mesh (1) i2
15 V +- i1 4Ω
-15 + 5i1 + 10(i1-i2) +10 = 0
+ 10 V
3i1 - 2i2 = 1 ……………….. (1) -

For Mesh (2)

-10 + 10(i2-i1) + 6i2 + 4i2 = 0
-i1 + 2i2 = 1 ……………….. (2)
Solving equations (1), (2) together, we can get the mesh currents i1, i2 to be

i 1 = 1 A , i2 = 1 A

For the Branch currents:-

I1 = i 1 = 1 A , I 2 = i2 = 1 A , I3 = i1-i2 = 0
Example 4-
4-11
In the circuit shown in Fig., use the MCM to
calculate the power delivered by the 80 V source
and the power dissipated in the 8-Ω resistor. 30 Ω

Solution
There are three meshes, assigning three mesh 5Ω 90 Ω

currents i1, i2, i3 in the three meshes.

80 V +- 26 Ω
For Mesh (1) 8Ω

-80 + 5(i1-i3) + 26(i1-i2) = 0

31i1 - 26i2 - 5i3 = 80 ………………….. (1) 30 Ω
For Mesh (2)
26(i2-i1) + 90(i2-i3) + 8i2 = 0 i3
5Ω 90 Ω
-26i1 + 124i2 – 90i3= 0 ……………….. (2)
For Mesh (3)
80 V +- i1 26 Ω i2 8Ω
5(i3-i1) + 30 i3 + 90(i3-i2) = 0
-5i1 - 90i2 + 125i3= 0 …………...…….. (3)
Solving equations (1)-(3) together, we can get the mesh currents i1, i2, i3 to be
i1= 5 A, i2 = 2.5 A, i3 = 2 A
P80V = - 80V * 5A = 400 W (delivered), P8Ω = (2.5)2 *8 = 50 W
Example 4-
4-12
In the circuit shown in Fig., use the MCM to
calculate Vo and the power associated with
each voltage source.
2Ω 6Ω 4Ω
Answer +

40 V +- Vo 6Ω + 20 V
Vo = 28.8 V 8Ω -

P40V = 224W (delivered) -

P20V = 16W (delivered)

Mesh Current Method and dependent sources
If the circuit contains dependent source, the mesh current equations must be
supplemented with the appropriate constraint equations imposed by the
presence of the dependent source. The following example illustrates this case.
Example 4-
4-13
io
In the circuit shown in Fig., use the MCM to find 24 Ω
the current io.
i2
10
Ω
Solution:--
Solution:
24 V +- i1
There are three meshes, assigning three mesh 4Ω
currents i1, i2, i3 in the three meshes. 12 +
Ω i3
For Mesh (1) - 4i
o

-24 + 10 (i1- i2) + 12(i1 – i3) = 0

10i1 – 5i2 - 6i3 = 12 ……………….. (1) Substituting by io in the last

For Mesh (2) equation

10 (i2- i1) + 24i2 + 4(i2 – i3) = 0 -i1 – i2 + 2i3 = 0 ……………….. (3)

-5i1 + 19i2 - 2i3 = 0 ……………….. (2) Solving eqns (1)-(3) together, we

can get the mesh currents to be:-
For Mesh (3)
i1 = 2.25 A, i2 = 0.75 A, i3 = 1.5A
12 (i3- i1) + 4(i3 – i2) + 4io = 0
io = i1 – i2 = 1.5 A
But io = i1 – i2
Example 4-4-14 - 3Vϕ
14 Ω
In the circuit shown in Fig., use the MCM - +
to determine P-3Vϕ
Solution:--
Solution:
2Ω 3Ω
There are three meshes, assigning three mesh + -
Vϕ
currents i1, i2, i3 in the three meshes.
25 V +- 5Ω
For Mesh (1)
1Ω
-25 + 2 (i1- i3) + 5(i1 – i2) + 10 = 0 10 V +-

7i1 – 5i2 - 2i3 = 15 …………….. (1)

For Mesh (2) - 3Vϕ
14 Ω
- +
-10 + 5 (i2- i1) + 3(i2 – i3) + 1*i2 = 0
-5i1 + 9i2 - 3i3 = 10 ………….. (2) i3
2Ω 3Ω
For Mesh (3)
+ Vϕ -
2 (i3- i1) - (-3 Vϕ) + 14i3 + 3(i3 – i2) = 0
25 V +- i1 5 Ω i2
But Vϕ = 3(i2 – i3) 1Ω
Substituting by Vϕ in the last equation 10 V +-

-2i1 +6i2 + 10i3 = 0 …………. (3)

Solving eqns (1)-(3) together, we can get the mesh currents to be:-
i1 = 4A, i2 = 3A, i3 = -1A, Vϕ = 3(3- (-1)) = 12 V, P-3Vϕ = - (-1) (-3*12) = -36W
MCM and Current Sources
Applying mesh analysis to circuits containing current sources (dependent or
independent) may appear complicated. But it is actually much easier than what we
encountered in the previous section, because the presence of the current sources
reduces the number of equations. Consider the following two possible cases:-
Case--1
Case
When a current source exists only in one mesh, like
the circuit shown in Fig., in this case, the mesh 4Ω 3
current equations will be reduced by one as the mesh Ω
current will be the same as the current source
Let i2 = -5A, and the equation in the first mesh is:-
10 V +- i1 6Ω i2 5A
-10 + 4i1 + 6(i1-i2) = 0 i1 = -2 A
Case-2
Case-
When a current source exists between two
mesh, like the circuit shown in Fig., in this
case, the MCM can be applied as following:- 10 Ω
For Mesh (1)
-100 + 3(i1–i3) + VX + 6i1 = 0 i3
3Ω 2Ω
For Mesh (2)
+
50 + 4i2 - VX + 2(i2- i3) = 0
100 V +- i1 VX +
Adding these two equations together:-
i2 50 V
5A -

9i1 + 6i2 – 5i3 = 50 ……………….. (1) -

6Ω 4Ω
For Mesh (3)
3(i3–i1) + 10i3 + 2(i3 –i2) = 0

-3i1 - 2i2 + 15i3 = 0 ……………….. (2)

The third equation will be the additional equation of the current source

- i1 + i2 = 5 ………………………… (3)

Solving these three equations together we can get the three mesh currents to be

i1 = 1.75 A, i2 = 6.75 A, i3 = 1.25 A

The Concept of “Super

“Super--mesh
mesh”
”
The concept of “Super-mesh” arises whenever a current source (depen. or
indepen.) exists between two meshes
10 Ω
In this case, we can remove the current source
between the two meshes and deal with them as
single (super-mesh) as we will see here:-
3Ω 2Ω

100 V +- + 50 V
5A -

-
6Ω 4Ω
For the Super-
Super-Mesh
-100 + 3 (i1 – i3) + 2 (i2 – i3) + 50 + 4i2 +6 i1 = 0

9i1 + 6i2 – 5i3 = 50 ……………….. (1) 10 Ω

For Mesh (3)
i3
3(i3–i1) + 10i3 + 2(i3 –i2) = 0
3Ω 2Ω
-3i1 - 2i2 + 15i3 = 0 ……………….. (2)
The third equation will be the additional equation of
the current source of the super-mesh i1 i2
- i1 + i2 = 5 ………………………… (3) 100 V +- + 50 V
-

Example 4-
4-15 2
Ω 6Ω 4Ω
For the circuit shown in Fig., Super-mesh
determine the mesh currents i1
i1-i4.
4Ω 2
Ω io
5A

6Ω i2 i3 8Ω i4 +
-
3io
 2
Solution
Ω
For the Super-
Super-Mesh
2 i1 + 4i3 + 8(i3 – i4) + 6i2 = 0 i1

4Ω 2
2i1 + 6i2 + 12i3 – 8i4 = 50 .. (1)
Ω io
For Mesh (4)
8(i4–i3) + 2i4 + 10 = 0 i2 i3 i4 + 10 V
6Ω 8Ω -
-8i3 + 10i4 = -10 …….. (2)

For the independent current

sources

- i1 + i2 = 5 ………… (3) Solving equations (1)-(4), we can get

For the dependent current sources
i1 = -7.5 A
i2 – i3 = 3io But io = - i4
i2 = -2.5 A
then i2 – i3 + 3i4 =0 ……….. (4)
i3 = 3.93 A
i4 = 2.143 A
Source Transformation (ST
(ST))
The source transformation is the process which allows a voltage
source VS in series with a resistor RS to be replaced by a current
source iS in parallel with a resistor RP, or vice versa.
a a
RS

iS = VS / RS, R P = RS
VS = iS *RP, RS = R P iS RP
VS +-

Proof b b
(1) (2)
When RS = RP = R
If load resistor RL is connected between nodes a, b in both figures 1, 2 then
the current flowing in this load resistor will be:-
In Figure-1 In Figure-2
VS R
iL = iL = i
R + RL R + RL S

If these two circuits are equivalent, then the load currents should be the same
iS = VS / R
If the polarity of VS is reversed, the direction of iS must be reversed to
maintain equivalence (the current should be always in the direction
of voltage rise).
Another Proof
Consider the load between nodes a, b is open circuit
In Figure-1 In Figure-2
Vab = VS + 0*RS = VS Vab = iS*RP
If the two circuits are equivalent, then VS = is * RP ………… (1)
Consider the load between nodes a, b is short circuit
In Figure-1 In Figure-2
iab = VS / RS iab = iS

If the two circuits are equivalent, then iS = VS / RS ………… (2)

Comparing equations (1), (2) then RS = RP RS a
RS a
Important Note

*A resistance in parallel with the V + VS +-

- R
voltage source can be ignored.
S

b
*Also, a resistance in series with b
the current source can be ignored R a a

*These resistors should be taken

into account during power
iS RP iS RP
calculations

b b
 2Ω 3Ω
Example 4-
4-16
+
In the circuit shown in Fig., use the ST to find vO
4Ω 8Ω Vo 12 V +-
Solution 3A
3 A, 4-Ω (║) 12 V, 4-Ω (Series) -

12 V, 3-Ω (Series) 4 A, 3-Ω (║) 4Ω 2Ω

4Ω+2Ω=6Ω +

12 V, 6-Ω (Series) 2 A, 6-Ω (║) +

- 12 V 8Ω Vo 3Ω 4A

6 Ω ║ 3 Ω = 6 * 3 / (6+3) = 2 Ω -
Also, current sources in parallel can be
(combined) added together according to
the current direction, in our case here +
4 A (up) + 2 A (up) 6 A (up) Vo
2A 6Ω 8Ω 3Ω 4A
2
i= (6 A) = 1.2 A -
2+8
vO = 8 * i = 8 * 1.2= 9.6 V
i
+

8Ω Vo 2Ω 6A

-
Example 4-
4-17 4Ω 6Ω 5Ω

In the circuit shown in Fig., calculate P6V

Solution 6 V +- 30 Ω 20 Ω + 40 V
-

40 V, 5-Ω (Series) 8 A, 5-Ω

(║) 10 Ω
4Ω 6Ω
5 Ω ║ 20 Ω = 5 * 20 / (5+20) = 4 Ω
8 A, 4-Ω (║) 32 V, 4-Ω
(Series) 6 V +- 30 Ω 20 Ω 5Ω 8A

6 Ω + 4 Ω + 10 Ω = 20 Ω
10 Ω
32 V, 20-Ω (Series) 1.6 A, 20-Ω 4Ω 6Ω 4Ω
(║)
30 Ω ║ 20 Ω = 30 * 20 / (30+20) = 12 Ω
6 V +- 30 Ω + 32 V
1.6 A, 12-Ω (║) 19.2 V, 12-Ω -
(Series)
i = 19.2 – 6 / (12 + 4) = 0.825 A 10 Ω
4Ω 12 Ω
4Ω
P6V = + (6 V) * (0.825 A) = 4.95 W
i
(Delivered) +
6 V +- 19.2 V
- 6 V +- 30 Ω 20 Ω 1.6 A
Example 4-
4-18
In the circuit shown in Fig., use the ST to
1.6 Ω
calculate (a) V and (b) P120V +
20 Ω -
Solution + 60 V
36 A 6Ω V 8Ω
(a) + 120 V
- 5Ω
-
120 V, 20-Ω (Series)
6 A, 20-Ω (║)
60 V, 5-Ω (Series) 1.6 Ω

