CHAPTERl

DEFINING MUSICIANSHIP-
FOCUSED CURRICULUM
AND AsSESSMENT

Colleen Conway
University of Michigan

This first chapter in Musicianship-Focused C1miculum and

~ t is devoted to defining the constructs of musicianship,
curriculum, and assessment as they are considered in this book. I begin
with the notion of musicianship and then continue with an examina-
tion of the terms curriculum and then assessment. I encourage readers
throughout the chapter to think critically about their own personal
experiences with musicianship-focused curriculum design, imple-
mentation, and assessment Throughout this chapter I refer to other
chapters in this text that will expand on the constructs defined.

Musicianship
Although this book represents diverse perspectives regarding
curriculum and a~ent, the authors hold a shared understanding
thatthedeYaOpment of musicianship is a key goal in P-12 music educa-
tion. Authors agree that students in music cla~es need to be actively
engagied in musical activities including moving. chanting, singing,
playing instrwnents, reading. improvising, compooing, and listening
to music. This notion of musicianship is different from simply the
ability to sing or play an instrument well. Good musicians have sensi-
tivit)• to music. the ability to audiate both tonally and rhythmically,
 • HIP-f c,CUHD l.U AAII..U LU M 'W O A.'i\H
,.ws1c11J'l , \ '-1 1.,. r

ose and improvise with and Witho

.. erform, comP • ut
, and the ability to P h uthors in this text have grappled With
. All oft e a
musical notation. . and assessments in ways that best suppon
how to design curriculum
growth of musicianship.

curriculum
. h spend much of their time and energy trying
Curriculum sc o1ars . .
curriculum is. Historically, educators and music
t
to understand wha a . .. .
. d regarding a working defimtion of curriculum.
educators have d1sagree • .
In her chapter entitled "Curriculum and I~ Stu~y m the _Handbook
of Research on Music Teaching and ~arning, Lizabeth Wing (1992)
opened the discussion with the following:
There is no "method" of curriculum discovery, any more than
there is a method of exploring the jungle or falling in love. There
is just understanding something about jungles, love, and school
curricula, and the use of a motley collection of skills, disciplines
of thought and ideas to make progress in them. There is no
"conceptual system" to guide the decision~making (p. 2)

There is no one correct way to write a curriculum, and decisions about

design depend on the teaching and learning context. In examining
research studies on curricula that were available at the time in I 992
Wing determined that we needed to examine curricula at the local level:

The profession [music education] knows itself largely from

the standpoints of stated values and scientifically conducted
quantitative inquiry into some of its curriculum efforts. Not
much is known with any certainty about the past or what is
really happen·mg m · music· classrooms today. For example,
what and how are teachers teaching? What and how are
students
. learning?· Wh at are t he pnmary
. .
influences on decl-
s1ons related to who is taught what and how? What arc the
Jong-term. outcomes 0 f curncu
ar · 1ar experiences in music? These
e questions central to curriculum. (p. 3)
 . • .<rr1' J1 I OfflNINu M US.!CIANSHlP~Focvsro CVW CU WM AND As s
( ltN • • ' ESSMENT 5

Although there is certainly more research on local-level CUrricula now

than back in the early 90s there ii still relatively little known about what
is happening in individual schools and classrooms. Chapter 3 in this
t,ook provides suggestions for ways in which music teachers m be
more involved in the generation of research on curriculum. ay
ln the curriculwn chapter in The New Handbook ofResearch on Music
Teaching and Learning, authors Betty Hanley and Janet Montgomery
(2002) highlight the intersections of curriculum with educational
concerns regarding student interaction, critical thinking, policy, gender
and ethnicity, equality, and general assumptions about schools and
schooling. I begin to address these concerns by first discussing the
written document, what is taught, and what is learned I then present
a list of curriculum vocabulary concepts that need to be considered in
order to address the bigger educational issues presented by Hanley and
Montgomery. The most important element of curriculum is the notion
that curriculum is a dialogue between teachers. So, although we often
focus on the written docwnent, what is taught, and what is learned,
curriculum is really the process of working on those components.

