AMI Equipment Services and Solutions, Inc.

Biomedical Engineering Department

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

Submitted By:

Vandolph D. Siriban

Submitted To:

Engr. John Paul Soriano

FUNCTIONS OF THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

One of the basic tenets of life is that many organisms consume or use other organisms in order to survive. Some
micro organisms, such as certain bacteria or viruses, use humans as a source of nutrients and as an environment
where they can survive and reproduce. As a results, some of these micro organisms can damage the body, causing
disease or even death. Any substance or micro organism that cause disease or damage to the the tissues of the
body is considered a pathogen. Not surprisingly, the body has ways to resist or destroy pathogens. This chapter
considers how the lymphatic system and the components of the other systems, such as white blood cells and
phagocytes, continually provide protection against pathogens.

The lymphatic system functions are:

FLUID BALANCE

About 30 liters (L) of fluid pass from the blood capillaries into the interstitial space each day, whereas only 27L pass
from the interstitial spaces back into the blood capillaries. If the extra 3L of interstitial fluid remained in the
interstitial spaces, edema would result, causing tissue damage and eventually death. Instead, the 3 L of fluid enters
the lymphatic capillaries, where it is called lymph, and it passes through the lymphatic vessels to return to the
blood. In addition to water,lymph contains solutes derived from the two sources:

A) Substances in plasma, such as ions, nutrients,gases and some proteins, pass from the blood capillaries into the
interstitial spaces and become part of lymph.

B) Substances such as hormones, enzymes, and waste products derived from cells within tissues are also part of the
lymph.

LIPID ABSORPTION

The lymphatic system absorbs lipid and other substances from the digestive tract through lymphatic vessels called
lacteals located in the lining of the small intestine. Lipids enter the lacteals and pass through the lymphatic vessels
to the venous circulation. The lymph passing through these lymphatic vessel appears white because of its lipid
content and is called chyle.

DEFENSE

Pathogens, such as microorganisms and other foreign substances, are filtered from lymph by lymph nodes and from
blood by the spleen. In addition, lymphocytes and other cells are capable of destroying pathogens. Because the
lymphatic system is involved with fighting infections, as well as filtering blood and lymph to remove pathogens,
many infectious diseases produce symptoms associated with the lymph system.

Your lymphatic system has many functions. Its key functions include:

 Maintains fluid levels in your body: As just described, the lymphatic system collects excess fluid that drains
from cells and tissue throughout your body and returns it to your bloodstream, which is then recirculated
through your body.
 Absorbs fats from the digestive tract: Lymph includes fluids from your intestines that contain fats and
proteins and transports it back to your bloodstream.
 Protects your body against foreign invaders: The lymphatic system is part of the immune system. It
produces and releases lymphocytes (white blood cells) and other immune cells that monitor and then
destroy the foreign invaders — such as bacteria, viruses, parasites and fungi — that may enter your body.
  Transports and removes waste products and abnormal cells from the lymph.

What are the parts of the lymphatic system?

The lymphatic system consists of many parts. These include:

Lymph: Lymph, also called lymphatic fluid, is a collection of the extra fluid that drains from cells and tissues
(that is not reabsorbed into the capillaries) plus other substances. The other substances include proteins,
minerals, fats, nutrients, damaged cells, cancer cells and foreign invaders (bacteria, viruses, etc). Lymph also
transports infection-fighting white blood cells (lymphocytes).
Lymph nodes: Lymph nodes are bean-shaped
glands that monitor and cleanse the lymph as it
filters through them. The nodes filter out the
damaged cells and cancer cells. These lymph
nodes also produce and store lymphocytes and
other immune system cells that attack and
destroy bacteria and other harmful substances
in the fluid. You have about 600 lymph nodes
scattered throughout your body. Some exist as
a single node; others are closely connected
groups called chains. A few of the more
familiar locations of lymph nodes are in your
armpit, groin and neck. Lymph nodes are
connected to others by the lymphatic vessels.