12 A, 5-Ω (║) +

20 Ω ║ 5 Ω ║ 6 Ω = 2.4 Ω 6A 20 Ω 12A 5Ω 36 A 6Ω V 8Ω

6A (up) + 12A (down) + 36A (up) -

30 (up)
30 A, 2.4-Ω (║)
2.4 Ω
72 V, 2.4-Ω (Series) 1.6 Ω
+
72 -
V= (8) = 48 V
2.4 + 1.6 + 8 72 V +- V 8Ω

-
(b)
60 V, 5-Ω (Series)
12 A, 5-Ω (║)
1.6 Ω
5 Ω ║ 6 Ω ║ (8 Ω + 1.6 Ω) = 2.124 Ω
36A (up) + 12A (down) = 24 (up) 20 Ω
12A 5Ω 36 A 6Ω 8Ω
24 A, 2.124-Ω (║) +
-
120 V

50.7 V, 2.124-Ω (Series)

120 - 50.7
i= = 3.12 A
20 + 2.124

20 Ω
P120V = - 120 (3.12) = 374.4 W (Delivered) 24A 2.124 Ω
120 V +-

20 Ω i 2.124 Ω

120 V +- + 50.7 V
-
Example 4-
4-19
In the circuit shown in Fig., use
5V
the ST to calculate iO 1Ω
-+
Answer io
iO = 1.78 A 6Ω 3Ω 7Ω 4Ω
5A 3A
ST and dependent sources
4Ω
The source transformation technique can be applied exactly
in the same manner for dependent sources as shown in the
following example. 0.25VX
2Ω
Example 4-
4-20
In the circuit shown in Fig., use the ST to calculate VX
+
Solution 6 V +- 2Ω VX + 18 V
-
6 V, 2-Ω (Series) 3 A, 2-Ω (║) -
0.25VX (A), 4-Ω (║) VX (V), 4-Ω (Series)
VX
2Ω║2Ω=1Ω 4Ω
+ -

3 A, 1-Ω (║) 3 V, 1-Ω (Series) +

Applying KVL to the whole loop 3A 2Ω 2Ω VX + 18 V
-
-3 + 5i + VX +18 = 0 …………………… (1) -
Applying KVL to the sub-loop (3V, 1-Ω, VX)

-3 + i + VX = 0 …………………… (2) 1Ω VX
4Ω
+ -
Solving equations (1), (2) together +
i = -4.5 A, VX = 7.5 V
3 V +- VX
i +
- 18 V
-
Thevenin and Norton Equivalents
Thevenin’s theorem states that a linear two-terminal circuit consisting of sources
(both of independent and dependent) and resistors can be replaced by an
equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source VTh in series with a resistor RTh,
where VTh is the open-circuit voltage at the terminals and RTh is the input or
equivalent resistance at the terminals when the independent sources are turned
off. Rth a
a
Resistive Network
Containing
Independent and Vth +
-
Dependent Sources b
b

How to determine the Thevenin equivalent

(a) VTH
VTH is the open circuit voltage between the specified two terminals a, b (this is
for all types of circuits).
VTH = VO.C
(b) RTH
There are three different methods to determine RTH depending on the circuit
structure and we will discuss them here.
(1) The equivalent resistance
RTH is the equivalent resistance between the specified two terminals
a, b after deactivating all independent sources (this method is applied
for circuits containing only independent sources)
sources)..
RTH = Req.
Deactivating Sources Making there output = 0 as following:-
Voltage Source Short Circuit (S.C)
Current Source Open Circuit (O.C)
As shown in the following figures
4Ω VT 1Ω
H a
+
i1 i2 VT
VTH 32 V +- 12 Ω 2A
H
-
b
4Ω 1Ω
a

RTH RTH
12 Ω

b
(2) Short circuit current (IS.C)
The short circuit current is the current flowing in a short circuit
connected between the two terminals a, b directed from a to b and
defined as IS.C = VTH / RTH RTH = VO.C / IS.C

This method can be applied for all types of circuits.

(3) VTest and ITest

After turning-off all of independent sources as

a
shown before, we apply an independent
Circuit with all
voltage source (VTest) between the two independent ITest + V
- Test
terminals a, b with current flowing in this sources turned-off

source (in the direction of voltage rise) called b

(ITest) then we have:

RTH = VTest / ITest

Also this method can be applied for all types of

circuits.
Notes
(1) During finding the Thevenin equivalent, we can calculate the different
unknowns VO.C, IS.C, Req, VTest / ITest, ……. etc. using any of the circuit solution
techniques studied before ( NVM, MCM, ST, ……..etc)

(2) For a circuit with all sources are dependent (VTH = 0 )

Norton Equivalent
The Norton equivalent of the circuit consists of an independent current source

IN parallel with the equivalent Norton resistance of the circuit RN. The Norton

equivalent can be obtained by simply making a source transformation for the

Thevenin equivalent of the same circuit between the sane two terminals
RTH a a

ST
IN = VTH / RTH
+ IN RN
VTH -
RN = RTH
b
b
Example 4-
4-21 a
4Ω 1Ω
Find the Th. Eqv. Of the circuit shown in Figure
32 V +- 12 Ω 2A
between a, b

Solution b
4Ω VT 1Ω
VTH is the open circuit voltage and can be a
H
obtained –in this circuit- using the MCM as +
following:-
i1 i2 VT
For Mesh (1) 32 V +- 12 Ω 2A
H

-32 + 4i1 + 12 (i1 – i2) = 0 -

b
For Mesh (2) 4Ω 1Ω
i2 = -2 A a
Substituting in the above equation RTH
12 Ω
16i1 = 32 + 12 (-2) i1 = 0.5 A
VTH = 12(i1 – i2) = 30 V
b
4Ω a

RTH is the eqv resistance after turning-off

all independent sources
30 V +-
RTH = (4 Ω) ║ (12 Ω) + 1 Ω = 4 Ω
b
Example 4-
4-22 2 kΩ a
+
Find the Th. Eqv. Of the circuit shown in Figure i
between a, b 5 V +- 3v
+ v 25 Ω
-
20i
Solution iX - b

VTH is the open circuit voltage that can be 2 kΩ a

obtained as following:- + +
i
VTH = VO.C = v = (-20i)(25)
5 V +- 3v
+ v 25 Ω VO.C
But i = (5 – 3v) / 2000 -
20i
iX - -b
Then VTH = -500 [(5 – 3VTH) / 2000]
VTH = -5 V 2 kΩ a
RTH can be obtained as the ratio between VO.C and +
i
IS.C as following:-
+ v 25 Ω
5 V +- 3v
IS.C = -20i -
20i IS.C
iX -
The voltage controlling the dependent voltage b
source (3v) has been reduced to zero (because it
is parallel with a short circuit now. Note
iX is zero due to the absence of
The current controlling the dependent current the return path for iX to enter
source is:- the left-hand part of the circuit.
i = (5 – 0) / 2000 = 2.5 mA
IS.C = - 50 mA RTH = - 5 V/ 50 mA = 100 Ω
Example 4-
4-23 2VX

Find the Norton Eqv. Of the circuit shown in Figure - +

between a, b

Solution 2Ω 2Ω
VTH is the open circuit voltage and can be a
obtained –in this circuit- using the MCM as
following:- +
5A 4Ω VX 6Ω
For Mesh (1)
-
i1 = 5 A
For Mesh (2) b
4(i2-5) + 2(i2-i3) + 6i2= 0 2VX
12i2 - 2i3 = 20 ……………… (1) - +
For Mesh (3)
i3
2(i3-i2) - 2VX = 0 2Ω
a
But VX = 4 (5 – i2) 2Ω +
6i2 +2i3 = 40 ………………. (2) +
5A i1 i2 VTH =
Solving equations (1), (2) together 4Ω VX 6Ω
VO.C
i2 = 10/3 A, i3 = 10 A -
-
VTH = VO.C = 6i2 = 20 V
b
 2VX
RTH can be obtained as the ratio between VTest
and ITest or VO/ iO after turning-off the - +
independent source exists, as shown in this
i1
figure:-
2Ω a
For Mesh (1)
2Ω
io
-2VX + 2(i1- i2) = 0 +
But VX = – 4i2 VX i2 i3 +
4Ω 6Ω - Vo
i1 + 3i2 = 0 ……………….. (1) -
For Mesh (2)
4i2 + 2(i2-i1) + 6(i2-i3)= 0 b
But i3 = -iO RTH = 6 Ω a

-i1 + 6i2 + 3iO = 0 …….…… (2)

For Mesh (3) VTH = 20V +-

6(i3-i2) + 2i3 + VO = 0 b
6i2 +8iO = VO ………….….. (3) a
From equations (1), (2) i2 = -iO/3
Substituting in eqn (3) -2iO + 8iO = VO
IN = 10/3 A RN = 6 Ω
RTH = VO / iO = 6 Ω
b
Maximum Power Transfer a
In most of cases, it is required to transfer the max. Resistive Network
Containing
power from the circuit to the load, then it is always RL
Independent and
required to determine the value of the load Dependent Sources b
resistance that allows max. power delivered to it

RTH a
RL (MPT) = RTH
PMax = VTH2 / 4RL
IL
Proof VTH +
- RL
The resistive network can be replaced by its Thevenin b
equivalent and then we will have:-
2
VTH  VTH 
IL = PL = IL2RL =   RL
R TH + RL  R TH + RL 
We can find RL at which PL is max. when dPL
=0
dRL
dPL  R +R 2 - R *2  R +R  
2
= VTH  TH L L
4
TH L
 =0
dR L  R TH + RL  
2
R TH + RL  = 2RL R TH + RL  R2 2 2
TH + RL + 2RLR TH = 2RLR TH + 2RL
2 2
VTH RL VTH
RL = RTH and then PMax = =
 2RL 2 4RL
Example 4-
4-24 6Ω 3Ω 2Ω a
For the circuit shown in Figure Find RL
for Max. Power Transfer and PMax.
12 V +- 12 Ω 2A RL
Solution
VTH is the open circuit voltage and can be
obtained –in this circuit- using the MCM as
b
following:-
For Mesh (1) 6Ω 3Ω 2Ω a
-12 + 6i1 + 12(i1-i2) = 0 +
3i1 - 2i2 = 2 ……………… (1) i1 VTH
12 V +- 12 Ω i2 2A
For Mesh (2)
-
i2 = -2 A
b
Substituting in equation (1)

i1 = -2/3 A 6Ω 3Ω 2Ω
a
12(i2-i1) + 3i2 + VTH = 0
RTH
VTH = 22 V 12 Ω
RTH = (6Ω) ║ (12 Ω) + 3 Ω + 2 Ω= 9 Ω
RL (MPT) = RTH = 9 Ω and b
Pmax = VTH 2 / 4RL = 13.44 W
Example 4-
4-25 Vϕ
4Ω
- +
For the circuit shown in Figure Find RL for
Max. Power Transfer and PMax.
4Ω a
Solution 4Ω

VTH is the open circuit voltage and can be +

obtained –in this circuit- using the MCM as Vϕ 4Ω
following:- 100 V +- -
RL
For Mesh (1) 20 V +-
-100 + 4(i1-i2) + 4i1 + 20 = 0
2i1 - i2 = 20 ……………… (1) Vϕ b
4Ω
- +
For Mesh (2)
4(i2-i1) - Vϕ+ 4i2 + 4i2 = 0 i2
But Vϕ = 4i1 -2i1 + 3i2= 0 ………….. (2) 4Ω 4Ω a
Solving equations (1), (2) together + +
i1 = 15 A , i2 = 10 A Vϕ 4Ω
100 V +- i1 -
Applying KVL in the right hand loop VTH
-20 – 4i1 – 4i2 +VTH = 0 VTH = 120 V 20 V +-

-
b
RTH can be obtained as the ratio between VO.C and IS.C as following:-
Applying the NVM
Vϕ
At node (1) 4Ω
- +
V1= 100 V i2
At node (2)
V1 4Ω V2 4Ω 3 V3 a
1
V2 -100 V -20 V -0 + 2
+ 2 + 2 =0
4 4 4 Vϕ 4 Ω i1
100 V +- -
At node (3) IS.C
V3 = 0 20 V +-
V2= 40 V, Vϕ = V2 – 20 = 20 V
IS.C = i1 + i2 b
i1 = (V2 – 0) / 4 =10 A
i2 = - (0 - Vϕ – 100) / 4 = 30 A
IS.C = 40 A RTH = 120 / 40 = 3 Ω
RL (MPT) = 3 Ω
PMax = (120)2 / 4*3 = 1200 W
Superposition (SP
(SP))
The SP theorem states that whenever a linear system is excited, or driven by more than
one independent source of energy, the total response is the algebraic sum of the individual
responses of each source acting alone (separately).

