NEET Revision Notes

Chemistry
Atom and its structure

Atom
An atom is the smallest particle of an element that can participate in a chemical
reaction.
The radius of an atom is measured in nanometers.
1
1nm  9
10 m
m = 109 nm
The hydrogen atom is the tiniest of all atoms. The radius of the hydrogen atom is
0.037 10-9.

Structure of an Atom
● By 1900, it had been discovered that the atom is not a simple, indivisible
particle, but rather a collection of sub-atomic particles.
● J.J. Thomson discovered the 'electron,' a subatomic particle.
● J.J. Thomson was the first to propose a model for atom structure.
● E. Goldstein discovered new radiations in a gas discharge in 1886 and
named them canal rays.
● Another positively charged subatomic particle was discovered using canal
ray experiments and named proton.

Constituent of Atom: Several phenomena, such as radioactivity, demonstrate

that atoms are divisible and consist of three fundamental particles: electron,
proton, and neutron.

Electron
J.J. Thomson discovered the electron in 1897. When a high-voltage electric
charge is passed through a low-pressure gas, a stream of rays is emitted from the
cathode surface. These are referred to as cathode rays.
● The magnitude of charge on electron is 1.6 1019C.
● The mass of electron is 9.109  1031kg.

Class XI Chemistry www.vedantu.com 1

Properties of Cathode Rays
● Cathode rays always travel away from the cathode in a straight line, casting
shadows on metallic objects in their path.
● Cathode rays cause mechanical motion in the path of a spin wheel. As a
result, they have kinetic energy and must be material particles.
● Because the cathode ray beam is deflected towards the positively charged
plate, the particles in the cathode rays have a negative charge.
● Cathode rays can be deflected by both an electric and a magnetic field.
● Cathode rays have the ability to penetrate through thin layers of matter.
● Cathode rays emit X-rays when they strike a metallic target with a high
melting point, such as tungsten.
● Cathode rays glow when they strike glass or certain other materials.
The nature of cathode rays is unaffected by
1. The cathode's nature and
2. The gas in the discharge tube.

Charge/Mass Ratio  e / m 

J.J. Thomson determined the charge-to-mass ratio of the electron by measuring

the deflection under the influence of both electric and magnetic fields at the same
time.
● For electrons, the value of the ratio e / m was found to 1.7588  1011 Ckg -1.
● R.A. Millikan measured the charge on the electron.

Proton 1 p1 or 1H1

E. Goldstein demonstrated the existence of positively charged particles in an atom

in 1886. When a high voltage is applied across the electrodes, a new type of ray
is produced that passes through the perforated cathode and causes a glow on the
opposite wall to the anode. Anode rays and canal rays are other names for these
rays.
● The magnitude of charge on proton is 1.6 1019C.
● The mass of proton is 1.673  1027 kg.

Properties of Anode Rays

● Anode rays travel in a straight line and cast shadows.

Class XI Chemistry www.vedantu.com 2

 ● Anode rays are bent in the opposite direction as cathode rays by the
magnetic and electric fields.
● The anode rays can also rotate the wheel in their path and cause heating.
● The charge to mass ratio (e/m) of positive rays is less than e/m of electrons
and depends on the nature of the gas used in the tube.
e
 9.579  107 Ckg -1
m
● When electrons are removed from neutral atoms or molecules of gas,
positively charged ions are formed. Positively charged ions move towards
the perforated cathode, forming a beam of positive rays.

Neutron 0 n1

The neutrons were discovered by James Chadwick. These particles are neutral
having charge equals zero. Their mass is approximate same as that of a hydrogen
atom, i.e. 1.675  1027 kg.

Atomic Models
Various atomic models were proposed to show the arrangement and distribution
of particles [electrons, protons and neutrons] within an atom.

Thomson’s Atomic Model

The first simple model of an atom was proposed by J.J. Thomson. According to
Thomson, an atom is a positively charged uniform sphere of radius 10-8cm in
which electrons are embedded in such a way that negative charge equals to
positive charge. This model is also called plum-pudding model and watermelon
model. This model was unable to explain the stability of an atom.

Rutherford’s Atomic Model (1912)

The -particle scattering experiment served as the foundation for this model.
Rutherford's -particle scattering experiments are concerned with the discovery of
the nucleus. These experiments resulted in the following conclusions:
● The atom has a very small rigid, positively charged body called the
nucleus, and the alpha-particles are repelled from the metal foil due to this
positively charged nucleus.

Class XI Chemistry www.vedantu.com 3

 ● The entire mass of the atom is concentrated in the nucleus, so it is very
heavy and rigid.
The following are the model's main postulates:
1. An atom is mostly made up of empty space. At its core, each atom has a
heavy positively charged body known as the nucleus.
2. Planetary electrons are negatively charged electrons that revolve around
the nucleus.
 
3. The nucleus r  10-15m is very small in comparison to the atom

 r  10 -10

m .
4. A strong interaction force holds all protons and neutrons together in the
nucleus.
5. Rutherford's atomic model failed because he was unable to explain the
atom's electronic structure. In other words, it does not provide information
about the distribution of electrons around the nucleus.

