1

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 2

Cell Structure
Organelles:
• specialized structures in cells that perform
• specific functions
• Example: nucleus, mitochondria, ribosomes
Cytoplasm:
• jelly-like substance that holds organelles
Cell membrane:
• also termed the plasma membrane
• a structure that encloses the cytoplasm
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
The Cell
Fig. 3.1
Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Cell Cytoplasm
membrane Nuclear
envelope
Nucleus
Nucleolus
Mitochondrion

Ribosome
Lysosome
Free
ribosome
Lysosome
Rough fusing with
endoplasmic incoming
reticulum phagocytic
vesicle

Smooth Phagocytic
endoplasmic vesicle
reticulum
Centrosome

Centrioles

Golgi Peroxisome
apparatus

Microtubule
Secretory
vesicles

Cilia Microvilli
 5

FUNCTIONS OF THE CELL

• Smallest units of life
• Cell metabolism and energy use
• Synthesis of molecules
• Communication
• Reproduction and inheritance

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 6

CELL MEMBRANE
• The cell membrane, or plasma membrane, is
the outermost component of a cell.
• It forms a boundary between material in
inside the cell and the outside.
• Materials inside the cell are intracellular and
those outside are extracellular.
• It acts as a selective barrier.

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

Cell Membrane
 8

CELL MEMBRANE STRUCTURE

The fluid-mosaic model is the model used to
describe the cell membrane structure.
The membrane contains phospholipids,
cholesterol, proteins, and carbohydrates.
Phospholipids form a bilayer.
Phospholipids contain 2 regions: polar and
nonpolar.

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 9

Phospholipid Structure
A phospholipid molecule has a polar head
region that is hydrophilic and a nonpolar tail
region that is hydrophobic.
The polar region is exposed to water around the
membrane.
The nonpolar region is facing the interior of the
membrane.

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 Figure 2.14b

10
Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Fig. 3.2

Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Membrane channel Receptor molecule

Carbohydrate chains

Nonpolar
regions External
of phospholipid membrane
molecules surface

Polar regions
of phospholipid Phospholipid
molecules bilayer

Cholesterol
Internal
membrane
Cytoskeleton surface
(a)

15 nm

TEM 1,000,000x
(b)

b: ©Don W. Fawcett/Science Source

 12
Movement through the Cell
Membrane
• The cell membrane has selective
permeability, which allows only certain
substances to pass in and out of the cell.
• Substances such as enzymes, glycogen, and
potassium are found in higher concentrations
inside the cell.
• Substances such as sodium, calcium, and
chloride are found in higher concentrations
outside the cell.
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 13

Cell Membrane Passage 1

• Some substances, like O2 and CO2, can pass

directly through the cell membrane’s
phospholipid bilayer.
• Some substances must pass through
transmembrane protein channels, such as Na+
through its channels.
• The route of transport through the
membrane depends on the size, shape, and
charge of the substance.
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 14

Cell Membrane Passage 2

• Some substances require carrier molecules to

transport them across the cell membrane,
such as glucose.
• Some substances require a vesicular
transport across the membrane.
• The vesicle must fuse with the cell membrane
for transport.

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 15
Active Transport and Passive
Transport
1

Passive membrane transport does not require

the cell to expend energy.
Active membrane transport does require the
cell to expend energy, usually in the form of ATP.

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 16

Active Transport and Passive Transport 2

Passive membrane transport mechanisms

include diffusion, osmosis, and facilitated
diffusion.
Active membrane transport mechanisms include
active transport, secondary active transport,
endocytosis, and exocytosis.

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

Table 3.2
 18

Diffusion 1

Diffusion generally involves movement of substances in

a solution down a concentration gradient.
A solution is generally composed of two major parts,
solutes and the solvent.
Solutes are substances dissolved in a predominant
liquid or gas, which is called the solvent.
Solutes, such as ions or molecules, tend to move from
an area of higher concentration of a solute to an area
of lower concentration of that same solute in solution.
This movement from high concentration to a low
concentration is diffusion.
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 19

Concentration Gradient
• A concentration gradient is the difference in
the concentration of a solute in a solvent
between two points divided by the distance
between the two points.
• The concentration gradient is said to be
steeper when the concentration difference is
large and/or the distance is small.