The principle of superposition helps us to analyze a linear circuit with more than one
independent source by calculating the contribution of each independent source separately.
However, to apply the superposition principle, we must keep two things in mind:

a. We consider one independent source at a time while all other independent sources are
turned off. This implies that we replace every voltage source by 0 V (or a short circuit), and
every current source by 0 A (or an open circuit). This way we obtain a simpler and more
manageable circuit.

b. Dependent sources are left intact because they are controlled by circuit variables.

With these in mind, we apply the superposition principle in three steps:

1. Turn off all independent sources except one source. Find the output (voltage or current)
due to that active source using nodal or mesh analysis.
2. Repeat step 1 for each of the other independent sources.
3. Find the total contribution by adding algebraically all the contributions due to the
independent sources.
 6A
Example 4-
4-26
For the circuit shown in Figure Find iO using the SP

Solution 20 Ω 10 Ω
v = v’ + v’’ +
where v’ and v’’ are due to the 100-V voltage
100 V +- v 40 Ω 2.5 Ω
source and 6-A current source respectively.
Applying the NVM on the first circuit:- -
20 Ω v’ 10 Ω
V ' -100 V' V' 1000
+ + =0 v' = V +
20 40 10+2.5 31
Applying the MCM on the second circuit:- 100 V +- v’ 40 Ω 2.5 Ω
For Mesh (1) -
20(i1 - 6) + 40(i1-i2) = 0
3i1 - 2i2 = 6 ……………….. (1) 6A
For Mesh (2)
40(i2 – i1) +10(i2-6) + 2.5i2 = 0 6A
-40i1 + 52.5i2 = 60 ……………….. (2) 20 Ω 10 Ω
+
Solving equations (1), (2) together:-
i1 = A, i2 = A v’’ = 40(i1 – i2) = 240/31 V i1 v’’ 40 Ω i2 2.5 Ω
v = v’ + v’’ = 1000/31 + 240/31 = 40 V -
 2Ω
Example 4-
4-27
For the circuit shown in Figure Find iO using
the SP 3Ω

Solution 5io
1Ω
iO = iO’ + iO’’ + -
4A
where iO’ and iO’’ are due to the 4-A current source io
and 20-V voltage source respectively. 4Ω
5Ω

We can get iO’ due to the 4-A source using the MCM
as following:- + -
For Mesh (1) 20 V
i1 = 4 A
For Mesh (2) 2Ω

3(i2-i1) + 2i2 - 5iO’ + 1(i2-i3) = 0 3Ω i2

But i O ’ = i1 – i 3
5i’o
3i2 + 2i3 = 16 ……………….. (1) 1Ω
i1 + -
For Mesh (3) 4A
i’o
5(i3 – i1) + 1(i3 – i2) +5iO’ + 4i3 = 0
i3 4Ω
-i2 + 5i3 = 0 ……………….. (2) 5Ω
i3
Solving equations (1), (2) together:-
i2 = 80/17 A , i3 = 16/17 A iO’ = 4 – 16/17 = 52/17 A
We can get iO’’ due to the 20-V source using
the MCM as following:-
2Ω
For Mesh (4)
3i4 + 2i4 - 5iO’’ + 1(i4-i5) = 0 i4
3Ω
But iO’’ = – i5
5i’’o
3i4 - 2i5 = 0 ……………….. (3) 1Ω
+ -
For Mesh (5) I’’o
-20 + 5i5 + 1(i5 – i4) +5iO’’ + 4i5 = 0 i5 4Ω
5Ω
-i4 + 5i5 = 20 ……………….. (4)

Solving equations (3), (4) together:- + -

20 V
i5 = 60/17 A iO’’ = – 60/17 A
iO = iO’ + iO’’ = 52/17 – 60/17 = -8/17 A

Example 4-
4-28 20 Ω VX

For the circuit shown in Figure Find vX

using the SP
10 V +- 2A 4Ω
Answer 0.1VX

vX = 12.5 V
 CHAPTER--6
CHAPTER
Inductors & Capacitors
In this chapter, we shall introduce two new and important passive linear circuit elements:
the capacitor and the inductor. Unlike resistors, which dissipate energy, capacitors and
inductors do not dissipate but store energy, which can be retrieved at a later time. For this
reason, capacitors and inductors are called storage elements.
Inductors
The inductor is the circuit element that stores energy in the magnetic field associated with
its turns (coiled wire). The inductance (L L) which is the parameter used to describe the
inductor is measured in henrys (H H). Assigning the reference direction of the current in the
inductor in the direction of the voltage drop, then:-
iL +
vL(t) = L di/dt
v ….. Is the voltage across the inductor terminals in Volts L V

i …… Is current flowing through the inductor in Amperes

-
L ….. Is the inductance in Henrys
t ….. Is the time in Seconds
For constant current (DC) di/dt = 0, then vL = 0, then the inductor acts as a short circuit
The current in the inductor as a function of its voltage is given by the following expression:-
1 t
i(t) =  vdt + i(0)
L 0
The power and energy of the inductor can be derived directly form the
voltage and current is given as:-

di 1 t  t 1 2
P = vi = L i = v   vdt + i(0) a nd W =  Pdt = Li
dt L 0  0 2
L L L
Inductors in Series 1 2 3
+ V1 - + V2 - + -
di di di V3
v1 = L1 , v 2 = L2 ,
v 3 = L3 i
dt dt dt
di di
v = v1 + v 2 + v 3 = L1 + L2 + L3  = Leq
dt dt Leq
Then for n inductors connected in series:-
+ V -
Leq = L1 + L2 + L3 + ………….. + Ln
i
Inductors in Parallel
1 t 1 t 1 t
i1 =  vdt + i1(0), i2 =  vdt + i2 (0), i3 =  vdt + i3 (0)
L1 0 L2 0 L3 0
 1 1 1 t i2 i3
i = i1 + i2 + i3 =  + +   vdt + i1(0) + i2 (0) + i3 (0) + i i1
L
 1 L 2 L 3 0
V L1 L2 L3
1 t
=  vdt + i(0)
Leq 0 -

Then for n inductors connected in parallel:- Note that the inductors behave just like
1 1 1 1 1 resistors in their connection
= +  + ......... +
Leq L1 L2 L3 Ln
Capacitors
The capacitor is the circuit element that stores energy in the electric field generated
between its two plates. The capacitance (C C) is the parameter used to describe the
capacitor is measured in farads (F F). Assigning the reference direction of the current in the
inductor in the direction of the voltage drop, then:-
iC(t) = C dv/dt iC +
i …… Is current flowing through the capacitor in Amperes
C V
v ….. Is the voltage across the capacitor terminals in Volts
-
L ….. Is the capacitance in Farads
t ….. Is the time in Seconds
For DC voltage applied dv/dt = 0, then iC = 0, then the capacitor acts as an open circuit
The voltage across the capacitor as a function of the current is given by the following
expression:-
1 t
v(t) =  idt + v(0)
C 0
The power and energy of the capacitor can be derived directly form the voltage and
current is given as:-
dv 1 t  t 1
P = vi = C v = i  idt + v(0)  and W =  Pdt = Cv 2
dt C
 0  0 2
Capacitors in Series C1 C2 C3

1 t
v1 =  idt + v1(0) + - + - + -
C1 0 V1 V2 V3
i
1 t 1 t
v2 =  idt + v2 (0), v3 =  idt + v3 (0)
C2 0 C3 0 Ceq
 1 1 1 t
v = v1 + v 2 + v3 =  + +   idt + v1(0) + v 2 (0) + v 3 (0)
 C1 C2 C3  0 + -
V
1 t i
=  idt + v(0)
Ceq 0
Then for n capacitors connected in series:-
1 1 1 1 1
= + + + ......... +
Ceq C1 C2 C3 Cn

Capacitors in Parallel
dv dv dv
i1 = C1 , i2 = C2 , i3 = C3
dt dt dt i i1 i2 i3
+
dv dv
i = i1 + i2 + i3 =  C1 + C2 + C3  = Ceq V C1 C2 C3
dt dt
Then for n capacitors connected in parallel:- -

Ceq = C1 + C2 + C3 + ………….. + Cn
Note that the capacitors behave in opposite manner to the resistors in their connection
 CHAPTER--7
CHAPTER
First order RL & RC Circuits
iL
We carry out the analysis of RC and RL circuits by applying + iR
Kirchhoff ’s laws, as we did for resistive circuits. The only difference is
that applying Kirchhoff ’s laws to purely resistive circuits results in L V R
algebraic equations, while applying the laws to RC and RL circuits
produces differential equations, which are more difficult to solve than -
algebraic equations. iC
The differential equations resulting from analyzing RC and RL circuits + iR
are of the first order. Hence, the circuits are collectively known as
first-order circuits. In this chapter we will discuss three different C V R
cases:-
(1) Natural Response -

When the energy stored in the inductor or capacitor is released to a resistive

network after a sudden disconnection of the DC source of the circuit , then the
current and voltage generated in the circuit are referred to the Natural
Response of the circuit which is called (Source-Free) circuit.
(2) Step Response
When a constant DC voltage or current source is suddenly applied to the circuit,
then the voltage and current generated in the circuit are referred to the Step
Response of the circuit.
(3) General Solution
In this case, we develop a general method for determining the
response of the RL or RC for any sudden change in the circuit
conditions i. e. we concerned with finding a general solution for the
Natural & Step Responses of the circuit.