Note: During alpha -particle scattering experiment, -particles were bombarded

by a thin sheet of heavy metals such as gold and platinum because their nuclei are
large, resulting in good results.

Electromagnetic Radiations
These radiations have particle-like and wave-like properties. These radiations do
not require a medium to move and can exist in a vacuum. The following is a list
of the different types of electromagnetic radiations in increasing wavelength
order.
Cosmic rays <  -rays < X-rays < UV rays < visible light < infrared rays <
microwaves < FM radiowaves < long radiowaves.
● The small portion around frequency 1015Hz is known as visible light.
● The relation between frequency, wavelength and velocity of light is shown
as below
c  
1
Wave number:  

-1
Its unit is m .

Class XI Chemistry www.vedantu.com 4

Note: X-rays are effectively produced when electrons strike the dense metal
anode and have a very high penetrating power through matter, which is why these
rays are used to study the interiors of objects.
By increasing the potential difference between the anode and cathode, the
penetration power of X-rays can be increased.

Electromagnetic waves:
Atomic spectrum of hydrogen atom:
1  1 1 
   RH   2  2 
  n1 n2 
Here, RH is the Rydberg constant and its value is 108978cm1, n1andn2 have
integral values as follows,
n1 n2 Spectral series Spectral region.
1 2, 3, 4… Lyman UV
2 3, 4, 5… Balmer Visible
3 4, 5, 6… Pascher IR
4 5, 6, 7… Brackett IR
5 6, 7, 8… Pfund IR

Photoelectric Effect
● When a metal surface is illuminated with light of a sufficient frequency,
electrons are ejected.
● The threshold frequency is the minimum frequency required for electron
ejection  v0  .
● The frequency of radiation is directly related to the energy of the
ejected electrons.
● The number of electrons ejected each second is determined by the radiation
intensity. It can be expressed as
1
hv  hvo  mev 2
2

Plank’s quantum theory:

Class XI Chemistry www.vedantu.com 5

Max Planck proposed this theory. The following are the main postulates of this
theory:
● The energy emitted or absorbed by atoms and molecules will be in the form
of discrete packets of energy called quanta.
● The energy of quanta (E) is directly proportional to its frequency shown
below.
Ev
 hv
 
Here, h is the Planck’s constant 6.626  1034 Js .
● The energy of quanta is quantized or fixed, thus, E  nh .

Bohr’s Atomic Model (1913)

● This atomic model, proposed by Neils Bohr, is based on Planck's quantum
theory of radiations.
● Electrons in an atom only revolve around the nucleus in specific circular
paths known as orbits. Each orbit contains a fixed amount of energy.
● Only those orbits are permitted in which the electron's angular momentum
h
 mvr  is a whole number multiple of ('h' is a Planck's constant, i.e.
2
nh
mvr  where n  1,2,3..... )
2
● When an electron jumps from a higher energy level to a lower energy level,
energy is emitted, and energy is absorbed when an electron jumps from a
lower energy level to a higher energy level.
● When a transition between two different energy levels or states occurs, the
frequency of radiation absorbed or emitted is given by
E E2  E1
v 
h h
Here, E1andE2 are the energies of lower and higher energy states.
● The energy of an electron in a specific energy level  n  is given by

12 Z2
En  21.8  10  2 erg atom1
n
Z2
 21.8  1019  2
J atom 1
n

Class XI Chemistry www.vedantu.com 6

 Z2
 13.6  2 eVatom
n
hc  1 1 
n   RH  2  2   Z 2
n  n2 n1 
The radius of nth orbit is shown below.
0.53n 2 0
rn  A
Z
● The velocity of electron in nth orbit is show below.
218  108 Z
v cm/s
n

Failures of Bohr’s Atomic Theory

● He was unable to explain the splitting of spectral lines in the presence of a
magnetic field and an electric field (Zeeman effect) (Stark effect).
● He was unable to explain the line spectra of multi-electron atoms, which
contain more than one electron.
● He was unable to explain the atom's three-dimensional existence.
● Because of the dual nature of matter and the uncertainty principle, Bohr's
theory failed.

Energy of electron in a hydrogen atom in different energy levels:

Energy level Energy (Joule/atom)
n 1 21.79 1019
n2 5.42  1019
n3 2.411019
n4 1.36  1019
n5 0.87  1019
n 0

The transition from n = 1 to n = 2 will absorb the most energy. Although the
transition n =  to n = 1 is maximum, energy will be released during this
transition.

Class XI Chemistry www.vedantu.com 7

Atomic Number (Z)
● Moseley introduced the concept of atomic number.
● Atomic number denotes the number of protons in the nucleus. The number
of protons in a neutral atom equals the number of electrons.

Mass Number (A)

● The mass number is the sum of the number of protons and neutrons in the
nucleus.
● An atom with an atomic number and a mass number is denoted by Z X A .
● Protons and neutrons are referred to collectively as nucleons.