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Fig. 3.3

Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Distilled
water

1 When a salt crystal (green) is placed 2 Salt ions (green) move down their 3 Salt ions and water molecules are
into a beaker of water, a concentration concentration gradient into the water. distributed evenly throughout the
gradient exists between the salt from solution. Even though the salt ions
the salt crystal and the water that and water molecules continue to
surrounds it. move randomly, an equilibrium exists,
and no net movement occurs because
no concentration gradient exists.
 21

Leak and Gated Channels 1

Lipid soluble substances can diffuse directly

through the phospholipid bilayer.
Water-soluble substances, such as ions, can
diffuse across the cell membrane only by
passing through cell membrane channels.

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 22

Leak and Gated Channels 2

Two classes of cell membrane channels include

leak channels and gated channels.
Leak channels constantly allow ions to pass
through.
Gated channels limit the movement of ions
across the membrane by opening and closing.

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 23

Diffusion through the Cell Membrane

Figure 3.4
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 24

Leak and Gated Membrane Channels

Figure 3.5
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 25

Osmosis 1

• Osmosis is the diffusion of water (a solvent)

across a selectively permeable membrane
from a region of higher water concentration
to one of lower water concentration.
• Osmosis exerts a pressure, termed osmotic
pressure, which is the force required to
prevent movement of water across cell
membrane

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 26

Osmotic Pressure and the Cell

Osmotic pressure depends on the difference of
solution concentrations inside a cell relative to
outside the cell.

A cell may be placed in solutions that are either

hypotonic, isotonic, or hypertonic compared to
the cell cytoplasm.

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 27

Hypotonic
• A hypotonic solution has a lower
concentration of solutes and a higher
concentration of water relative to the
cytoplasm of the cell.
• The solution has less tone, or osmotic
pressure, than the cell.
• Water moves by osmosis into the cell, causing
it to swell.
• If the cell swells enough, it can rupture, a
process called lysis.
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 28

Isotonic
• A cell immersed in an isotonic solution has
the same solute concentrations inside and
outside the cell.

• The cell will neither shrink nor swell.

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 29

Hypertonic
• The cytoplasm of a cell in a hypertonic
solution has a lower solute concentration and
higher water concentration than the
surrounding solution.

• Water moves by osmosis from the cell into

the hypertonic solution, resulting in cell
shrinkage, or crenation.

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

Fig. 3.6 Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.

* Because the tube contains salt ions

(green and pink spheres) as well
as water molecules (blue spheres),
there is proportionately less
water in the tube than in the beaker,
which contains only water. The
water molecules diffuse with their
concentration gradient into the
tube (blue arrows). Because the
salt ions cannot leave the
tube, the total fluid volume inside
the tube increases, and fluid moves
up the glass tube (black arrow) as a
result of osmosis.

3% salt solution
Weight
Selectively of water
permeable Salt solution column
membrane rising
The solution
stops rising when
the weight of the
water column
prevents further
movement of
water into the
tube by osmosis.

Distilled
water
Osmosis
Water

1 The end of a tube 2 The tube is immersed in 3 Water moves by osmosis into
containing a 3% salt distilled water. Water the tube until the weight of
solution (green) is closed moves into the tube by the column of water in the
at one end with a osmosis (see inset above*). tube (hydrostatic pressure)
selectively permeable The concentration of salt in prevents further movement
membrane, which allows the tube decreases as of water into the tube. The
water molecules to pass water rises in the tube hydrostatic pressure that
through but retains the (lighter green color). prevents net movement of
salt ions within the tube. water into the tube is equal
to the osmotic pressure of
the solution in the tube.
Fig. 3.7 Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Red blood cell

H2O

Hypotonic solution Isotonic solution Hypertonic solution

(a) When a red blood cell is (b) When a red blood cell is placed (c) When a red blood cell is
placed in a hypotonic in an isotonic solution (one placed in a hypertonic
solution (one having a low having a concentration of solution (one having a high
solute concentration), solutes equal to that inside the solute concentration), water
water enters the cell by cell), water moves into and out moves by osmosis out of the
osmosis (black arrows), of the cell at the same rate cell and into the solution
causing the cell to swell or (black arrows). No net water (black arrows), resulting in
even burst (lyse; puff of red movement occurs, and the cell shrinkage (crenation).
in lower part of cell). shape remains normal.
a-c: ©David M. Phillips/ Science Source
 32

Carrier-Mediated Transport 1

• Some water-soluble, electrically charged or

large sized particles cannot enter or leave
through the cell membrane by diffusion.
• These substances include amino acids,
glucose, and some polar molecules produced
by the cell.
• Carrier molecules are proteins within the cell
membrane involved in carrier-mediated
transport.