Lymphatic vessels: Lymphatic vessels are the

network of capillaries (microvessels) and a
large network of tubes located throughout
your body that transport lymph away from
tissues. Lymphatic vessels collect and filter
lymph (at the nodes) as it continues to move
toward larger vessels called collecting ducts. These vessels operate very much like your veins do: They work
under very low pressure, have a series of valves in them to keep the fluid moving in one direction.

Collecting ducts: Lymphatic vessels empty the lymph into the right lymphatic duct and left lymphatic duct (also
called the thoracic duct). These ducts connect to the subclavian vein, which returns lymph to your bloodstream.
The subclavian vein runs below your collarbone. Returning lymph to the bloodstream helps to maintain normal
blood volume and pressure. It also prevents the excess buildup of fluid around the tissues (called edema).

Spleen: This largest lymphatic organ is located

on your left side under your ribs and above
your stomach. The spleen filters and stores
blood and produces white blood cells that
fight infection or disease.

Thymus: This organ is located in the upper

chest beneath the breast bone. It matures a
specific type of white blood cell that fights off
foreign organisms.

Tonsils and adenoid: These lymphoid organs

trap pathogens from the food you eat and the
air you breathe. They are your body’s first line
of defense against foreign invaders.

Bone marrow: This is the soft, spongy tissue in the center of certain bones, such as the hip bone and
breastbone. White blood cells, red blood cells, and platelets are made in the bone marrow.
 Peyer’s patches: These are small masses of lymphatic tissue in the mucous membrane that lines your small
intestine. These lymphoid cells monitor and destroy bacteria in the intestines.

Appendix: Your appendix contains lymphoid tissue that can destroy bacteria before it breaches the intestine
wall during absorption. Scientists also believe the appendix plays a role in housing “good bacteria” and
repopulating our gut with good bacteria after an infection has cleared.

The lymphatic vessels coverage and eventually empty into the blood at two locations in the body. Lymphatic
vessels from the right upper limb and the right half of the head,neck, and chest form the right lymphatic duct,
which empties into the right subclavian vein. Lymphatic vessels from the rest of the body enter the thoracic
duct. Which empties into the left subclavian vein.

LYMPHATIC ORGANS

The lymphatic organs include the tonsils, the lymph nodes, the spleen, and the thymus, Lymphatic tissue,
which consists of many lymphocytes and other cells, such as macrophages, is found within lymphatic organs.
The lymphocytes originate from red bone marrow and are carried by the blood to lymphatic organs. These
lymphocytes divide and increase in number when the body is expected to pathogens. The increased number of
the lymphocytes is part of the immune response that causes the destruction of pathogens,
TONSILS

There are three groups of tonsils the palatine

tonsils are located on each side of the posterior
opening of the oral cavity . there are usually
referred to as the tonsils. The pharyngeal tonsil
is located near the internal opening of the nasal
cavity. When the pharyngeal tonsil is enlarged, it
is commonly called the adenoid, or adenoids. An
enlarged pharyngeal tonsil can interfere with
the normal breathing. The lingual tonsil is on
the posterior surface of the tongue.

the tonsils form a protective ring of lymphatic

tissue around the openings between the nasal
and oral cavities and the pharynx. They protect
against pathogens and other potentially harmful
material entering from the nose and mouth.
Sometimes the palatine or pharyngeal tonsils
become chronically infected and must be
removed. The lingual tonsil becomes infected
less often the the other tonsils and is more
difficult to removed.

Immunity is the ability to resist damage from pathogens such as microorganisms, harmful chemicals such as
toxins released by microorganism and internal threats such as cancer cells. Immunity is categorized as innate
immunity, although the two systems are fully integrated in the body. In innate immunity the body recognizes
and destroys pathogens, but the response to them improves each time the pathogens is encountered.