Different Atomic Species

There are different types of atomic species.
Isotopes: F. Soddy was the first to discover isotopes. Isotopes share the same
atomic number but have different mass numbers. Isotopes share the same
chemical properties but have different physical properties.
For example: 1 H1  protium  ,1 H 2  deuterium  ,1 H 3  tritium 

Isobars
Isobars are atoms that share the same mass number but have different atomic
numbers. Isobars are atoms of different elements with distinct physical and
chemical properties. For example:
3
1H and 2He3 ,18 Ar 40 ,19 K 40and 20Ca 40 ,52 Te130 ,56 Ba130 and 54Xe130

Isotones
Isotones are atoms of different elements that have the same number of neutrons
but different mass numbers. For example:
3 4 31 32 39 40
1 H ,2 He ,15 P ,16 S ,19 K and 20Ca

Isoelectronic
Isoelectronic species contain the same number of electrons. For example:
Ne, Na + ,Mg 2+ all contain 10 number of electrons.

Class XI Chemistry www.vedantu.com 8

Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
The formulation of a quantum mechanical model of an atom is based on two key
concepts.
1. Dual Nature of Material Objects [de-Broglie Concept]
In 1924 de-Broglie proposed that matter such as radiation acts as both particle
and wave.
According to de-Broglie, the wavelength associated with a particle of mass,
moving with velocity is given by
h h
 
mv p
here, h = Planck’s constant, p = momentum
This equation is known as de-Broglie equation.
2. Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle:
In 1927, Heisenberg pointed out that measuring the position and momentum (or
velocity) of a microscopic particle at the same time is impossible with absolute
precision.
h
Mathematically, x  p 
4
Here, x = uncertainty in position
p = uncertainty in momentum
Now, p  mv
Hence, p  mv
On putting the value of p in the above expression,
h
mv  x 
4
or
h
x  v 
4  m

Quantum Numbers
Four sets of quantum numbers completely describe the position and nature of an
electron.
1. Principal Quantum Number (n): (Bohr)

Class XI Chemistry www.vedantu.com 9

It determines the size of an electron's orbits and its energy. It can be represented
by n, where n = 1, 2, 3, …,  (only positive integers). The various shells are
denoted as K, L, M, … etc.
The maximum numbers of electrons in any orbit can be calculated as 2n2 , where
n is principal quantum number.
2. Azimuthal Quantum Number (l): (Sommerfeld)
Also referred to as the angular momentum quantum number or the secondary
quantum number. It determines the shape of an electron's orbit and its orbital
angular momentum. It can be represented by l. It has the values from zero to
 n  1. ‘l’ is equal to 0, 1, 2, 3 for s, p, d and f orbitals respectively.
3. Magnetic Quantum Number (m): (Lande)
Because it gives the orientation or distribution of the electron cloud, it determines
the direction of orientation of electrons in suborbit (subshell).
It has all values from − l through zero to + l, with total of  2l  1 values. It
describes the splitting of spectral lines caused by a magnetic field (Zeeman
effect).
4. Spin Quantum Number (s): (Uhlenbech and Goldschmidt)
It determines the orientation of the electron's spin. It has two values for electron
1
spinning about its own axis. The spin quantum number either equal to  (anti-
2
1
clockwise) and  (clockwise) totally depending on the spin of electron. For
2
example: Assume the 5th electron of an atom
n  2, l  1( p  orbit )
1 1
m  1, s   or 
2 2

Electronic Configuration of Elements

The electronic configuration of an element is the arrangement of electrons in
various shells, subshells, or orbitals of an atom. The following rule governs the
filling of electrons in different orbitals:

Aufbau’s Principle

Class XI Chemistry www.vedantu.com 10

"Sub-shells are filled with electrons in increasing order of their energies,"
according to this principle. This implies that lower energy sub-shells will be filled
first, followed by higher energy sub-shells.
● The lower the value of  n  l  for an orbital, the lower is the energy. This
is in according with  n  l  rule. For e.g; between 3d and 4s, the 4s
 4  0  4 will be filled before 3d  3  2  5.
● If two orbitals have the same  n  l  value, the orbital with the lower n
value will be filled first. For example: between 2p and 3s, 2 p  2  1  3
will be filled first than 3s  3  0  3.
The order of increasing energies can be written as
1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 4p, 3d, 5s, 5p, 4d, 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p, 7s, 5f, 6d, 7p
Note: Only chromium and copper do not obey this principle.
Their configurations are shown below.
24 Cr  1s 2 2s 2 2 p 6 3s 2 3 p 6 3d 5 4s1
29 Cu  1s 2 2s 2 2 p 6 3s 2 3 p 6 3d 10 4s1
● Because completely filled and completely half-filled subshells have less
energy, they are more stable than any other arrangement. Therefore,
3d 5 4s1 and 3d 10 4s1 arrangements are more stable than that of 3d 4 4s 2 and
3d 9 4s 2 respectively.

Hund’s Rule of Maximum Multiplicity

"Pairing of electrons in a sub-shell begins after all available atomic orbitals or the
sub-shell are singly filled (half-filled)," according to this rule.

Pauli’s Exclusion Principle

It says that, “No two electrons would have the same number of all the four
quantum numbers.”

Class XI Chemistry www.vedantu.com 11