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 33

Carrier-Mediated Transport 2

• Carrier-mediated transport mechanisms

include facilitated diffusion and Active
transport.

• Facilitated diffusion does not require ATP for

energy.

• Active transport does require ATP for

transport.
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 34

Facilitated Diffusion 1

• Facilitated diffusion is a carrier-mediated

transport process that moves substances
across the cell membrane from an area of
higher concentration to an area of lower
concentration of that substance.

• Because movement is with the concentration

gradient, metabolic energy in the form of ATP
is not required.
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
Fig. 3.8 Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Glucose
1
Carrier
molecule

Concentration
gradient

1 The carrier molecule binds with a molecule, such as glucose,

on the outside of the cell membrane.

2 The carrier molecule changes shape and releases the molecule

on the inside of the cell membrane.
 36

Active Transport
• Active transport is a carrier-mediated
process, requiring ATP, that moves substances
across the cell membrane from regions of
lower concentration to those of higher
concentration against a concentration
gradient.
• Active transport processes accumulate
necessary substances on one side of the cell
membrane at concentrations many times
greater than those on the other side.
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 37

Sodium-Potassium Pump 1

• A major example of active transport is the

action of the sodium-potassium pump
present in cell membranes.
• The sodium-potassium pump moves Na+ out
of cells and K+ into cells.
• The result is a higher concentration of Na+
outside cells and a higher concentration of K+
inside cells.

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Fig. 3.9 Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Na+– K+ pump

1 Three sodium ions (Na+) and adenosine

triphosphate (ATP) bind to the
sodium–potassium (Na+– K+) pump.

Na+
ATP
1

Na+– K+ pump
Na+
changes shape
(requires energy). K+
2 The ATP breaks down to adenosine diphosphate
(ADP) and a phosphate (P) and releases energy.
That energy is used to power the shape change in the
Na+– K+ pump.

2
ADP

3 The Na+– K+ pump changes shape, and the Na+ are 3

transported across the membrane and into the
extracellular fluid. Na+ K+ 4

4 Two potassium ions (K+) bind to the Na+– K+ pump.

5
5 The phosphate is released from the Na+– K+ pump P
binding site.

Na+– K+ pump
resumes original
shape.
6 The Na+– K+ pump changes shape, transporting K+
across the membrane and into the cytoplasm. The
Na+– K+ pump can again bind to Na+ and ATP.

K+
6
 39

Secondary Active Transport 1

• Secondary active transport uses the energy

provided by a concentration gradient
established by the active transport of one
substance, such as Na+ to transport other
substances.

• No additional energy is required above the

energy provided by the initial active transport
pump.
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 40

Secondary Active Transport 2

• In cotransport, the diffusing substance moves

in the same direction as the initial active
transported substance.

• In countertransport, the diffusing substance

moves in a direction opposite to that of the
initial active transported substance.

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

Fig. 3.10
Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Carrier
molecule

Na+–K+
pump Na+
2 Glucose
1

K+
Na+
Glucose

1 A Na+–K+ pump maintains a concentration of Na+ that is higher outside

the cell than inside.

2 Na+ move back into the cell by a carrier molecule that also moves glucose.
The concentration gradient for Na+ provides the energy required to move
glucose, by cotransport, against its concentration gradient.
 42

Endocytosis
Endocytosis is a process that that brings
materials into cell using vesicles.
Receptor-mediated endocytosis occurs when a
specific substance binds to the receptor
molecule and is transported into the cell.
Phagocytosis is often used for endocytosis when
solid particles are ingested.
Pinocytosis has much smaller vesicles formed,
and they contain liquid rather than solid
particles.
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Fig. 3.11
Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Molecules to Receptor
be transported molecules

1
1 Receptor molecules on
the cell surface bind to
molecules to be taken Cell membrane
into the cell.