The Written Document

Many music teachers think primarily about the written docu-
ment when defining curriculum. They often do not consider how the
written document relates to teaching and learning, how philosoph-
ical beliefs intersect with curriculum writing, how influences from
a number of stakeholders can restrict curriculum, and how issues
like scheduling, grouping of students in ensembles and classes, and
choosing repertoire are all part of the big picture of curriculum. It is
possible to get a doctorate in curriculum and the term itself encom-
passes all that exists in schools and schooling. When music teachers
are working on the written document aspect of curriculum we muSt
remember that a document that does not address what is taught and
what is learned as well as many of the other issues brought forth
this section will not be useful for teachers and students. In my expen-
ence, some curriculum documents have so much educational jargon
 p- foCU SED CU RRICULUM AN D AsSESSM
Mus1c VJ-1St-ll ~ - - - - - - - - - - EN"J"

6
. e what should be taught and what might
. . d·fficult to determ1n
that 1t 1s 1 .
. n to music.
be learned in rel auo chers a music curriculum should
ln order to be useful to tea ,
include the following:
. am philosophy (Chapter 2 provides
• overall music
. progr
ding developing p hilosop h y an d a dvocacy
more deta1ls regar
statements) al and beliefs (earIy ch"ldh
1 ood music
specific program go s . '
• music band, marching band, orchestra
elementary general ' '
choir, etc-)
. f d el mental skills or benchmarks (The chapters in
• lists o ev op
Part III and Part IV provide these sequences for early child-
hood, movement, rhythm, singing, creative music making,
musical sensitivity and expression, music literacy, music
listening, and music in adult learning contexts.)
required resources (teaching spaces, staffing needs, equip-
•
ment, storage, and budget)
sample teaching strategies/lesson plans (The chapters in Part
•
III and Part IV provide lesson plan suggestions for early child-
hood, movement, rhythm, singing, creative music making,
musical sensitivity and expression, music literacy, music
listening, and music in adult learning contexts.)
sample assessment strategies - checklists, rating scales, and
rubrics (The chapters in Part Ill and Part IV provide sample
assessment strategies for early childhood, movement, rhythm,
singing, creative music making, musical sensitivity and
expression, music literacy, music listening, and music in adult
learning contexts.)
• suggested curricular resources (series books, method books,
and ensemble literature)

Although
. many d is · t nets
· require
• specific formats for a written curric-
ulwn, if a music curriculum h as t h e sections recommended here it
can most likely be fiormatted to meet district requirements. '
 ,.,,.ER l · DEFI NI NG MUSICIANSHIP- FOCUSED CURRICULUM ANO,.,
C Hi\r • · n.>SESSMENT
7

Whal Is Taught?
o ne of the issues that must always be considered h ..
. . . wen wntmg
curnculum 1s how to assure that 1t Will be implemented by music .
teachers. Too often only a few teachers are involved in the curriculum
writing process and then the document lacks "buy in" from other
teachers. All teachers need to be involved in the curriculum writing
process. If teachers are part of the development process, there will be
healthy discussion regarding teaching, which will affect what is included
in the document. There will be a disconnect between the written docu-
ment and what is taught if teachers are not part of the curriculum devel-
opment process and if they are not given adequate time and in-service
education for trying new ideas suggested by the curriculum.

What Is Learned?
Most teachers have had the experience of thinking that they taught
something very well only to realize during the next lesson that the
students did not learn what the teacher thought was taught. In order
for a curriculum docwnent to be useful, ideas for assessing students'
learning must be considered concurrently with curriculum develop-
ment. I address assessment later in this chapter and all authors in the
book have been charged with making sure that assessment is closely
linked to curriculwn in their work.

Personal Experiences
Before I proceed to other issues related to defining curriculum,
readers are encouraged to consider the following regarding their own
curriculum experiences:
1. Consider the notion of "method" of curriculum discovery as
mentioned by Wing (1992). Think about the unpredictable
nature of music teaching and learning and the interaction
between planning and responding in music teaching.
· lace in your school?
2. What written document do you have m P
• · · that document?
What are the next steps for reV1s1on m
 --------- .. ,