The first-order circuit can take one of four different forms

(a) An Inductor connected to a Thevenin equivalent
(b) An Inductor connected to a Norton equivalent
(c) A Capacitor connected to a Thevenin equivalent
(d) A Capacitor connected to a Norton equivalent
RTH RTH
iL
iL iC iC
L IN RN L
+ + IN RN
VTH - VTH C
-

Finally, a first order circuit may consist of Sources and resistors and either
inductor or capacitor ( can not be both)
Natural Response of RL Circuit
The switch in circuit shown has been closed for a long time t=0 +
i
and then opened (at t = 0)
IS R0 L V R
For t < 0
As the switch has been closed for a long time, then all
-
voltages and currents reach a constant values. Also the
inductor appears as a short circuit (Ldi/dt = 0) prior the
release of the stored energy. +
i
For t = 0
L V R
This the instant of switching at which the initial current
flowing in the inductor can be determined from the energy -
previously stored in the inductor (in our case here I0 = IS).
For t > 0
Applying KVL at the circuit shown
di di R di R
L + iR = 0 dt = - i dt = - dt
dt dt L i L
i(t) di Rt R t
i(t)
 =-  dt lni i(t ) = - t t
i(t ) i L t 0 L 0

0 0

R  i(t)  R
ln i(t) - ln i(t ) = - t ln   =- t
i(t ) L
0

L  0

R  R 
-  t - t
i(t)
= e L i(t) = I0e  L 
I0
iL(0-) = iL(0+) = I0 = IS …….. It is the initial current in the inductor at the time
of switching

0- …….. Is the time just before switching

0+ …….. Is the time just after switching
R/L …… is the term that determines the rate at which the inductor current
reaches zero and it is called the time constant of the circuit
T= L/R sec

i (t) = I0 e –t/
t/ττ VR(t) = i(t)*R = I0Re-t/T

The power and energy of the resistor can be calculated

as following:- t e-t/T t e-t/T

P = V*I = i2R = V2/R = I02Re-2t/T Watt T 0.36788 6T 0.0024788

t  t  2T 0.13534 7T 9.118x10-4
t t -2 1 -2
2 2  Joul
W=  P dt =  I0 Re  = LI0 1-e 
0 0 2   3T 0.049787 8T 3.354x10-4
 
At t = 0 the initial energy stored in the inductor 4T 0.018316 9T 1.234x10-4
is W0 = 1/2LI02
5T 0.006738 10T 4.540x10-5
Example 7-
7-1 T=0
2Ω
The switch in the circuit shown in Fig.,
has been closed for a long time before iO +
iL
it opened at t = 0., find:- V 40 Ω
20 A 0.1 Ω 2 H 10 Ω
(a) iL(t) for t ≥ 0 (b) iO(t) for t ≥ 0
-
(c) vO(t) for t ≥ 0 (d) W10-Ω / W2-H
2Ω
Solution
(a)
40 Ω
For t ≤ 0 20 A 0.1 Ω 10 Ω
iL(0)
iL(0-) = iL(0+) = IS = 20 A
For t ≥ 0 2Ω
T = L / Req
iO +
Req = 2 + (40 ║ 10) = 10 Ω iL(t)
2H 10 Ω V 40 Ω
T = 2/10 = 0.2 Sec.
iL(t) = 20 e-5t A for t ≥ 0 -

(b) The current in the 40-Ω can be determined by current

divider iL(t)
io(t) = -iL(t) * 10 / (10 + 40) = -4 e-5t A for t ≥ 0 2H 10 Ω

(c) vO(t) = iO(t) * (40 Ω) = -160 e-5t V for t ≥ 0

(d) P10-Ω(t) = vO2(t) / 10 = 2560 e-10t W for t ≥ 0
W10- (total)= 0 2560e -10t dt = 256 J
The initial energy stored in the inductor is WL(0) = ½ LI02 = 400 J

The required % of the energy dissipated in the 10-Ω is given by 256/400*100 = 64 %

Example 7-
7-2 t=0
For the circuit shown in Fig., find i(t) for t>0
Solution
12Ω 8Ω
For t ≤ 0
5A
iL(0-) = iL(0+) = 5 * 8 / (12 + 8) = 2 A 5Ω
For t ≥ 0 2H
i(t)
T = L / Req
Req = (12 + 8) ║ 5 = 4 Ω
T = 2 / 4 = 0.5 Sec.
iL(t) = 2 e-2t A
12Ω 8Ω
12Ω 8Ω
5A
5Ω
5Ω

2H iL(0+)
iL(t)
Natural Response of RC Circuit
The switch in circuit shown has been in position “a” for a
long time and then transferred to position “b” (at t = 0)
For t < 0 R1 a b
As the switch has been in position a for a long time, then + iC(t)
t=0
the capacitor reaches its steady-state condition and =
+ VC(t) R
behaves as an open circuit (Cdv/dt = 0) prior the release Vg - C
of the stored energy.
-
For t = 0
This the instant of switching at which the initial voltage + iC(t)
on the capacitor is the same as the DC voltage source
(Vg
Vg) because there can be no instantaneous change in C VC(t) R
the capacitor voltage
-
For t > 0
Applying KVL at the circuit shown v(t) dv
dv 1 1 t
dv v dv 1 =- dt  =-  dt
C + =0 dt = - vdt v RC v(t ) v RC t
dt R dt RC 0 0

v(t) 1 t 1
lnv v(t ) = - t t
ln v(t) - ln v(t ) = -
0 t
0 RC 0
RC
 v(t)  1
ln   =- t v (t) = V0 e –t/RC
 v(t
0 )  RC
vC(0-) = vC(0+) = V0 = Vg …….. It is the initial voltage on the capacitor
RC …… is the term that determines the rate at which the capacitor voltage
reaches zero and it is called the time constant of the circuit (T= RC sec.)

vC (t) = V0 e –t/
t/ττ iC(t) = vC(t) / R = V0/Re-t/T

The power and energy of the resistor can be calculated

as following:-

P = V*I = i2R = V2/R = V02 / Re-2t/T Watt

t  t 
t t V 2 -2 1 -2
W=  P dt =  0 e  = CV02  1 - e   Joul
0 0 R 2  
 
At t = 0 the initial energy stored in the capacitor is:-
W0 = ½ CV02
Example 7-
7-3
The switch in the circuit shown in Fig., has
been closed for a long time before it opened
at t = 0., find:-
t=0
20 kΩ
(a) vC(t) for t ≥ 0 (b) WC(0)
+
(c) Time required to dissipate 75 % of the energy iC(t)
initially stored in the capacitor. 20 kΩ
7.5 mA 80 kΩ 50 kΩ
VC(t)
Solution 0.4 μF
-
(a)
For t ≤ 0
VC(0-) = VC(0+) = 7.5 mA * 80 / (80 + 70) *50 kΩ +

= 200 V 7.5 mA 80 kΩ
VC(0) 50 kΩ
For t ≥ 0
-
T = RC = 0.4 x10-6 * 50 x103 = 20 mS.
vC(t) = 200 e-50t V for t ≥ 0 + iC(t)
(b) WC(0) = ½ CV02 = 0.5 * 0.4 x10-6 *(200)2 = 8 mJ 0.4 μF
VC(t) 50 kΩ
(c) WC (t) = ½ CV02 (1 – e-t/T) = 8 x10-3 (1 – e-200t)
-
0.75 = 8 x10-3 (1 - e-200t) / 8 x10-3
t = 6.93 mS
Example 7-
7-4
The switch in the circuit shown in Fig., has been
closed for a long time before it opened at t = 0., t=0
find:- 6Ω

(a) v(t) for t ≥ 0 (b) WC(0) +

Answer 24 V +- 1/6 F v(t)
12 Ω 4Ω

(a) 8e-2t V (b) 5.33 J -

 R
Step Response of RL Circuit
The switch in circuit shown has been closed (at t = 0) t=0 +
For t ≤ 0
L v(t)
The energy stored in the inductor at the time of switching is VS
given in terms of a nonzero initial current iL(0) (sometimes
-
there is no energy initially stored in the inductor and iL(0) = 0)
For t ≥ 0 R
The task now is to find expressions for current and +
voltage across the inductor after the switch has been
i(t) L
closed, applying KVL:- VS v(t)
di di -Ri + VS R V 
VS = Ri + L = = - i - S  -
dt dt L L R 
di R V  R V  di R
dt = -  i - S  dt di = -  i - S  dt = - dt
dt L R  L R  i - VS /R L
i(t) di R t i(t) - (VS /R) R
 =-  dt ln =- t
i-V /R L I0 - (VS /R) L
i(t )
0
S t 0

i(t) - (VS /R) i(t) = VS/R + (I0 – VS/R )e-(R/L)t A

= e-(R/L)t
I0 - (VS /R)
If the initial energy stored in the inductor is zero, then I0 = 0, and then
i(t) = VS/R (1 – e-t/T) A,
T = L/R Sec……. Which determines the rate of increasing the inductor current
From this equation, i(0) = 0, and i(∞) = VS/R. this indicates that after closing the switch
the current in the inductor increases exponentially form zero to the final value VS/R.

i(T) = VS/R (1-e-1) = 0.632VS/R

This indicates that after one time constant of closing the switch the current reaches 63 %
of its final value, as shown in Fig.
The initial rate of increase of the current is di/dt(0)

di/dt = -VS/R (- 1/T) e-t/T = VS / L e-t/T di/dt(0) = VS / L

If the current were to continue to increase at this initial rate; then it
would reach its final value at t = T; that is, because

i(t) = VS / L * t
At t = T i = V S / L * L / R = VS / R
To determine the time constant (T) graphically, we draw a tangent to
the curve of i(t) at t = 0, then T is the intersection of this tangent with
the VS / R –line.

The voltage across the inductor can be given as:-

vL(t) = Ldi/dt = L (-R/L) (I0 – VS/R)e-(R/L)t

vL(t) = (VS – I0R) e –t/

t/ττ

For I0 = 0, then vL(t) = VSe-t/T

Example 7-
7-5
t=0
The switch in the circuit shown in Fig., has been
in position “a” for a long time before it moved to
position “b” at t = 0. The switch is a Make
Make-- 2Ω
a
b
Before--Break type; that is the connection at
Before
position b is established before the connection
at position a is broken, so there is no
i(t) +
interruption of current through the inductor, find 24 V 10 Ω
200 mH v(t) 8A
(a) i(t) for t ≥ 0 (b) vL(0+) (c) Time required for
the vL(t) to reach 24 V (d) Does vL(0) make
-
sense in terms of the circuit behaviour (e) Plot
i(t), v(t) versus t.
Solution
For t ≤ 0 I0 10 Ω
iL(0-) = iL(0+) = I0 = -8 A 8A

For t ≥ 0
T = L/R = 0.2/2 = 0.1 Sec
2Ω
(a)
iL(t) = VS/R + (I0 – VS/R )e-t/T = 12 + (-8 -12)e-t/0.1
i(t) +
iL(t) = 12 – 20e-10t A for t ≥ 0+ 24 V
200 mH v(t)
(b) vL(t) = (VS – I0R) e –t/τ = (24 – (-8*2))e-10t = 40e-10t V t≥ 0+
-
v(0) = 40 V
(c) Yes; in the instant after the switch has been moved to position b, the
inductor sustains a current of 8 A counter-clockwise around the newly formed
closed path. This current causes a 16 V drop across the 2-Ω resistor. This
voltage drop adds to the drop across the source producing a 40 V drop across
the inductor.