2 The receptors and the 2

bound molecules are
taken into the cell as a
vesicle is formed.

Vesicle

3 The vesicle membrane

3
fuses and the vesicle
separates from the cell
membrane.
 44

Exocytosis 1

Exocytosis involves the use of membrane-bound

sacs called secretory vesicles that accumulate
materials for release from the cell.
The vesicles move to the cell membrane and
fuse, ultimately releasing the material by
exocytosis.
Examples of exocytosis are the secretion of
digestive enzymes.

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Fig. 3.12

Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.

1 A secretory vesicle
1 Cell membrane
formed at the Golgi
apparatus moves
Secretory
toward the cell
vesicle
membrane.
Vesicle contents
2 The secretory
vesicle membrane 2 Secretory
fuses with the cell vesicle fused to
membrane. cell membrane

Released contents
of secretory
3 The secretory
vesicle
vesicle’s contents 3
are released into
TEM 30,000x
the extracellular
(a) fluid. (b)
b: ©Don Fawcett/Science Source
 46

General Cell Structure

The interior of a cell is composed of the cytoplasm,
which a jelly-like fluid that surrounds the
organelles.
Organelles are specialized structures that perform
certain functions.
Organelles include the nucleus, ribosomes,
endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes,
peroxisomes, mitochondria, cytoskeleton,
centrioles, cilia, flagella, and microvilli.

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Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 48

Cell Nucleus 1

• The nucleus is a large organelle usually

located near the center of the cell.
• The nucleus is bounded by a nuclear
envelope, which consists of outer and inner
membranes with a narrow space between
them.
• The nuclear membrane contains nuclear
pores, through which materials can pass into
or out of the nucleus.
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Nucleus
Nuclear Pores
 51

Cell Nucleus 2

• The nuclei of human cells contain 23 pairs of

chromosomes which consist of DNA and
proteins.
• During most of a cell’s life, the chromosomes
are loosely coiled and collectively called
chromatin.
• When a cell prepares to divide, the
chromosomes become tightly coiled and are
visible when viewed with a microscope.

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 52

Cell Nucleus 3

• Within the nucleus are Nucleoli, which are

diffuse bodies with no surrounding membrane.
that are found within the nucleus
• There are usually one to several nucleoli within
the nucleus.
• The subunits of ribosomes, a type of cytoplasmic
organelle, are formed within a nucleolus.
• These ribosomal components exit the nucleus
through nuclear pores.

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Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 55

RIBOSOMES
• Ribosome components are produced in the
nucleolus.
• Ribosomes are the organelles where proteins
are produced.
• Ribosomes may be attached to other
organelles, such as the endoplasmic
reticulum.
• Ribosomes that are not attached to any other
organelle are called free ribosomes.
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Fig. 3.15

Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.

1 Ribosomal proteins, produced in the
cytoplasm, are transported through rRNA
nuclear pores into the nucleolus. Nucleolus

2 rRNA, most of which is produced in the

nucleolus, is assembled with ribosomal
proteins to form small and large ribosomal 2
subunits. Nucleus

3 The small and large ribosomal subunits

leave the nucleolus and the nucleus DNA
through nuclear pores. (chromatin)

4 The small and large subunits, now in the

Nuclear pore
cytoplasm, combine with each other and
with mRNA during protein synthesis.
3

Large
ribosomal
1 unit

Small
Ribosomal ribosomal
proteins from unit 4
cytoplasm

mRNA
Ribosome
Membrane-bound Ribosomes
Free Ribosomes
 59

ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM 1

• The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a series of

membranes forming sacs and tubules that
extends from the outer nuclear membrane
into the cytoplasm.
• The rough ER is involved in protein synthesis
and is rough due to attached ribosomes.
• The smooth ER has no attached ribosomes
and is a site for lipid synthesis, cellular
detoxification, and it stores calcium ions in
skeletal muscle cells.
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
Fig. 3.16

Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Outer membrane
Ribosomes of nuclear envelope

Nucleus

Nuclear pore
Nucleus

Rough
endoplasmic
reticulum

Rough
endoplasmic
reticulum
Smooth Ribosome
endoplasmic
reticulum

TEM 30,000x

(a) (b)
b: ©J. David Robertson, from Charles Flickinger, Medical Cell Biology, Philadelphia
Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
 64

GOLGI APPARATUS 1

• The Golgi apparatus, also called the Golgi

complex, consists of closely packed stacks of
curved, membrane-bound sacs.
• It collects, modifies, packages, and distributes
proteins and lipids manufactured by the ER.
• The Golgi apparatus forms vesicles, some of
which are secretory vesicles, lysosomes, and
other vesicles.

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Fig. 3.17

Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Secretory
vesicle

Golgi
apparatus
Secretory vesicles

(b)

(a)

b: ©Biophoto Associates/Science Source

Golgi Complex
 67

LYSOSOMES
• Lysosomes are membrane-bound vesicles
formed from the Golgi apparatus.
• They contain a variety of enzymes that
function as intracellular digestive systems.
• Vesicles formed by endocytosis may fuse with
lysosomes in order to breakdown materials in
the endocytotic vesicles.
• One example is white blood cells
phagocytizing bacteria.
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
Lysosomes
Fig. 3.18

Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Cell membrane
1 A vesicle forms around material 1
outside the cell.

Vesicle forming
2 The vesicle is pinched off from 2
the cell membrane and
becomes a separate vesicle
inside the cell. Golgi
apparatus Fusion of vesicle
with lysosome

3 A lysosome is pinched off the

Golgi apparatus. 3 4

4 The lysosome fuses with the vesicle.

Lysosome
5 The enzymes from the lysosome mix with 5
the material in the vesicle, and the
enzymes digest the material.
 70

PEROXISOMES
• Peroxisomes are small, membrane-bound
vesicles containing enzymes that break down
fatty acids, amino acids, and hydrogen
peroxide (H2O2).
• Hydrogen peroxide is a by-product of fatty
acid and amino acid breakdown and can be
toxic to a cell.
• The enzymes in peroxisomes break down
hydrogen.

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 71

MITOCHONDRIA 1

• Mitochondria (singular mitochondrion) are small

organelles responsible for producing
considerable amounts of ATP by aerobic (with
O2) metabolism.
• They have inner and outer membranes
separated by a space.
• The outer membranes have a smooth contour,
but the inner membranes have numerous folds,
called cristae, which project into the interior of
the mitochondria.
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 72

MITOCHONDRIA 2

• The material within the inner membrane is

the mitochondrial matrix and contains
enzymes and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA).

• Cells with a large energy requirement have

more mitochondria than cells that require
less energy.

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Fig. 3.19

Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Outer membrane
Intermembrane space
Inner membrane
Matrix

DNA

Longitudinal section
Crista

Cross section
Enzymes

(a) (b) TEM 34,000x

b: ©EM Research Services, Newcastle University RF

Mitochondrion
Cristae of Mitochondrion
 76

THE CYTOSKELETON 2

• The cytoskeleton gives internal framework to

the cell.

• It consists of protein structures that support

the cell, hold organelles in place, and enable
the cell to change shape.

• These protein structures are microtubules,

microfilaments, and intermediate filaments.
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 77

MICROTUBULES
• Microtubules are hollow structures formed
from protein subunits.

• The microtubules perform a variety of roles,

including helping to support the cytoplasm of
cells, assisting in cell division, and forming
essential components of certain organelles,
such as cilia and flagella.

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 78

MICROFILAMENTS
• Microfilaments are small fibrils formed from
protein subunits that structurally support the
cytoplasm, determining cell shape.

• Some microfilaments are involved with cell

movement.

• Microfilaments in muscle cells enable the cells

to shorten, or contract.
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 79

INTERMEDIATE FILAMENTS
• Intermediate filaments are fibrils formed from
protein subunits that are smaller in diameter
than microtubules but larger in diameter than
microfilaments.

• They provide mechanical support to the cell.

