Smartworld.

asia 1

Transformers and Generators 15EE33

Transformers and Generators

Syllabus

Subject Code : 15EE33 IA Marks : 20

No. of Lecture Hrs./ : 04 Exam : 03
Week Hours
Total No. of Lecture : 50 Exam : 80
Hrs. Marks

PART - A

MODULE - 1
Single phase Transformers: Review of Principle of operation, constructional details of shell
type and core type single-phase transformers, EMF equation, losses and commercial
efficiency, conditions for maximum efficiency (No question shall be set from the review
portion). Salient features of ideal transformer, operation of practical transformer under no -
load and on - load with phasor diagrams. Equivalent circuit, Open circuit and Short circuit
tests, calculation of equivalent circuit parameters and predetermination of efficiency
Commercial and all-day. Voltage regulation and its significance.
Three-phase Transformers: Introduction, Constructional features of three-phase
transformers. Choice between single unit three-phase transformer and a bank of three single-
phase transformers. Transformer connection for three phase operation – star/star, delta/delta,
star/delta, zigzag/star and V/V, choice of connection. Phase conversion – Scott connection for
three-phase to two-phase conversion. Labelling of three-phase transformer terminals, vector
groups. Equivalent circuit of three phase transformers. 10 Hours

Dept. Of EEE, SJBIT Page 1

Smartworld.asia 2

Transformers and Generators 15EE33

MODULE - 2
Parallel Operation of Transformers: Necessity of Parallel operation, conditions for parallel
operation – Single phase and three phase. Load sharing in case of similar and dissimilar
transformers.
Auto transformers and Tap changing transformers: Introduction to auto transformer -
copper economy, equivalent circuit, three phase auto connection and voltage regulation.
Voltage regulation by tap changing – off circuit and on load.
Tertiary winding Transformers: Necessity of tertiary winding, equivalent circuit and
voltage regulation, tertiary winding in star/star transformers, rating of tertiary winding.
10 Hours
MODULE – 3
Transformers (continuation): Cause and effects of harmonics, Current inrush
intransformers, noise in transformers. Objects of testing transformers, polarity test,
Sumpner’stest.
Direct current Generator – Review of construction, types, armature windings, relation
between no load and terminal voltage (No question shall be set from the review
portion).Armature reaction, Commutation and associated problems, no load and full load
characteristics. Reasons for reduced dependency on dc generators.
Synchronous generators- Review of construction and operation of salient & non-salient
pole synchronous generators (No question shall be set from the review portion). Armature
windings, winding factors, emf equation. Harmonics – causes, reduction and elimination.
Armature reaction, Synchronous reactance, Equivalent circuit. 10 Hours
MODULE – 4
Synchronous generators (continuation): Generator load characteristic. Voltage regulation,
excitation control for constant terminal voltage. Generator input and output. Parallel
operation of generators and load sharing. Synchronous generator on infinite busbars –
General load diagram, Electrical load diagram, mechanical load diagram, O – curves and V –
curves. Power angle characteristic and synchronizing power.Effects of saliency, two-reaction
theory, Direct and Quadrature reactance, power angle diagram, reluctance power, slip test.
10 Hours
Dept. Of EEE, SJBIT Page 2
Smartworld.asia 3

Transformers and Generators 15EE33

MODULE – 5
Synchronous generators (continuation): Open circuit and short circuit characteristics,
Assessment of reactance- short circuit ratio, synchronous reactance, and adjusted
synchronous reactance and Potier reactance. Voltage regulation by EMF, MMF, ZPF and
ASA methods.
Performance of synchronous generators: Capability curve for large turbo generators and
salient pole generators. Starting, synchronizing and control. Hunting and dampers.
10 Hours

Dept. Of EEE, SJBIT Page 3

Smartworld.asia 4

Transformers and Generators 15EE33

CONTENTS

Sl. No. Titles Page No.