(d) 24 = 40e-10t t = 51.08 mS

(e)
 t=0
Step Response of RC Circuit
The switch in circuit shown has been closed (at t = 0) +
iC(t)
For t ≤ 0 R
IS C VC(t)
The energy stored in the capacitor at the time of switching
is given in terms of a nonzero initial voltage vC(0) -
(sometimes there is no energy initially stored in the
a
capacitor and vC(0) = 0)
+
For t ≥ 0 iC(t)
The task now is to find expressions for voltage and current IS R C VC(t)
across the capacitor after the switch has been closed,
applying KCL at node-a:- -
v dv C dv C -v C /R + IS 1
IS = C + C = =-  vC - ISR 
R dt dt C RC
dv C 1 1 dv C 1
dt = -  vC - ISR  dt dv C = -  vC - ISR  dt = - dt
dt RC RC v C - ISR RC
v (t) dv t vC (t) - (ISR) 1
C =- 1 ln = - t
C

  dt
v -I R RC V0 - (ISR) RC
v (t ) C S
C 0
t 0

v C (t) - (ISR) vC(t) = ISR + (V0 – ISR )e-(1/RC)t V

= e-(1/RC)t
V0 - (ISR)
If the initial energy stored in the capacitor is zero, then V0 = 0, and then

vC(t) = ISR (1 – e-t/T) V , T = RC Sec……. Which determines the rate of increasing the
capacitor voltage

iC(t) = CdvC/dt = (IS – V0/R)e-t/T

Example 7-
7-6 20 kΩ 1 2 8 kΩ 40 kΩ

The switch in the circuit shown t=0

in Fig., has been in position “1” + io(t)
+ 160 kΩ -
for a long time before it moved - 60 kΩ +
to position “2” at t = 0. find 40 V Vo(t) 75 V
0.25 μF
-
(a) vo(t) for t ≥ 0 (b) io(t) for t ≥ 0 20 kΩ
Solution
For t ≤ 0 +
40 V +- 60 kΩ Vo(0)
vo (0-) = vo (0+) = V0 = 40*60 / (60 + 20) = 30 V
-
For t ≥ 0
T = RC = 40 x103 * 0.25 x10-6 = 10 mS 8 kΩ 40 kΩ

(a)
+ io(t)
vO(t) = ISR + (V0 – ISR )e-t/T 160 kΩ -
0.25 μF Vo(t) +
= -60 + (30 – (-60))e-t/0.01 75 V
-
vO(t) = -60 + 90e-100t V for t ≥ 0+
(b)
iO(t)= (IS – V0/R)e-t/T + io(t)
= (-1.5 - 30/40)e-100t mA 0.25 μF Vo(t)
40 kΩ 1.5 mA

iO(t) = -2.25e-100t mA for t ≥ 0+ -

General Solution for Natural and Responses
In this section we will develop a general solution for finding either the natural or
the step response for the first order RL & RC circuits, shown in figure;
RTH RTH

+ i(t) + + +
i(t)
i(t) i(t)
+ L V(t) RN L V(t) + V C V(t) RN V(t)
- VTH - TH
IN
IN
- -
- -

To generalize the solution for these possible circuits, we let x(t) represent the unknown
quantity, giving x(t) four possible values representing the current or voltage at the
terminals of the inductor or the capacitor. From the previous study we know that the
general form of the differential equation describing these four possible values is:-
dx x
+ = K ............. (1), K is a constant may be zero
dt 
Because the sources in the circuit are constant voltages or/and currents, the final value of
x will be constant and as the final value “xf ” must satisfy equation (1), then:
xf
=K 0+  x f = K ............. (2)

x(t) dx 1 t
dx x - (x - K ) - (x - x f ) dx 1
=- +K= = = - dt  =-  dt
dt    x - xf  x(t ) x - x f  t
1 t  x(t) - x f  1
0
1 0

x(t) - t - t 
ln  x - x f 
x(t )
=- t t ln   = -  t - t0  x(t) - x f
=e 
0

0  0
 x(t0 ) - x f  x(t0 ) - x f
1 1
-t - t  t - t
- 
x(t) - x f =  x(t0 ) - x f  e  x(t) = x f +  x(t0 ) - x f  e 
0 0
The final form of the equation can be written in the form:-

The unknown the final  t -  time of switching  

 the initial the final  -
variable as a = value of the +  value of the - value of the * e  time constant 
 
function of time variable  variable variable 
In many cases, the time of switching (t0) is zero
Example 7-
7-7
The switch in the circuit shown in Fig., has
been in position “a” for a long time before it
moved to position “b” at t = 0. find 400 kΩ b a 20 Ω
(a) Initial value of vC (b) final value of vC t=0
(C) T (d) vC(t) for t ≥ 0+ (e) i(t) for t ≥ 0+ 90 V i(t) + 60 Ω
40 V
(f) time for vC(t) = 0 (g) plot vC(t), i(t) versus t VC(t)
0.5 μF
Solution -

(a) vC(0-) = vC(0+) = V0 = -40*60 / (60 + 20) = -30 V 20 Ω

(b) VC(∞) = VS = 90 V
+
(c) T = RC = 400 x103 * 0.5 x10-6 = 200 mS VC(0) 60 Ω
40 V
(d) vC(t) = vC(∞) + (vC(0) – vC(∞))e-t/T -
= 90 + (-30 – 90)e-t/0.2
400 kΩ
vC(t) = 90 - 120e-5t V for t ≥ 0+
(e) i (t) = Cdv/dt = 0.5x10-6 ( -120*-5 e-5t) +
i(t)
90 V
i(t) = 300e-5t μA for t ≥ 0+ 0.5 μF VC(0)

(f) 0 = 90 – 120 e-5t 0.75 = e-5t -

t = 57.54 mS
Sequential Switching
The sequential switching developed whenever switching occurs more
than once in the circuit. Either a single switch has been moved in
sequence between two or more alternative positions or multiple
switches may be opened or closed in sequence. The following
example illustrates this technique.
Example 7-
7-8
T=0 T = 35 mS
The two switches in the circuit shown 4Ω 3Ω
have been closed for a long time. At
t = 0, switch S1 opened. 35 mS later, S1 S2
+ iL
switch S2 opened; find
60 V +- 12 Ω 6Ω VL 150 mH 18 Ω
(a) iL(t) for 0 ≤ t ≤ 35 mS
(b) iL (t) for t ≥ 35 mS -

(c) What % of P18-Ω / P150-mH (d) Repeat (c) for the 3 Ω resistor (e) Repeat (c) for the 6 Ω
4Ω 3Ω
Solution
For t ≤ 0
6Ω iL(0-)
3Ω ║ 6Ω ║ 12Ω = 1.7 Ω 60 V +- 12 Ω

iL(0-) = (60 / (4 + 1.7) * 1.7) / 3 = 6 A

For 0 ≤ t ≤ 35mS
T = L/Req, Req = (3Ω + 6Ω) ║ 18Ω = 6 Ω
T = 150x10-3 / 6 = 25 mS
3Ω
(a) iL(t) = 6e-40t A For 0 ≤ t ≤ 35mS
+ iL
For t ≥ 35 mS
6Ω VL 150 mH 18 Ω
iL(35mS) = 6e-1.4 =1.48 A
-
T = L/Req = 150x10-3 / (3 + 6) = 50/3 mS
(b) iL(t) = 1.48e-60(t-0.035) A For t ≥ 35 mS
3Ω
(c) The 18 Ω resistor exists only in the circuit in the first 35 mS,
during this time, vL(t) will be:- + iL
vL(t) = Ldi/dt = o.15 (-40*6e-40t) = -36e-40t V for 0 ≤ t ≤ 35 mS 6 Ω VL 150 mH
P18-Ω = vL2/18 = 72e-80t W for 0 ≤ t ≤ 35 mS -
0.035 0.035
-80t 72 -80t
W=  72 e dt = e = 0.9 (1 - e-2.8 ) = 845.27 mJ
0 -80 0
The initial energy stored in the inductor is
Wi = ½ L I02 = 0.5 * 0.15 * 36 = 2.7 J
The required % = 845.27 / 2700 *100 = 31.3 %
 CHAPTER--8
CHAPTER
Natural & Step Responses of RLC Circuits

In this chapter, we will discuss the natural and step responses of circuits containing both
of inductors and capacitors together that are known as the Second
Second--order circuits because
their equations are second-order differential equations as we will see later on this chapter.
Only two simple structures will be studied in terms of their natural and step response:-
(a) Parallel RLC circuit (b) Series RLC circuit
R L
iC + iL iR +
I0 +
C L R V
I0
V0 i(t) C V0
- -
-

R L
+
t=0
I C L R V t=0 I0 +
S

- VS +- i(t)
C V0

-
Natural Response of Parallel RLC circuit iC + iL iR +
Applying KCL in the circuit shown in Fig.,
i C + iL + iR = 0 dv 1t v C L R V
C +  vdt + I0 + = 0 V0 I0
dt L0 R
We differentiate w.r.t (t) to eliminate the integral in the above eqn - -

d2 v v 1 dv d2 v 1 dv 1
C + + =0 + + v = 0 .......... (1)
dt 2 L R dt dt2 RC dt LC
Then equation describing the parallel RLC circuit is a second-order ordinary differential eqn
with constant coefficients
General Solution of the second
second--order differential equation
Equation (1) can not be solved by separating variables and integrating as we seen before in
the first-order D.Es in the previous chapter. The classical approach for solving this equation
is to assume that the solution is of exponential form;
let v = Aest ………………. (2) A & s are unknown consts.
If eqn (2) is the solution of eqn (1) it must satisfy it for all values of (t). Substituting form (2)
into (1) generates the following expression:-
 s 1 
2 st
As e +
As st
e +
A st
e =0 Aest  s2 + +  = 0 .......... (3)
RC LC  RC LC 
Eqn (3) is valid for all values of t only is A = 0 or the parenthetical term is zero, because
est ≠ 0 for any finite values of (st). But we cannot use A = 0 as a general solution because
this implies that the voltage is zero for all time– a physical impossibility if energy is stored
in either inductor or capacitor therefore, the unique valid solution for eqn (3) is:-
 s 1
s2 + + = 0 .......... (4)
RC LC
Eqn (4) is called the characteristic equation of the D.E. because the roots of this quadratic
equation determine the mathematical character of v(t), the two roots of eqn (4) are:-
2 2
1  1  1 1  1  1
s1 = - +   - s2 = - -   -
2RC  2RC  LC 2RC  2RC  LC
If either root is substituted into eqn (2), the v = assumed solution will satisfies the given D.E.
eqn (1), thus v = A1es1t and v = A2es2t
If we assumed that these are two different solutions v1, v2, we can see that their sum is
also a solution, then:- v = v1 + v2 = A1es1t + A2es2t then
dv d2 v
= A1s1es1t + A 2s2es2t and 2 s1t
= A1s1 e + A 2 s2
2
e s2t
dt dt2
Substituting with all of these into eqn (1)
 2 1 1  s2t  2 1 1 
A1es1t  s1 + s1 +  + A 2 e s
 2 + s +  =0
 RC LC   RC 2 LC 
But s1, s2 are the roots of the chst eqn, then

2 1 1 1 1
s1 + s1 + =0 and s2
2
+ s2 + =0
RC LC RC LC
Then the natural response of the parallel RLC circuit is of the form:-
v(t) = A1es1t + A2es2t ……………
……………((5)
The behaviour of v(t) depends on the values of s1, s2 which are the roots of the chst eqn
given in the form:-
s1 = - +  2 - 02 and s2 = - -  2 - 02
 1 1
 = and 0 =
2RC LC
α is called the Neper frequency while ω0 is known as the Resonant radian frequency. All of
s1, s2, α, and ω0 have the same unit which is angular frequency per time (rad/sec).
The constants A1 & A2 can be obtained from the given initial conditions. According to the
values of α, and ω0 there are three possible outcomes :-
(1 ) α 2 > ω 0 2
Both roots s1 & s2 are real and distinct and the voltage response is called Over
Damped response (OD)
(2) α2 < ω02
Both roots s1 & s2 are complex and conjugate and the voltage response is called
Under Damped response (UD)
(3) α2 = ω02
Both roots s1 & s2 are real and equal and the voltage response is called Critical
Damped response (CD)
Example 8-
8-1
iC + iL iR +
(a) Find the roots of the chst eqn
0.2 μF 200 Ω V
(b) Is the response OD, UD, or CD V0 I0
50 mH
(c) Repeat (a) and (b) for R = 312.5 Ω - -
(d) What the value of R to get CD response
Solution
(a) α = 1/2RC = 1/(2*200*0.2*10-6) = 1.25 x104 rad/s
ω02 = 1/LC = (103*106) / (50*0.2) = 108 rad2/s2
Substituting in the expressions of s1 &s2, we can get

S1 = -5000 rad/s and s2 = -20,000 rad/s

(b) α2 = 1.5625 x108, ω02 = 108 α2 > ω 0 2 OD response

(c) For R = 312.5 Ω
α = 8000 rad/s α2 = 0.64 x108 rad2/s2
s1 = -8000 + j6000 rad/s and s2 = -8000 – j6000 rad/s
α2 < ω 0 2 UD response
(d) For CD response α2 = ω 0 2 (1/2RC)2 = 1/LC = 108 then
1/2RC = 104 R = 250 Ω

Forms of the Natural Response of Parallel RLC Circuit

In this section we will analyze in details the natural response of the parallel RLC circuit
with the three different cases of the solution stated before.