• A specific type of intermediate filament is

keratin, a protein associated with skin cells.
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
Fig. 3.20

Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Nucleus
Cell membrane

Mitochondrion

Protein subunits
Ribosomes
5 nm
25 nm
Endoplasmic
reticulum

Microtubules

Protein subunits

10 nm

SEM 60,000x
Intermediate filaments
Protein subunits (b)

8 nm
(a) Microfilaments
b: ©Don Fawcett/Science Source
 81

CENTRIOLES
• The centrosome is a specialized area of
cytoplasm close to the nucleus where
microtubule formation occurs.
• It contains two centrioles, which are normally
oriented perpendicular to each other.
• Each centriole is a small, cylindrical organelle
composed of microtubules.
• The centriole is involved in the process of
mitosis.
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
Fig. 3.21

Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Centriole
(in cross
section)

Centriole
(in longitudinal
section)
Microtubule
triplet

(a) (b) TEM 60,000x

b: ©Biology Media/Science Source

 83

CILIA
• Cilia project from the surface of certain cells.

• They are responsible for the movement of

materials over the top of cells, such as mucus.

• Cilia are cylindrical structures that extend

from the cell and are composed of
microtubules.
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
Cilia
 85

FLAGELLA
• Flagella have a structure similar to that of cilia
but are much longer, and they usually occur
only one per cell.

• Sperm cells each have one flagellum, which

propels the sperm cell.

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 86

MICROVILLI
• Microvilli are specialized extensions of the cell
membrane that are supported by microfilaments.
• They do not actively move as cilia and flagella do.
• Microvilli are numerous on cells that have them
and they increase the surface area of those cells.
• They are abundant on the surface of cells that
line the intestine, kidney, and other areas in
which absorption is an important function.

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

Microvilli
 88

WHOLE CELL ACTIVITY

• A cell’s characteristics are determine by the
type of proteins produced.

• The proteins produced are in turn determined

by the genetic information in the nucleus.

• Information in DNA provides the cell with a

code for its cellular processes.
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 89

DNA 1

• DNA contains the information that directs

protein synthesis; a process called gene
expression.
• A DNA molecule consists of nucleotides joined
together to form two nucleotide strands.
• The two strands are connected and resemble
a ladder that is twisted around its long axis.
• Each nucleotide consists of a 5-carbon sugar, a
phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base.
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 90

DNA 2

• Each nucleotide on one DNA strand has a

specific bonding pattern to another
nucleotide on the opposite strand.

• A gene is a sequence of nucleotides that

provides a chemical set of instructions for
making a specific protein.

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 91

GENE EXPRESSION
• Gene expression, which is protein synthesis,
involves transcription and translation.

• Transcription involves copying DNA into

messenger RNA.

• Translation involves messenger RNA being

used to produce a protein.
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 92

TRANSCRIPTION 1

• Transcription takes place in the nucleus of the

cell.
• DNA determines the structure of mRNA
through transcription.
• During transcription, the double strands of a
DNA segment separate, and DNA nucleotides
of the gene pair with RNA nucleotides that
form the mRNA.

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 93

TRANSCRIPTION 2

• DNA contains one of the following organic

bases: thymine, adenine, cytosine, or guanine.

• Messenger RNA (mRNA) contains uracil,

adenine, cytosine, or guanine.

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 94

TRANSCRIPTION 3

DNA nucleotides pair only with specific RNA

nucleotides.
DNA’s thymine pairs with RNA’s adenine.
DNA’s adenine pairs with RNA’s uracil.
DNA’s cytosine pairs with RNA’s guanine
DNA’s guanine pairs with RNA’s cytosine.

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

Fig. 3.23 Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Nucleotide Pairs
Cytosine Guanine
Thymine Adenine
Uracil Adenine

DNA

1
Segment of
DNA is opened.
2
Nucleotides Nucleotides
align.

DNA template
strand

3 mRNA is
formed.

1 The strands of the DNA molecule separate from each other. One DNA
strand serves as a template for mRNA synthesis.
2 Nucleotides that will form mRNA pair with DNA nucleotides according
to the base-pair combinations shown in the key at the top of the
figure. Thus, the sequence of nucleotides in the template DNA strand
(purple) determines the sequence of nucleotides in mRNA (gray).
An enzyme (not shown) joins the nucleotides of mRNA together.
3 As nucleotides are added, an mRNA molecule is formed.
 96

TRANSLATION 1

• Translation occurs in the cell cytoplasm after

mRNA has exited the nucleus through the
nuclear pores.