Specify and memory are characteristics of adaptive immunity. Specify is the ability of adaptive immunity to
recognize a particular substance. For example, innate immunity can act against bacteria in general, whereas
adaptive immunity can distinguish among various kinds of bacteria.
Memory is the ability of adaptive immunity to remember previous encounters with a particular substance. As a
result, future responses are faster, stronger, and longer-lasting. In innate immunity, each time the body is exposed
to a substance, the response is the same because specificity and memory of previous encounters are not present.
For example, each time a bacterial cell is introduced into the body, it is phagocytized with the same speed and
efficiency. In adaptive immunity, the response during the second exposure to the same bacteria is faster
Physical Barriers

Physical barriers prevent pathogens and chemicals from entering the body in two ways. The skin and mucous
membranes form barriers that prevent their entry and tears, saliva and urine wash these substances from body
surfaces. Pathogens cannot cause a disease if they cannot get into the body.

Chemical Mediators

Chemical mediators are molecules responsible for many aspects of innate immunity. Some chemicals on the
surface of cells destroy pathogens or prevent their entry into the cells. For example, iysozyme in tears and
saliva kills certain bacteria, and mucus on the mocous membranes prevents the entry of some pathogens.
Other chemical mediators, such as histamine, complement, prostaglandins promote inflammation by causing
vasodilation, increasing vascular permeability and stimulating phagocytosis. In addition, interferons protect
cells against viral infections.
Complement

Complement is a group of more than 20 proteins found in plasma. The operation of complement proteins is similar
to that of clotting proteins). Normally, complement proteins circulate in the blood in an inactive form. Certain
complement proteins can be activated by combining with foreign substances, such as parts of a bacterial cell, or by
combining with antibodies (see “Effects of Antibodies” later in this chapter). Once activation begins, a series of
reactions results, in which each complement protein activates the next. Once activated, certain complement
proteins promote inflammation and phagocytosis and can directly lyse (rupture) bacterial cells. Interferons

Interferons

Interferons are proteins that protect the body against

viral infections. When a virus infects a cell, the infected
cell produces viral nucleic acids and proteins, which are
assembled into new viruses. The new viruses are then
released to infect other cells. Because infected cells
usually stop their normal functions or die during viral
replication, viral infections are clearly harmful to the body.
Fortunately, viruses often stimulate infected cells to
produce interferons, which do not protect the cell that produces them. Instead, interferons bind to the surface of
neighboring cells, where they stimulate those cells to produce antiviral proteins. These antiviral proteins inhibit viral
reproduction by preventing the production of new viral nucleic acids and proteins. Some interferons play a role in
activating immune cells, such as macrophages and natural killer cells.

White Blood Cells

White blood cells and the cells derived from them are
the most important cellular components of immunity.
White blood cells are produced in red bone marrow and
lymphatic tissue and released into the blood. Chemicals
released from pathogens or damaged tissues attract the
white blood cells, and they leave the blood and enter
affected tissues. Important chemicals known to attract
white blood cells include complement, leukotrienes,
kinins, and histamine. The movement of white blood cells toward these chemicals is called chemotaxis.

Phagocytic Cells

Phagocytosis is the ingestion and destruction of particles by

cells called phagocytes The particles can be microorganisms or
their parts, foreign substances, or dead cells from the body.
The most important phagocytes are neutrophils and
macrophages, although other white blood cells also have
limited phagocytic ability. Neutrophils are small
phagocytic cells that are usually the first cells to enter
infected tissues from the blood in large numbers. They
release chemical signals that increase the inflammatory
response by recruiting and activating other immune
cells. Neutrophils often die after phagocytizing a single microorganism. Pus is an accumulation of fluid, dead
neutrophils, and other cells at a site of infection.
Macrophages

Macrophages are monocytes that leave the

blood, enter tissues, and enlarge about
fivefold. Monocytes and macrophages form
the mononuclear phagocytic system
because they are phagocytes with a single
(mono), unlobed nucleus. Sometimes
macrophages are given specific names, such
as dust cells in the lungs, Kupffer cells in the
liver, and microglia in the central nervous
system. Macrophages can ingest more and
larger items than can neutrophils.
Macrophages usually appear in infected
tissues after neutrophils do, and they are
responsible for most of the phagocytic activity in the late stages of an infection, including cleaning up dead
neutrophils and other cellular debris. In addition to leaving the blood in response to an infection, macrophages are
also found in uninfected tissues. If pathogens enter uninfected tissue, the macrophages may phagocytize the
microorganisms before they can replicate or cause damage. For example, macrophages are located at potential
points where pathogens may enter the body, such as beneath the skin and mucous membranes, and around blood
and lymphatic vessels. They also protect lymph in lymph nodes and blood in the spleen and liver.