1. MODULE-1: 5
SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMERS

2. MODULE – 2: 81
Parallel Operation of Transformers:

3. MODULE – 3 97
Transformers (continuation):

4. MODULE – 4 155
Synchronous generators (continuation):

5. MODULE – 5 166
Synchronous generators (continuation):

Dept. Of EEE, SJBIT Page 4

Smartworld.asia 5

Transformers and Generators 15EE33

MODULE - 1
Single phase Transformers: Review of Principle of operation, constructional details of shell
type and core type single-phase transformers, EMF equation, losses and commercial
efficiency, conditions for maximum efficiency (No question shall be set from the review
portion). Salient features of ideal transformer, operation of practical transformer under no -
load and on - load with phasor diagrams. Equivalent circuit, Open circuit and Short circuit
tests, calculation of equivalent circuit parameters and predetermination of efficiency
Commercial and all-day. Voltage regulation and its significance.
Three-phase Transformers: Introduction, Constructional features of three-phase
transformers. Choice between single unit three-phase transformer and a bank of three single-
phase transformers. Transformer connection for three phase operation – star/star, delta/delta,
star/delta, zigzag/star and V/V, choice of connection. Phase conversion – Scott connection for
three-phase to two-phase conversion. Labelling of three-phase transformer terminals, vector
groups. Equivalent circuit of three phase transformers. 10 Hours

Transformers:

The static electrical device which transfers the voltage from one level to another level
by the principle of self and mutual induction without change in frequency.

Michael Faraday propounded the principle of electro-magnetic induction in 1831.It

states that a voltage appears across the terminals of an electric coil when the flux linked with
the same changes. The magnitude of the induced voltage is proportional to the rate of change
of the flux linkages. This finding forms the basis for many magneto electric machines

The earliest use of this phenomenon was in the development of induction coils. These
coils were used to generate high voltage pulses to ignite the explosive charges in the mines.
As the d.c. power system was in use at that time, very little of transformer principle was made

Dept. Of EEE, SJBIT Page 5

Smartworld.asia 6

Transformers and Generators 15EE33

use of. In the d.c. supply system the generating station and the load center have to be
necessarily close to each other due to the requirement of economic transmission of power.

Transformers can link two or more electric circuits. In its simple form two electric
circuits can be linked by a magnetic circuit, one of the electric coils is used for the creation of
a time varying magnetic field. The second coil which is made to link this field has a induced
voltage in the same. The magnitude of the induced emf is decided by the number of turns
used in each coil. Thus the voltage level can be increased or decreased by changing the
number of turns. This excitation winding is called a primary and the output winding is called
a secondary. As a magnetic medium forms the link between the primary and the secondary
windings there is no conductive connection between the two electric circuits. The transformer
thus provides an electric isolation between the two circuits. The frequency on the two sides
will be the same. As there is no change in the nature of the power, the re sulting machine is
called a ‘transformer’ and not a ‘converter’. The electric power at one Voltage/current level is
only ‘transformed’ into electric power, at the same frequency, to another voltage/current
level.

Even though most of the large-power transformers can be found in the power systems,
the use of the transformers is not limited to the power systems. The use of the principle of
transformers is universal. Transformers can be found operating in the frequency range
starting from a few hertz going up to several mega hertz. Power ratings vary from a few
miliwatts to several hundreds of megawatts. The use of the transformers is so wide spread
that it is virtually impossible to think of a large power system without transformers. Demand
on electric power generation doubles every decade in a developing country. For every MVA
of generation the installed capacity of transformers grows by about 7MVA.

Classification of Transformer:
The transformers are classified according to:

1. The Type of Construction:

(a) Core Type Transformer

Dept. Of EEE, SJBIT Page 6

Smartworld.asia 7

Transformers and Generators 15EE33

(b) Shell Type Transformer

2. The Number of Phases:
(a) Single Phase Transformer
(b) Three Phase Transformer
3. The Placements:
(a) Indoor Transformer
(b) Outdoor Transformer
4. The Load:
(a) Power Transformer
(b) Distribution Transformer

Ideal Transformer
To understand the working of a transformer it is always instructive, to begin with the
concept of an ideal transformer with the following properties.