• The mRNA attaches to a ribosome.

• Codons (3 nucleotide bases) on the mRNA

are read by anticodons (3 nucleotide bases)
on transfer RNA (tRNA).
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 97

TRANSLATION 2

• Transfer RNA transports specific amino acids

from the cytoplasm to the ribosome-mRNA
complex and initiates formation of the
polypeptide chain.

• The process continues until the entire

polypeptide is completely formed.

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Fig. 3.24 Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.

1 To start protein synthesis, a ribosome binds to 1

mRNA. The ribosome also has two binding sites
for tRNA, one of which is occupied by a tRNA with Amino acid
its amino acid. Note that the codon of mRNA and tRNA
the anticodon of tRNA are aligned and joined. The
other tRNA binding site is open. Open tRNA
Anticodon binding site
U A C
A U G mRNA strand
Codon Ribosome

2 By occupying the open tRNA binding site, the

next tRNA is properly aligned with mRNA and
with the other tRNA.

3 An enzyme within the ribosome catalyzes a

synthesis reaction to form a peptide bond
between the amino acids. Note that the amino
3
acids are now associated with only one of the
U A C G A C
tRNAs. A U G C U G

U A C G A C U C A
A U G C U G
4 The ribosome shifts position by three nucleotides.
The tRNA without the amino acid is released from
the ribosome, and the tRNA with the amino acids
takes its position. A tRNA binding site is left open
by the shift. Additional amino acids can be added
by repeating steps 2 through 4. Eventually, a stop
codon in the mRNA ends the addition of amino
acids to the protein (polypeptide), which is
released from the ribosome.
G A C
C U G
4
Ribosome
moves to next
codon of mRNA
strand.
Fig. 3.22
Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.
1 DNA contains the
information
necessary to Nucleolus DNA strand
produce proteins.
1
2 Transcription of one
mRNA strand
DNA strand results
in mRNA, which is 2
a complementary
copy of the Nucleus Transcription
Cytoplasm
information in the
DNA strand needed
to make a protein.

3 The mRNA leaves

the nucleus and
goes to a ribosome. 3
Arginine
4 Amino acids, the
building blocks of

U
proteins, are carried tRNA
to the ribosome by

G
tRNAs.
5
5 In the process of Translation Arginine
translation, the Aspartic
information Amino acid pool 4 acid
contained in mRNA mRNA strand
is used to
determine the
number, kinds, and
arrangement of
amino acids in the
polypeptide chain.

Polypeptide
Ribosome
chain
 100

THE CELL CYCLE 1

• During growth and development, cell division

occurs to increase the number of cells or
replace damaged or dying ones.
• This cell division involves a cell cycle.
• The cell cycle includes two major phases: a
nondividing phase, called interphase, and a
cell dividing phase, termed mitosis.

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 101

THE CELL CYCLE 2

• A cell spends most of its life cycle in

interphase performing its normal functions.
• During interphase, the DNA (located in
chromosomes in the cell’s nucleus) is
replicated.
• The two strands of DNA separate from each
other, and each strand serves as a template
for the production of a new strand of DNA.

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 102

THE CELL CYCLE 3

• Nucleotides in the DNA of each template

strand pair with new nucleotides that are
subsequently joined by enzymes to form a
new strand of DNA.
• The sequence of nucleotides in the DNA
template determines the sequence of
nucleotides in the new strand of DNA.
• Replication of DNA gives two identical
chromatids joined at a centromere; both
form one chromosome.
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Fig. 3.25 Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Cytosine Guanine
Thymine Adenine

Original
DNA molecule

DNA strands
separate.
2

Nucleotide
Old strand
(template)
Old strand
(template)

New strands

New DNA molecule

New DNA molecule

1 The strands of the DNA molecule separate from each other.

2 Each old strand (dark purple) functions as a template on which a new
strand (light purple) is formed. The base-pairing relationship between
nucleotides determines the sequence of nucleotides in the newly
formed strands.
3 Two identical DNA molecules are produced.
 104

CELL GENETIC CONTENT

• Each human cell (except sperm and egg)
contains 23 pairs of chromosomes, a total of
46.
• The sperm and egg contain 23 chromosomes
total.
• One pair of chromosomes are the sex
chromosomes, which consist of two X
chromosomes if the person is a female or an
X and Y chromosome if the person is a male.
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 105

MITOSIS
• Mitosis involves formation of 2 daughter cells
from a single parent cell.