(a) Over damped Response (OD

(OD))
When the roots of the chst eqn (s1, s2) are real and distinct, the voltage response is said to
be over-damped and the it takes the form of (eqn-5):-

v(t) = A1es1t + A2es2t

The constants A1, A2 can be obtained from the initial conditions, specifically from the
Values of v(0+) and dv(0+)/dt, which in turn are determined from the initial
voltage on the capacitor (V0) and initial current in the inductor (I0). From eqn-5

v(0+) = A1 + A2

dv(0+)/dt = A1s1 + A2s2

s1, s2 are already known from (R, L, C), while v(0+), dv(0+)/dt can be obtained as
following:-
 
dv 0+  
dv 0+  
iC 0+
As  
iC 0+ = C
dt

dt
=
C
To find iC(0+), we apply KCL on the circuit at t = 0+
iC(0+) + iL(0+) + iR(0+) = 0 iC(0+) = -iL(0+) – iR(0+) then
iC(0+) = -I0 – V0/R
Example 8-
8-2
For the circuit shown in Fig., v(0+) = 12 V, iL(0+) = 30 mA
(a) Find initial currents in each branch in the circuit
(b) Find dv/dt(0+) (c) Find v(t) for t ≥ 0 +
iC + iL iR
Solution
0.2 μF 200 Ω V
(a) iL(0-) = iL(0+) = iL(0) = 30 mA, V0 I0
50 mH
iR(0+) = v(0) / R = 12 / 200 = 60 mA - -
iC(0+) = -iL(0+) – iR(0+) = -90 mA

(b) dv/dt(0+) = iC(0+)/C = -90 x10-3 / 0.2 x10-6 = -450 kV/s

(c) The roots of the chst eqn can be calculated as following
α = 1/2RC = 1.25 x 104, ω0 = (1/LC)1/2 = 104

s1 = - +  2 - 02 = -1.25 x 104 + 1.5625 x 108 -108  -5000 rad/s

s2 = - -  2 - 02 = -1.25 x 104 - 1.5625 x 108 -108  -20,000 rad/s

The roots s1, s2 are real and distinct, then the voltage response is over-damped with;

v(t) = A1es1t + A2es2t V

A1 + A2 = V0 = 12 and A1s1 + A2s2 = dv/dt(0+) -5000A1 – 20,000A2 = -450 x 103
Solving these two equations together we get A1 = -14 V, A2 = 26 V

v(t) = (-14e-5000t + 26e-20,000t) V for t ≥ 0

(b) Under
Under--damped Response (UD
(UD))
When ω02 > α2, the roots of the chst eqn (s1, s2) are complex-conjugate, and the
voltage response is said to be under-damped;

s1,2 = -   2 - 02 = -   
 02 - 2 = -  j 02 - 2 = -  j d

v(t) = A1e
-α +jωd  t
+ A 2 e 
-α -jωd t But it is known that e±jx = cosx ± jsinx

v(t) = A1e -αte jωdt + A 2e -αte -jωdt

= e -αt  A1cosωdt + jA1sinωdt + A 2cosωdt - jA 2 sinωdt 
= e -αt  A1 + A 2  cosωdt + j  A1 - A 2  sinωdt 
Now we replace the arbitrary constants (A1 + A2) & j(A1 – A2) with new constants B1 & B2

v(t) = B1 e-αt cos

cosωωdt + B2 e-αt sin
sinωω dt
The voltage response is oscillatory. The rate at which voltage oscillates is (ωd), while the
amplitude of the voltage decreases exponentially. The rate at which the amplitude falls-off
is determined by (α) which is called damping factor or damping coefficient.
The constant B1, B2 can be obtained from the initial conditions in the form of two eqns in
two unknown as follows

v(0+) = V0 = B1
dv/dt(0+) = iC(0+)/C = -αB1 + ωdB2
(c) Critically
Critically--damped Response ((CD
CD))
When ω02 = α2, the roots of the chst eqn (s1, s2) are real and equal, and the voltage
response is said to be critically-damped; 1
s1 = s2 = - = -
2RC
v(t) =  A1 + A2  e -αt = A0e -αt
But this solution doesn’t satisfy two independent initial conditions (V0, I0) with only one
arbitrary constant (A0). Now going back to the basic rules of solving the second order
D.E., when the roots of the chst eqn are real and equal, the solution will be:-

v(t) = D1te-αt + D2e-αt

Now two simultaneous equations will be needed to determine D1, D2 and given as:-

V(0+) = V0 = D2

dv/dt(0+) = iC(0+)/C = D1 – αD2

Example 8-
8-3
In the circuit shown in Fig., v(0+) = 0 V, iL(0+) = -12.25 mA
(a) Calculate the roots of the chst eqn iC + iL iR +

(b) Find v(0+) & dv/dt(0+) (c) Find v(t) for t ≥ 0 0.125 μF 8H 20 kΩ V
I0
V0
(d) Find the value of R that results in CD response
- -
(e) For the case in (d), find v(t) for t ≥ 0
Solution
α = 1/2RC = 200 rad/s, ω0 = (1/LC)1/2 = 1000 rad/s
ω02 > α2 therefore the response is UD

(a) ωd2 = ω02 – α2 = 106 – 4x104 = 960,000 rad2/s2 ωd = 979.8 rad/s

s1= -α + jωd = -200 + j979.8 rad/s, s2 = -α – jωd = -200 – j979.8 rad/s

(b) v(0+) = V0 = 0,

iC(0+) = -I0 –iR(0+) = -(-12.25) – 0 = 12.25 mA

dv/dt(0+) = 12.25x10-3 / (0.125x10-6) = 98,000 V/s

(c) B1 = V0 = 0 and B2 = dv/dt(0) / ωd = 98,000 / 979.8 ≈ 100 V

v(t) = 100 e-200t sin979.8t V For t ≥ 0

(d)

(e)
Step Response of Parallel RLC circuit
iC iR +
iL
Applying KCL in the circuit shown in Fig., t=0
i C + iL + iR = I I C L R V
dv 1t v -
C +  vdt + I0 + = I
dt L0 R
d2 v v 1 dv d2 v 1 dv 1
C + + =0 + + v =0
2 L R dt 2 RC dt LC
dt dt
Then equation describing the step response of the parallel RLC circuit is a second-order
ordinary differential eqn and its solution for v depends on the roots of the chst eqn and it has
three possible solutions as discussed before in the natural response.
v(t) = A1es1t + A2es2t OD Response
v(t) = B1e-αtcosωdt + B2e-αtsinωdt UD Response
v(t) = D1te-αt + D2e-αt CD Response
Note :-
:- Because there is a source in the circuit for t > 0, we must take into account the
value of the source current at t = 0+ during the evaluation of the coefficients in the above.
To find the three possible solutions of iL(t), we substitute by the above expressions of v(t)

in the following equation:- iL + v/R + Cdv/dt = I

iL(t) = I + A′1es1t + A′2es2t OD Response
iL(t) = I + B′1e-αtcosωdt + B′2e-αtsinωdt UD Response
iL(t) = I + D′1te-αt + D′2e-αt CD Response
A′1, A′2, B′1, B′2, D′1, and D′2 are arbitrary constants can be obtained from the initial conditions.
The last approach in the solution of step response of parallel RLC
circuit is called indirect approach and there is another approach called
direct approach can be summarized as following:-
i = If + { function of the same form as the natural response }
v = Vf + { function of the same form as the natural response }
Where If & Vf represent the final value of the response function.

Example 8-
8-4
In the Fig. shown, the initial energy stored in +
iC iL iR
t=0
the circuit is zero
24 mA 25 nF 25 mH 400 Ω V
(a) Find iL(0+) (b) diL/dt(0+)
(c) Calculate the roots of the chst eqn. -

(d) Find iL(t) for t ≥ 0

Answer
(a) iL(0) = 0
(b) diL/dt (0) = 0
(c) s1 = -20,000 rad/s, s2 = -80,000 rad/s
(d) iL(t) = (24 - 32e-20,000t + 8e-80,000t) mA
 L
Natural Response of Series RLC circuit R
Applying KVL in the circuit shown in Fig.,
di 1 t I0 +
vR + vL + vC = 0 iR + L +  idt + V0 = 0
dt C 0
i(t) C V0
We differentiate w.r.t (t) to eliminate the integral in the
above eqn -
2 2
dv d i i d i R di 1
R +L + =0 + + i =0
dt dt2 C dt2 L dt LC
Then equation describing the series RLC circuit is a second-order ordinary differential eqn
of the same form like the eqn discussed before in the parallel RLC with different constant
coefficients. The chst eqn of the series RLC circuit is:-
R 1
s2 + s+ =0
L LC
The roots of the chst eqn are given as:-
2
R  R  1 R 1
s1,2 = - ±   - = -α ± α 2 - ω0
2
with α = and ω0 =
2L  2L  LC 2L LC
The current response of the circuit will be OD, UD,
UD or CD according to the relation between
α2 and ω02
i(t) = A1es1t + A2es2t OD Response
i(t) = B1e-αtcosωdt + B2e-αtsinωdt UD Response
i(t) = D1te-αt + D2e-αt CD Response
The arbitrary constants A1, A2, B1, B2, D1, and D2 can be obtained from the initial
conditions iL(0), diL/dt (0). Once the natural current response has been obtained, the
voltage across any circuit element can be easily obtained.
 L
Step Response of Series RLC circuit R
The switch in the circuit shown has been closed
t=0 I0 +
at t = 0. assuming zero initial energy stored in
the circuit. Applying KVL in the circuit VS +- C V0
di i(t)
v R + vL + vC = VS iR + L + vC = VS
dt -
di d2 vC
But i = C dv C =C
dt dt dt2
dv C 2
d vC d2 v C R dv C 1 1
RC + LC + vC = VS + + v = V
dt 2 dt2 L dt LC C LC S
dt
The eqn describing the capacitor voltage in the series RLC circuit is the same form like the
eqn describing the inductor current in the parallel RLC circuit . Then we follow the same
procedure discussed before for solving this equation.
vC(t) = Vf + A′1es1t + A′2es2t OD Response
vC(t) = Vf + B′1e-αtcosωdt + B′2e-αtsinωdt UD Response
vC(t) = Vf + D′1te-αt + D′2e-αt CD Response
Vf is the final value of the capacitor voltage. In the circuit shown above Vf = VS
Example 8-
8-5 100 mH
In the circuit shown in Fig., the 0.1 μF capacitor is
Charged for 100 V. at t = 0 the capacitor is + T=0
discharged through a series combination of L & R.