Cells of Inflammation

Basophils, which are derived from red bone marrow, are motile white blood cells that can leave the blood and enter
infected tissues. Mast cells, which are also derived from red bone marrow, are nonmotile cells in connective tissue,
especially near capillaries. Like macrophages, mast cells are located at points where pathogens may enter the body,
such as the skin, lungs, gastrointestinal tract, and urogenital tract. Basophils and mast cells can be activated through
innate immunity or through adaptive immunity. When activated, they release chemicals, such as histamine and
leukotrienes, that produce an inflammatory response or activate other mechanisms, such as smooth muscle
contraction in the lungs. Eosinophils also participate in inflammation associated with allergies and asthma.
Inflammation is beneficial in the fight against pathogens, but too much inflammation can be harmful, destroying
healthy tissues as well as the microorganisms.

Natural Killer Cells

Natural killer (NK) cells, a type of lymphocyte produced in red bone marrow, account for up to 15% of lymphocytes.
NK cells recognized classes of cells, such as tumor cells or virus-infected cells, in general, rather than specific tumor
cells or cells infected by a specific virus. For this reason, and because NK cells do not exhibit a memory response,
they are classified as part of innate immunity. NK cells use a variety of methods to kill their target cells, including
releasing chemicals that damage cell membranes and cause the cells to lyse.

Inflammatory Response

The inflammatory response to injury involves many of the chemicals and cells previously discussed. Most
inflammatory responses are very similar, although some details vary, depending on
the intensity of the response and the type of injury. Bacteria enter the tissue, causing damage that stimulates the
release or activation of chemical mediators, such as histamine, prostaglandins, leukotrienes, complement, and
kinins. These chemicals produce several effects
1. Vasodilation increases blood flow and brings phagocytes and other white blood cells to the area.

2. phagocytes leave the blood and enter the tissue.

3. increased vascular permeability allows fibrinogen and complement to enter the tissue from the blood. Fibrinogen
is converted to fibrin , which isolates the infection by walling off the infected area. Complement further enhances
the inflammatory response and attracts additional phagocytes. This process of releasing chemical mediators and
attracting phagocytes and other white blood cells continues until the bacteria are destroyed. Phagocytes remove
microorganisms and dead tissue, and the damaged tissues are repaired.

Inflammation can be local or systemic. Local inflammation is an inflammatory response confined to a specific area
of the body. Symptoms of local inflammation include redness, heat, and swelling due to increased blood flow and
increased vascular permeability, as well as pain caused by swelling and by chemical mediators acting on pain
receptors. The tissue destruction, swelling, and pain lead to loss of function.

Systemic inflammation is an inflammatory response that is generally distributed throughout the body. In addition
to the local symptoms at the sites of inflammation, three additional features can be present

1. Red bone marrow produces and releases large numbers of neutrophils, which promote phagocytosis.

2. Pyrogens (fever-producing), chemicals released by microorganisms, neutrophils, and other cells, stimulate fever
production. Pyrogens affect the body’s temperature regulating mechanism in the hypothalamus in the brain. As a
consequence, heat production and conservation increase, raising body temperature. Fever promotes the activities
of the immune system, such as phagocytosis, and inhibits the growth of some microorganisms.

3. In severe cases of systemic inflammation, vascular permeability can increase so much that large amounts of fluid
are lost from the blood into the tissues. The decreased blood volume can cause shock and death (see Clinical Impact
“Circulatory Shock.