the need for all music teacher

1address a
does your schoo u}uJ11 development?
3. f{ow . vutved in curriC onsiderations of what ls taught
to be in between c
I the balance own lesson planning?
4 What s .ed in your
. what is learn
versus
and Stakeholders
curric ular Influences
variety of stakeholders that affect
.10fluences an d a i p
ere are manY
Th ·
. her The chapters n art II of
music teac ·
urriculum writing for a f U derstanding by Design (Chapter 4),
cthis text address in
· fluences .O (Chapter
n 5); 21 •1 Century Skill s and the
. s for Learning . 1 . fl
Universal Design ddition to these nat1ona m uences,
Chapter 6). In a
common Core ( th uirements set forth by state, district,
t address e req
music teachers mus ak h lders Parent and community expecta-
d d artmentst e o ·
building, an ep . . t her curricular planning. Curriculum
al . t rsect with music eac
tions so 10 e M . t chers need to work to use that po1itical
. . tl olitical. us1c ea
is mheren YP_ rt their programs. Chapter 17 addresses
nature of curnculum to suppo . .
·aI curriculum with the expectations of various
the balance of sequenti
stakeholders with regard to performance and adjudicated events.

Curriculum Vocabulary
This section includes vocabulary of curriculum that helps us to
understand how to tie the written document to what is taught and
learned. Each of these words represents a complete field of study and
readers are encouraged to explore these bodies of literature, if inter-
ested. I have had teachers tell me that they feel like educational words
"fly by" in meetings and it is hard to know what is being said. This
section is my effort to demystify these terms. The words or concepts
listed here appear in some way in most curriculum documents.
1 present them here in alphabetical order. These terms will be used
throughout the book and addressed in context.
h Constructivism
. • Th·ts reiers
c
to the idea
. of meeting learners where
t ey are 10 their <levelopment and modifying instruction so that
l H.,\rrti R I· DHI NINCl MUSICIANSHIP- FOCUSED CURRICULU M AN O AsSESSMENT
9

students can construct their own understandings of content rather

than be •delivered" that content from a teacher (as would be a more
behaviorist model of teaching). Constructivist music curricula are
very "hands ont> and include many opportunities for creative music
making. Ch apter 10 (Creative Music Making) is particularly focused
on elements of constructivism as Is the Early Childhood chapter (1 4).
Culturally relevant teaching. Other terms along these concep-
tual lines include multiculturalism, culturally responsive teaching/
pedagogy, and culturally relevant pedagogy. Authors in this text use
these terms when considering how to respond to ethnic, racial, and
cultural diversity within the learners in the music classroom. Authors
also use these terms in considering what music is taught as well as
how and why. Chapter 16 is particularly focused on this concept
Curriculum alignment. General curriculum theorists consider
matching what is taught to what is tested. Since in most states music
is not a tested subject, music educators must consider what curric-
ulum is aligning to. Is it the concert literature? State frameworks?
National Standards?
Equal access to instruction. There is a great deal of research and
scholarship on equity. Music educators intersect with these concepts
in designing curricula that include a need for instruments, reeds,
lessons, etc. Fees associated with travel and honor ensembles are a
part of the concern for equal access. A curriculum document should
address these issues of equity in some way.
Hidden cuniculum. Hidden curriculum refers to those things
experienced by students that are not planned for or anticipated. Hidden
curriculum can be positive or negative. Students often leave our courses
having learned things that we did not intend. It is important to consider
what these things might be.
Interdisciplinary curriculum. Toe current focus on the Common
Core encourages using music to teach other content areas. Chapter 6
on the Common Core and 21 st Century Skills provides some insight in
this area. Some teachers are asked to provide sequences for interdisci-
plinary curriculwn by grade level.
I
MutlCW'SHli -FOCUSlD CVAAJCUWM AND ASsus.....,.r
10

kadina•• Rndinas refers to a student exlu'biting a parti(Ular

btMvior deemed a prerequisite for learning. h is important to consider
the musical readiness for suaas in music. For examp~ students who
come mto beginning band already able to sing on pitch and move
to a ateady beat will be much more "ready to play a musical instru-
ment than students without those skills. A curriculum should consider
appropriate readiness for skills at the next levels.
Tracking. Tracking refers to organizing students into homoge-
neous groups (alike) according to musical achievement levels. Research
has suggested that this practice of tracking is not helpful to strong an.d
weak students in other academic areas. Making decisions about how
many ensembles and how those ensembles are populated are essen-
tially curricular questions of tracking.