(a) Find i(t) for t ≥ 0 V0 0.1 μF i(t) 560 Ω

(b) Find vC(t) for t ≥ 0 -

Solution
(a) α = R/2L = 560 / 2*0.1 = 2800 rad/s α2 = 7.84 x 106 rad2/s2
ω02 = (1/LC)1/2 = (103 * 106) / 100 * 0.1 = 108 rad2/s2
α2 < ω 02 UD Response with ωd = (ω02 – α2)1/2 = 9600 rad/s
i(t) = B1e-αtcosωdt + B2e-αtsinωdt
We can get the arbitrary constants B1, B2 from the initial conditions i(0) and di/dt(0), while

i(0) = 0 and di/dt(0) = V0/L = 100 / 0.1 = 1000 A/s

B1 = i(0) = 0
i(t) = B2e-2800tsin9600t
di/dt = B2(9600e-2800tcos9600t – 2800e-2800tsin9600t)
di/dt(0) = 9600B2 = 1000 B2 = 0.1042 A i(t) = 0.1042e-2800tsin9600t
(b) 1 t di
vC = - 0 i dt + V0 or v C = iR + L
C dt
v C (t) = e-2800t 100cos9600t + 29.17sin9600t  V For t  0
Example 8-
8-6
280 Ω 0.1 H
No energy stored in the circuit shown in
Fig., for t ≤ 0, find vC(t) for t ≥ 0.
t=0 I0 +
Solution
48 V +- i(t) 0.4 μF V0

α = R/2L = 280 / 2*0.1 = 1400 rad/s α2 = 1.96 x 106 rad2/s2

ω02 = (1/LC)1/2 =106 / 0.4 * 0.1 = 25 x106 rad2/s2
α2 < ω 02 UD Voltage Response with ωd = (ω02 – α2)1/2 = 4800 rad/s
vC(t) = Vf + B′1e-αtcosωdt + B′2e-αtsinωdt
We can get the arbitrary constants B1, B2 from the initial conditions v(0+) and dv/dt(0+),

No energy initially stored in the circuit vC(0) = dvC/dt(0) = 0

vC(0) = 48 + B′1 = 0 B′1 = - 48 V
dvC/dt(0) = -1400B′1 + 4800B′2 = 0 B′2 = - 14 V
vC(t) = 48 – 48e-1400tcos4800t - 14e-1400tsin4800t V for t ≥ 0
 CHAPTER--9
CHAPTER
Sinusoidal Steady-
Steady-State Analysis
All of the independent or dependent voltage and current source studied so far are constant
or Direct Current (DC) sources. In this chapter, we will start to deal with the Alternating
Current (AC) sources. The most important and commonly used type of AC sources is the
sinusoidal source in which the voltage or current varies sinusoidally.
Sinusoidal sources and their effect on circuit behaviour form a very important area of study
for many reasons:-
(1) The generation, transmission, distribution, and consumption of electric energy occur
under essentially sinusoidal steady-state conditions.
(2) Understanding of the sinusoidal behaviour makes it possible to predict the circuit
behaviour with non-sinusoidal sources.
(3) Steady-state sinusoidal behaviour always simplifies the design of electrical circuits and
systems.
Sinusoidal Source
A sinusoidal voltage or current (depen. Or indepen.) source produces a signal whose
amplitude varies sinusoidally with time (sine
sine or cosine function).
Although both of sine and cosine functions are used to express the sinusoidal signals
equally likely, we cannot use both functional forms simultaneously. We will use the cosine
function throughout this study.
The sinusoidal function repeats at regular intervals. Such a function is called periodic.
 v(t)
V = Vm cos (ω
(ωt + ϕ) Vm
Vm is called the max. amplitude of the
sinusoidal voltage. As the cos function is
bounded by ±1, then ±Vm bounds the amplitude.

T is called the period and it is the length of time 0 t

required for the sinusoidal function to pass
through all its possible values (measured in
-Vm
seconds).
T
f is called the frequency and it is the reciprocal of T ( f = 1/T) giving the number of
complete cycles (periods) per second.
ω is called the angular frequency of the sin. function (ω = 2π
2πf rad/S)
is known as the phase angle of the sin. voltage. It determines the value of the sin.
function at t = 0. changing the phase angle ϕ shifts the sin. function along the time axis but
has no effect on either Vm or ω.
You must note that if ϕ is +ve
+ve, the sin. function shifts to the left, whereas ϕ is –ve the
function shifts to the right. Usually ϕ is given in degrees and ωt must converted from rad
into degree before adding the two quantities together (multiply by 180/π)
The RMS (root mean square) value of the sin. Function is the square root of the mean value
of the squared function:-
1 t +T 2
o
2 Vm
Vrms =  Vm cos (ωt + φ)dt =
T t 2
o
Sinusoidal Response R
In the circuit shown in Fig., the switch has been opened for a
long time and then closed at t = 0. Assuming the initial energy t=0
stored in the inductor is zero. Let VS = Vm cos (wt + ϕ), then
VS +- L
Ldi/dt + Ri = V cos (wt + ϕ)
m i(t)
The solution of this equation, which is not our point of
interest, is given by:-
-Vm Vm
cos  φ - θ  e 
- R/L  t ωL
i= + cos  ωt + φ - θ  Where θ = tan-1
R
R 2 +ω2L2 R 2 +ω2L2
The first term in the above equation is referred to as the transient component of the
current because it becomes infinitesimal as time elapses. The second term is known as the
steady--state component of the solution as it exists as long as the switch remains closed
steady
and the source continues to supply the sinusoidal voltage. In this chapter, we will introduce
a technique for calculating the steady-state response directly, thus avoiding the problem of
solving the differential equation. However, focusing on the steady
steady--state response we should
remember the following characteristics for this solution:-
(1) The steady-state solution is a sinusoidal function.
(2) The frequency of response signal is identical to the frequency of the source signal (for
linear circuits “ constant R, L, & C).
(3) The maximum amplitude of the steady-state response signal, in general, differs from
the maximum amplitude of the source signal (in the above circuit, 2 2 2
Im = Vm / R +ω L ).

(4) The phase angle of the steady-state response signal, in general, differs from the phase
angle of the source signal (in the above circuit, the phase angle of the current is ϕ - θ).
The Phasor
The phasor is a complex number that carries the amplitude and phase angle information
of a sinusoidal function. The phasor concept is based on Euler’s identity, which relates the
exponential function to the trigonometric function
θ ± j sin θ
e±jθ = cos
Where cos θ = Real {ejθ} & sin θ = Imag {ejθ}
V(t) = Vm cos (ωt + ϕ) = Vm Real {ej(ωt + ϕ)} = Vm Real { ejωt ejϕ }
= Real {Vm ejϕ ejωt } = Real {V
V ejωt}
Phasor transform V = Vm ejϕ = P {Vm cos (ωt + )}

The notation P {Vm cos (ωt + ϕ)} is known as the phasor transform of Vm cos (ωt + ϕ).
Thus the phasor transform transfers the sinusoidal function from the time domain to the
complex-number domain, which is also known as Frequency domain.
V = Vm ejϕ = Vm cos ϕ + j sin ϕ

Polar Form Rectangular Form

The polar form Vm ejϕ is also written as Vmφo which is the most commonly used.

Transformation Between Polar and Rectangular Forms

o
V = Vm ejϕ = Vmφ = X + j Y
Polar Rectangular X = Vm cos ϕ , Y = Vm sin ϕ
Y
Rectangular Polar φ = tan-1
Vm = X2 + Y2 X
Example 9-
9-1
For v(t) = 10 cos (314.16t + 30o) V
Amplitude Vm = 10 V, Angular frequency ω = 314.16 rad/s
Frequency F = ω/2π = 50 Hz, Period T = 1/F = 20 mS, Phase shift ϕ = 300
V = 1030o = 10cos30o + j 10sin30o = 8.66 + j 5 V
Notes
All mathematical operations (+, -, * , /) which applied in time domain should be
applied in the same manner in frequency domain using phasors, but
►Mul. & Dev. (*& /) are much easier in Polar form and can be also performed in
Rectangular From
►Add. & Sub. (+& -) are much easier in Rectangular form, but can not be
performed in Polar From
For V1= X1 + j Y1 = V φ , V2 = X2 + j Y2 = V φ then;
m1 1 m2 2
Addition V1 + V2 = (X1+X2) + j (Y1+Y2)
Subtraction V1 - V2 = (X1-X2) + j (Y1-Y2)
Multiplication V1 * V2 = V
m1 * Vm2  φ1 + φ2 
Division V1 / V2 = V
m1 / Vm2  φ1 - φ2 
Reciprocal 1/ V = 1 / V  -φ
m
Square Root V = Vm  φ/2
Complex Conjugate V* = X – j Y = Vm  φ
Inverse Phasor
V ejωt] = Real [Vm ejϕ ejωt] = Real [Vmej(ωt +ϕ)]
v(t) = P-1{ V } = P-1{Vm ejϕ} = Real [V

=Real [Vm cos(ωt + ϕ) + j Vm sin(ωt + ϕ) ] = Vm cos(

cos(ωωt + )
Example 9-
9-2
For v1(t) = -60 cos (ωt + 50o) V , v2 (t) = 12 sin (ωt -10o) V. Find:-
(a) Phase shift bet. v1, v2 (b) v1 + v2 (c) v1 / v2
Solution
V1 = -60 cos (ωt + 50o) = 60 cos (ωt + 50o – 180o) = 60 cos (ωt - 130o) =60-130o
= - 38.57 - j 45.96 V
V2 = 12 sin (ωt - 10o) = 12 cos (ωt - 10o – 90o) = 12 cos (ωt - 100o) = 12-100o
= - 2.08 - j 1.97 V
(a) Phase shift bet. v1, v2 = 30o
(b) V1 + V2 = (- 38.57 - j 45.96) + (- 2.08 - j 1.97) = - 40.65 – j 47.93 = 62.6449.7o
v1(t) + v2(t) = P-1 {V
V1 + V2} = 62.64 cos (ωt + 49.7o) V

o
(c) V1 / V2 = 60-130 = 5-30o v1(t) / v2(t) = 5 cos (ωt - 30o) V/V
12-100o
Phasor Relations For Circuit Elements
In this section, we will start to study the Current-Voltage (I-V) relations
in the basic circuit elements (R, L, C) in the phasor or frequency domain.

(a) Resistor R
Let i(t) = Im cos (ωt + θi), applying Ohm’s law on the resistor + V -
shown v(t) = R*i(t) I
= R[Im cos (ωt + θi)] = RIm [cos (ωt + θi)]
The phasor transform of this voltage is V = RImejθi = RImθi
But Imθi is the phasor transform of the sinusoidal current, then V = RII
It is easy to notice that the current and voltage have the same phase (θ
θi), so
they said to be “in
in--phase” V,i

V(t)

i(t)

-T/4 0 T/2 T 3T/2 t

θi
 L
(b) Inductor
Again Let i(t) = Im cos (ωt + θi), it is well known that; + -
V
vL(t) = L di/dt I

= L [-ω Im sin (ωt + θi)] = -ω L Im cos ( ωt + θi - 90o)

The phasor transform of this voltage is V = -ω L Im ej(θi-90) = -ω L Im ejθi e-j90
But e-j90 = cos(-90o) + j sin(-90o) = 0 – j = - j
V = jωL Im ejθi = jωL I

jωL is called the impedance of the inductor (Z

ZL), while ωL is
called the reactance of the inductor (X
XL )
V = ZL I = jXL I
V,i 90o
ej90 = 90o = cos 90o + j sin 90o = j
V = XLI90o = ωL Imθi +90o V(t)
Then θv = θi + 90o i(t)
Then the voltage and current in the
inductor are out
out--of-
of-phase and it is
-T/4 0 T/2 T 3T/2 t
said that the voltage leads the current

by 90o (the voltage is Leading)

 C
(c) Capacitor
if v(t) = Vm cos (ωt + θv), then iC(t) = C dv/dt + -
V
I
= C [-ω Vm sin (ωt + θv)] = -ω C Vm cos ( ωt + θi -
90o)
The phasor transform of this current is I = -ω C Vm ej(θv-90) = -ω C Vm ejθv e-j90
But e-j90 = - j 1I = jωC Vm 1 ejθv = jωC V
V= I = -j I
jωC ωC
1/jω
1/j ωC is called the impedance of the capacitor (Z ZC), while
-1/
1/ωωC is called the reactance of the capacitor (X
XC)
I
V = ZC I = jXC I V = m θi -90o
ωC V,i
Then θv = θi - 90o 90o

i.e. the voltage and current in the capacitor

are out
out--of
of--phase and it is said that the V(t)

voltage lags the current by 90o (the voltage

is Lagging) i(t)

-T/4 0 T/2 T 3T/2 t

Impedance & Admittance
In the last section, we obtained the voltage-current relations for the three passive
elements as:
V = RII, V = jωLII, V = I / jωC
These equations may be written in terms of the ratio of the phasor voltage to the phasor
current as:
V / I = R, V / I = jωL, V / I = 1 / jωC

From these three expressions, we obtain Ohm’s law in phasor form for any type of
element as: Z = V / I or V = I*Z
where Z is a frequency-dependent quantity known as impedance
impedance, measured in Ohms (Ω
Ω).