• Mitosis is divided into four phases: prophase,

metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.

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 106

PROPHASE
• During prophase the chromatin condenses to
form visible chromosomes.

• Microtubules, termed spindle fibers, form to

assist in breaking the centromere between
the chromatids and move the chromosomes
to opposite sides of the cell.

• The nuclear membrane dissolves.

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 107

METAPHASE

• During metaphase, the chromosomes align

near the center of the cell.

• The movement of the chromosomes is

regulated by the attached spindle fibers.

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 108

ANAPHASE
• At the beginning of anaphase, the chromatids
separate and each chromatid is called a
chromosome.
• Each of the two sets of 46 chromosomes is
moved by the spindle fibers toward the
centriole at one of the poles of the cell.
• At the end of anaphase, each set of
chromosomes has reached an opposite pole
of the cell, and the cytoplasm begins to
divide.
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 109

TELOPHASE
• During telophase, the chromosomes in each of
the daughter cells become organized to form
two separate nuclei, one in each newly formed
daughter cell.
• The chromosomes begin to unravel and
resemble the genetic material during interphase.
• Following telophase, cytoplasm division is
completed, and two separate daughter cells are
produced.

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Fig. 3.26
Nucleus
1 Interphase is the time between cell divisions. DNA is
found as thin threads of chromatin in the nucleus. DNA
replication occurs during interphase.

Chromatin

Centriole
2 In prophase, the chromatin condenses into
chromosomes. Each chromosome consists of two Centromere
chromatids joined at the centromere. The centrioles
move to the opposite ends of the cell, and the nucleolus
and the nuclear envelope disappear.

Chromatid
Chromosome
Chromatid

3 In metaphase, the chromosomes align in the center of

the cell in association with the spindle fibers. Spindle fiber

Chromosomes

4 In anaphase, the chromatids separate to form two sets

of identical chromosomes. The chromosomes, assisted
by the spindle fibers, move toward the centrioles at each
end of the cell. The cytoplasm begins to divide. Identical
chromosomes

5 In telophase, the chromosomes disperse, the nuclear

envelopes and the nucleoli form, and the cytoplasm
continues to divide to form two cells.

Nucleoli

Nuclear envelope

6 Mitosis is complete, and a new interphase begins. The

chromosomes have unraveled to become chromatin. Cell
division has produced two daughter cells, each with DNA
that is identical to the DNA of the parent cell.

(all): ©Ed Reschke/Photolibrary/Getty Images

 111

DIFFERENTIATION
• A sperm cell and an oocyte unite to form a
single cell, then a great number of mitotic
divisions occur to give the trillions of cells of
the body.
• The process by which cells develop with
specialized structures and functions is called
differentiation.
• During differentiation of a cell, some portions
of DNA are active, but others are inactive.
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 112

Diversity of Cell Types

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 113

Apoptosis
• Apoptosis, termed programmed cell death, is
a normal process by which cell numbers
within various tissues are adjusted and
controlled.
• In the developing fetus, apoptosis removes
extra tissue, such as cells between the
developing fingers and toes.
• In some adult tissues, apoptosis eliminates
excess cells to maintain a constant number of
cells within the tissue.
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 114

CELLULAR ASPECTS OF AGING

There are various causes for cellular aging.
• Existence of a cellular clock
• Presence of death genes
• DNA damage
• Formation of free radicals
• Mitochondrial damage

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 115

TUMORS
• Tumors are abnormal proliferations of cells.
• They are due to problems occurring in the cell
cycle.
• Some tumors are benign and some are
malignant (cancer).
• Malignant tumors can spread by a process,
termed metastasis.

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