Penonal Experiences
1. How is your district addressing connection to Core Arts
Standards and/or the Common Core?
2. What are the state, district, building, department, parent, and
community influences on your curriculum?
3. Reflect on some of the challenges of constructivism in relation
to class siu, student past musical experience, performance
expectations, etc.
4. Consider the demographics of your student population in
relation to the notion of culturally relevant practice.
5. What is the communication in your district around the notion
of vertical alignment? Are you required to connect to state or
national standards. or some other criteria?
6. How does your district addr~ issues of equity in relation to
music instruction?
7. Reflect on the hidden cuniculum, both positive and negative
in your classroom.
8. How is music considered in an intcrdisci lin .
school? P ary way m your
IJ

RI · DEF INING MUSICIANSHIP- FOCUSED CURRICULUM AN D As5ESSME NT II

Cll "rTF - ·- - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ~

9. What are the issues regarding musical readiness in your K-Ii

music program?
1
o. How are issues of tracking addressed within your music
program?

Format of a Written Document

one of the greatest difficulties for many teachers writing a compre-

hensive music curriculum is sometimes deciding where to start. The
first decision that music teachers may need to make is whether to work
linearly from Kindergarten to first grade, to second, etc., or to do what
I call a subject specific approach where there is an elementary general
music curriculum, a middle school band, a middle school choir, etc.
There is not one better way to begin; it depends on the context and
who is involved in the writing process.
It is important to focus on what is learned as well as what is proposed
to be taught as I have seen schools try the linear model (K, 1, 2, 3... ) and
by the time the document gets to seventh grade the content is similar to
that expected of a college music major. It is also important to remember
that for music we cannot depend on past instruction to bring all students
to certain grade level expectation (i.e., we do not report whether or
not children are at the fifth grade level in music reading). Thus, what
one might call musical age (based on past experience) becomes more
important than chronological age or grade level. Finally, when writing
curriculum for courses that include multiple grade levels (i.e., 9-12 in
a high school choir) teachers may need to consider levels (beginning.
intermediate, advanced) even within the same curriculum to document
the need for multiple years of instruction in a course.
Ultimately decisions regarding approaches must be made within
a specific context. In this next section I outline four distinct starting
points for music curriculum writing including objectives, repertoire,
knowledge, and skills. A good written curriculum document needs
attention to all four of these areas, but depending on the type of music
course focus it might make sense to start with one or the other of these
12 - - - - - - - - - - - . ,tdltional models for formatting 1.
v-1dc:. au t.-,e
0
l,rt 11 of this text pr
four, P
..
written doculllcnt.

Qbjectl'ves·Based c urrlcohJJll ch to instructional ~ ...1~

sign is commo
based approa . n
Toe objectives· lcr, ). 'This ts a four-phase process that
1949
in all of education (Ty f objectives for the learner, objective
begins wit h the development
· , orred to as scope and sequence), activities,
are then scquenced (oftenbjre,etives (Lesson plans), and evaluation toob
ore dcslgncd to meet theho t ec learning. takes place (tests). Although this
are designed to assure t . ae in curriculum
. deign,
. many scholars have
n,ode\ has been pervas1vsuggesting that 1t . 1s
. too hnear
. and that real.
crltidzed this approac h
ccur, in such a dear-cut lme.
. Good teachers often
teaching tO
. hdoesh noes of this design. For example, meaningful
• assessment
mtx up t e p as ·
of student learning does not occur at the end of a linear process. but
must occur throughout the teaching and learning interaction. Good
teachers do not follow a restrictive sequence, but adjust their teaching
to the needs of a specific context. Real classrooms are multidimen•
sional, and to force curriculum into such a linear model is a compro-
mise. However, many school and district guideHnes for curriculum
will require an objectives-based model. Although this approach to
curriculum may be the most common, teachers are encouraged to
focus on the other approaches listed here as well as the objectives based
approach so that curricula reflect the "messiness" of good teaching in
music classes and not just the jargon of curriculum.