Z = R + j X = Z φ Z
R is the real part of the impedance called the resistance and X is the imaginary part of the
impedance called the reactance
reactance. X is +ve for inductors (inductive reactance) and –ve for
capacitors (capacitive reactance)
The reciprocal of the impedance is known as the admittance (Y) and it is measured in
Siemens (S
S) or Mhos (Ʊ
Ʊ)
1 I
Y= = = G + j B = Y φ Y
Z V
G is the real part of the admittance called the Conductance and
B is the imaginary part of the admittance called the
Susceptance, all measured in S or Ʊ.
You must note that G ≠ 1/R and B ≠ 1/X.
H.W (Derive expressions for both of G & B as a function of R & X
For ω = 0 (DC) ZL = 0 (S.C) and ZC = ∞ (O.C)
For ω ∞ (HF) ZL ∞ (O.C) and ZC = 0 (S.C)
Circuit analysis in the Frequency domain
We can not do circuit analysis in the frequency domain without applying all of solution
methods and simplification techniques, studied before, like KVL, KCL, series
series--parallel, Δ-Υ,
voltage/current dividers, NVM, MCM, ST
ST……… etc.. therefore, we need to express all of
……… etc
these techniques in the Phasor form.
Kirchhoff’s laws in phasor domain
(a) KVL
It is well known that for any closed loop;
v1(t) + v2(t) + v3(t) + ………… + vn(t) = 0
Vm1cos(ωt + θ1) + Vm2cos(ωt + θ2) + Vm3cos(ωt + θ3) + ……… + Vmncos(ωt + θn) =
0
Re[Vm1 ejθ1 ejωt] + Re[Vm2 ejθ2 ejωt] + Re[Vm3 ejθ3 ejωt] +………… + Re[Vmn ejθn ejωt] = 0
Re[ejωt (Vm1 ejθ1 + Vm2 ejθ2 + Vm3 ejθ3 +………… +Vmn ejθn )] = 0
Re[ejωt (V
V1 + V2 + V3 +………… +V
Vn)] = 0
Since ejwt ≠ 0, then V1 + V2 + V3 +………… +V
Vn = 0
Then the KVL holds for phasors
(b) KCL
By following a similar procedure, we can conclude that the KCL is also applied
for phasors. i.e. at any node if;
i1(t) + i2(t) + i3(t) + ………… + in(t) = 0
Then I + I + I +………… +II = 0
Series--Parallel simplification
Series
(a) Impedances in Series a Z1 Z2 Zn
+
Vab = I Z1 + I Z2 + ……… + I Zn I
Vab
Vab = I (Z1 + Z2 + ……. + Zn)
-
Zeq = Vab / I = Z1 + Z2 + ……. + Zn b
a
(b) Impedances in Parallel +
I I1 I2 In
I = I1 + I2 + ……… + In Vab Z1 Z2 Zn
Vab Vab V V
= + ab + ....... + ab -
Zeq Z1 Z2 Zn b
1 1 1 1
= + + ....... + Yeq = Y1 + Y2 + ....... + Yn
Zeq Z1 Z2 Zn
Δ–Υ
Transformation
Δ Υ Υ Δ

Z a Zb Z1
Z1 = Z Z
Za + Zb + Zc Za = Z1 + Z3 + 1 3
Z2
Zb Zc Z1Z2
Z2 = Zb = Z1 + Z2 +
Za + Zb + Zc Z3
Za Z c Z Z
Z3 = Zc = Z2 + Z 3 + 2 3 Zc
Za + Zb + Zc Z1
Example 9-3
In the circuit shown in Fig., iS(t) = 8 cos
cos200
200,,000t
000t A
(a) Construct the frequency-domain eqv. Circuit.
(b) Find the steady-state expressions for v, i1, i2, i3
+ i3
Solution 6Ω

IS = 8 ∟0o A, ω = 200,000 rad/S

iS v i1 10 Ω i2 1 µF
XL = ωL = 200,000 * 40x10-6 = 8 Ω 40 µH
-
XC = 1/ωC = 1/(200,000)(10-6) = 5 Ω
Let’s calculate the impedance and admittance
of each branch in the circuit.
+ I3
Z1 = 10 Ω Y1 = 0.1 Ʊ 6 Ω
I I
Z2 = 6 + j8 Ω Y2 = 0.06 – j0.08 Ʊ V 1 10 Ω 2 -j5 Ω
Z3 = -j5 Ω Y3 = j0.2 Ʊ IS = 8∟0o
j8 Ω
Yeq = Y1 + Y2 + Y3 = 0.16 + j0.12 = 0.2 ∟36.87o -
Zeq = 1 / Yeq = 5 ∟-36.87o
V = Zeq IS = 40 ∟-36.87o
I1 = V / 10 = 4 ∟-36.87o = 3.2 – j2.4 A v(t) = 40 cos (200,000t – 36.87o) V
I2 = V / (6+j8) = 4 ∟-90o = -j4 A i1(t) = 4 cos (200,000t – 36.87o) A
I3 = V / -j5 = 8 ∟53.13o = 4.8 + j6.4 A i2(t) = 4 cos (200,000t – 90o) A
IS = I1 + I2 + I3 = 8 ∟0o i (t) = 8 cos (200,000t + 53.13o) A
3
Source Transformation a
ZS a

I S = V S / Z S, ZP = ZS
VS +- ZP
VS = IS * ZP, Z S = ZP IS
b
b
Thevenin//Norton Equivalents
Thevenin
a
ZTH

Vth +
-
a
Frequency domain b
linear network that
may contain a
independent and b
dependent Sources

IN ZN

b
Example 9-4 1 µF 199iΔ 1 µF
10 kΩ
In the circuit shown in Fig., Find the a
Thevenin Eqv. between a, b if the iΔ
operating frequency f = 200 / π Hz
Hz.
Solution 4.7 Ω
ω = 2πf = 400 rad/s 100 Ω

ZC1 = ZC2 =1/jωC

= 1/j(400)(1x10-6) = -j2500 Ω b
-j 2500 Ω 10 kΩ 199IΔ -j 2500 Ω
VTH is the open circuit voltage a
In this circuit:- + IΔ
IΔ = 0 199IIΔ = 0 VTH = 0
VTH 4.7 Ω
ZTH can be obtained as the ratio between 100 Ω
VT and IT.
-
In this circuit, IΔ = IT, then b
-V
VT + IT (10,000 – j 2,500) + 200 IT (100) = 0 -j 2500 Ω 199IΔ -j 2500 Ω
10 kΩ
VT = IT (30,000 – j 2,500)
IΔ
VT
ZTH = = 30,000 - j 2,500 IT
IT VT +- 4.7 Ω
200IΔ 100 Ω
= 30,104- 4.76o
 1Ω j2 Ω 5Ω
Node-Voltage Method (NVM
Node- NVM))
Example 9-5 IX Ic Ib
Ia
In the circuit shown in Fig., use the NVM
-j5 Ω +
to find the branch currents Ia, Ib, and Ic. 10 Ω
o
10.60 A 20 IX -
Solution
There are three essential nodes (1, 2, 3). Choosing
node (3) as a reference node and assigning node
voltages V1, V2 at the remianing nodes.
V1 1Ω j2 Ω V2 5Ω
1 2
At node (1) V V -V IX
-10.6 + 1 + 1 2 = 0
10 1+ j2 +
10 Ω -j5 Ω
o
10.60 A 20 IX -
V1(1.1 +j 0.2) – V2 = 10.6 + 21.2 ………… (1)
At node (2) 3

V2 -V1 V V -20IX V1-V2

+ 2 - 2 =0 But IX =
1+j2 -j5 5 1+j2
V1
Ia = = 6.84 - j1.68 A
-5V
V1 + ( 4.8 + j0.6)V
V2 = 0 ………… (2) 10
V1-V2
Solving eqns 1, 2 we can get IX = = 3.76 + j1.68 A
1+j2
V1= 68.4 – j16.8 V and V2 = 68 – j26 V
V2 - 20IX
Ib = = -1.44 - j11.92 A
5
V2
Ic = = 5.2 + j13.6 A
-j5
Mesh-Current Method (MCM
Mesh- MCM))
Example 9-6
In the circuit shown in Fig., use the MCM to 1Ω j2 Ω
find the phasor current “I”. (H.W
H.W)
Answer I 3Ω
I = 29 + j 2 A = 29.073.95o A + 33.80o V 2Ω
- + 0.75 VX
VX -j5 Ω
-
Super--Position (SP
Super SP))
The super position is a very important tool for circuit analysis in the frequency
domain especially for different sources exist with different frequency.
Example 9-7
In the circuit shown in Fig.,
ig1(t) = 6 cos
cos25
25tt A and ig2(t) = 5 cos (50
50tt + 30o) A
ig1 1H
Find steady state expression for vo(t) +
Solution
vo 100 Ω
For ig1 = 6 cos25t Ig1 = 6 ∟0o
ωL= 25*1 = 25 Ω, 1/ωC = 1/25(100x10-6) = 400 Ω -
ig2 100 µF
Vo1 = 100 Io1 ( we can get Io1 by the current divider)

j25 j25



Vo1 = 100  60o  
100 - j400 + j25 
 600 0 o
100 - j375
+
Vo1 =
 
6000o 2590o
=

38.65  16 5 o
vo1
Io1

100 Ω
388.1-75o
j25 Ω
vo1(t) = 38.65 cos (25t + 165o) -
Ig1=6∟0o
-j400 Ω
For ig2 = 5 cos (50t + 30o) Ig1 = 5 ∟30o
ωL= 50*1 = 50 Ω, 1/ωC = 1/50(100x10-6) = 200 Ω
Vo2 = 100 Io2 ( we can get Io2 by the current divider)

- j200 -j200 j50 Ω

Vo2



= 100  530o  

100 + j50 - j200 
 50030o
100 - j150
+ Io2

Vo2 =
 
50030o 200  90o  = 554.7-3.7o Ig2=5∟30o -j200 Ω vo2 100 Ω

180.28-56.31o -
vo2(t) = 554.7 cos (50t - 3.7o)
vo(t) = vo1(t) + vo2(t) = 38.65 cos (25t + 165o) + 554.7 cos (50t - 3.7o)
Phasor Diagrams
The phasor diagram shows the magnitude and phase angle of a phasor quantity (current or
voltage) in the complex-number plane. Phase angles are measured counter-clockwise from
the positive real axis, while magnitudes are measured from the origin of the axes.
The shown figure illustrates the phasor quantities1030o , 12150o , 5-45o , and 8-170o
Imag

12150o
1030o
150o

30o

0 -45o Real
o
8-170
5-45o

Note
As the phasor diagrams generally involve both currents and voltages, two different
magnitude scales are necessary, one for the currents and another one for the voltages.
 Example 9-8
In the circuit shown in Fig., use the +
phasor diagrams to find the value of R IL IC IR
that will cause the current IR, to lag IS Vm 0.2 mH 800 µF R
the source current IS by 45o.
Solution -
Assuming that the phase angle of the voltage Vm is zero;
Imag
Vm Vm0o
IL = = = Vm-90o
jωL j (5000)(0.2x10 -3 )
IC = j4Vm
IC =Vm  jωC 

 
= Vm0o j (5000)(800x10 -6 ) = 4Vm90o

Vm Vm
IR = = 0o
R R 45o
Summing the phasors of Imag 0 IR = Vm/R Real
the currents makes an IL = -jVm
IC+IL= j3Vm
isosceles triangle, so

Vm / R = 3Vm R = 1/3 Ω

45o
0 IR = Vm/R Real