Repertoire-Based Curriculum
Somem · · have suggested that the music literature chosen fot
. us1c1ans
acurriculum
course is the
th curri culum (C onway, 2002; Reynolds, 2000). In general
eory there are s h 1 d
on the project-method . c ars who suggest a curriculwn bast
to designing in t . (Kilpatrick, 1918) which 1 believe is sunUar
s ruction around . . .
musical literature h. musical interaction with particular
1
and Soltis (200 ) · n t e1r 2004 overview
· of Kilpatrick's work. W~
4 suggest the £0 11owmg
• about the "Project-Method":
 I· DEF IN ING MUSICIANSHl r- Focu sm CURRICULUM AND AsS ESS
, 11 .,_ rl[" ME NT )J

He [Kilpatrick] characterized the project method as one

that combined three clements: wholehearted activity, laws of
learning, and ethical conduct with his basic idea that "educa-
tion is life." He sought a way to replace traditional teaching
methods, which forced learning, with a method in which
learning was achieved without compulsion. In daily life, he
argued, we learn from the activities we engage in, from our
experiences, not from memorizing or studying, but from doing
things with a purpose. He believed that this form of "learning-
by-living" and "acting with a purpose., should be brought into
the school, thus maldng school and its curriculum not a prep-
aration for life but an actual part of living and life itself. The
means for doing this was the "project method." (p. 47).

In considering this idea for music, I think about the repertoire and
the musical engagement with the repertoire as "doing things with a
purpose" as stated by Kilpatrick. This literature-based approach works
very well for many types of music courses. Reflect on the specific
musical repertoire to be studied and then address the other approaches
(objectives, slcills, and knowledge) through the lens of the reper-
toire. These approaches are meant to be starting places for thinking.
If a teacher were to focus only on the repertoire aspect, for example,
a middle school trombone student might experience a curriculum
based only on playing in the first position and this is certainly not what
any music teacher would consider a strong curriculum for the trom-
bone. As mentioned above a solid curriculum will have elements of all
(objectives, repertoire, skill, and knowledge).

Skills-Based Curriculum
A skills-based approach in music courses refers to what students
will do musically. These skills should not be confused with what they
might be expected to know about music (knowledge-based curric-
ulum). Skills include musical behaviors (singing, moving, playing on
instruments, creating sounds, improvising, composing, and liStening)
as well as aural recognition of musical concepts (tonality, meter, form,
 _________.:;-----
- - d pproaeh doe11 not Inc.Jude iitt s.
II ball a ''lldt,
•Ing e1.,.). 'fhc aid •· I but rather abllltlc11 of the ,tudet 1
phra.. ' d4 mu.t ,, , ti,
,...., or play) with in a ~pc:1.lfrc rnu•
or Pn:f~re11ce1 wwar eatt II , .., .. , •Kai
•~race (sing, move, , r ' pproach that teacher~arc t rl<.(JtJr"
,n... 1,u1um a "i'.t<J
cont.et!. 'fh l$ 14 the curr t1.~t active itrattgic" for lnttrattlng WJtl
ht on fO ,.., r1
to (ocu-S much t hou g ach in mu,ic cour'lt~-
r the core of the appro
music ,orm
d c urriculum
Knowledge· 8 a,e {'. ~,.heavily on the knowledge baire of curr,c.
·c coursu ,o......
Some muJi ••ft ledge of mutic theory and hi!ltory, ttc J
1 I terms, ~•ow ··
ulum (mus ca . 1art authors in this book will encoura11..
I • an active, aura r,-.
Since mus c 15 ts of skll~based and rcpertoi re.h-. •. ,
h include e1emen " '"«I
tcac ers to e courses that seem to be primarily "knowledge.
approaches .even . . ,or
d . ble for a music cl.us curncu . lum to reflect all
based." Again, it is esira . . .
ches (objectwes, repertoire, skills, and knowt.
elements of the,e approa
-base is the easiest content to assess and so many
edge). The know Iedge . ,
·. 11 • t the trap of including more knowledge than ski ll due
teachers f;aJJ In o
to ease in measuring growth.

Assessment

One should not write curriculum without considering the assess-

ment outcomes associated with the sequence. However, the linear
nature of curriculum development often encourages teachers to write
objectives, design a sequence for instruction, and then develop an eval-
uation or test of the content for the purpose of a grade. Wiggins ( 1998)
refers to backward design in curriculum writi ng in which the writer
begins with the notion of assessment. All of the chapters in Parts lII
and IV provide sample assessment strategies and tools such as check-
Lists rating scales, and rubrics. Readers are encouraged to consider
these assessment ideas up front as they draw sequences for their own
students from the ones provided in the text. I begin now with a discus-
sion of music aptitude and music achievement for clarity regarding
what it is that music teachers are working to assess.