1. Primary and secondary windings have no resistance.

2. All the flux produced by the primary links the secondary winding i.e., there is no
leakage flux.

3. Permeability μr of the core is infinitely large. In other words, to establish flux in the
core vanishingly small (or zero) current is required.

4. Core loss comprising of eddy current and hysteresis losses are neglected.

Construction of a Transformer
There are two basic parts of a transformer:

1. Magnetic core
2. Winding or coils

 MAGNETIC CORE: The core of a transformer is either square orrectangular in size. It

is further divided in two parts. The vertical portion on which the coils are bound is called
limb, while the top and bottom horizontal portion is called yoke of the core as shown in

Dept. Of EEE, SJBIT Page 7

Smartworld.asia 8

Transformers and Generators 15EE33

Yoke

Limb

Fig. 2

Core is made up of laminations. Because of laminated type of construction, eddy

current losses get minimized. Generally high grade silicon steel laminations (0.3 to 0.5 mm
thick) are used. These laminations are insulated from each other by using insulation like
varnish. All laminations are varnished. Laminations are overlapped so that to avoid the air
gap at the joints. For this generally ‘L’ shaped or ‘I’ shaped laminations are used which are
shown in the fig. 3 below.

Fig. 3

Dept. Of EEE, SJBIT Page 8

Smartworld.asia 9

Transformers and Generators 15EE33

WINDING: There are two windings, which are wound on the two limbs of the core, which
are insulated from each other and from the limbs as shown in fig. 4. The windings are
made up of copper, so that, they possess a very small resistance. The winding which is
connected to the load is called secondary winding and the winding which is connected
to the supply is called primary winding. The primary winding has N1 number of turns
and the secondary windings have N2 number of turns.

V1 V2

N1 N2

Fig. 4. Single Phase Transformer

TYPES OF TRANSFORMERS:
The classification of transformer is based on the relative arrangement or disposition of the
core and the windings. There are two main types of transformers.

1. Core type
2. Shell type

CORE TYPE:

Fig 5(a)& (b) shows the simplified representation of a core type transformer, where
the primary and secondary winding have been shown wound on the opposite sides. However,
in actual practise, half the primary and half the secondary windings are situated side by side

Dept. Of EEE, SJBIT Page 9

Smartworld.asia 10

Transformers and Generators 15EE33

on each limb,so as to reduce leakage flux as shown in fig 6. This type of core construction is
adopted for small rating transformers.

Fig. 5(a) & (b) Single Phase Core Type Transformer

SHELL TYPE:

In this type, the windings occupy a smaller portion of the core as shown in fig 5. The
entire flux passes through the central part of the core, but outside of this a central core, it
divides half, going in each direction. The coils are form wound, multilayer disc-type, each of
the multilayer discs is insulated from the other by using paper. This type of construction is
generally preferred for high voltage transformers.

Dept. Of EEE, SJBIT Page 10

Smartworld.asia 11

Transformers and Generators 15EE33

Fig. 7 (a) & (b) Single Phase Shell Type Transforme

Principle of Operation of a Single Phase Transformer

A
single
phase

Dept. Of EEE, SJBIT Page 11

Smartworld.asia 12

Transformers and Generators 15EE33

transformer works on the principle of mutual induction between two magnetically coupled
coils. When the primary winding is connected to an alternating voltage of r.m.s value, V1
volts, an alternating current flows through the primary winding and setup an alternating flux
ϕ in the material of the core. This alternating flux ϕ, links not only the primary windings but
also the secondary windings. Therefore, an e.m.f e1 is induced in the primary winding and an
e.m.f e2 is induced in the secondary winding, e1 and e2 are given --------- (a)

----------(b)

If the induced e.m.f is e1 and e2 are represented by their rms values E1 and E2 respectively,
then

--------- (1)

---------- (2)

Therefore, ---------------- (3)

K is known as the transformation ratio of the transformer. When a load is connected to the
secondary winding, a current I2 flows through the load, V2 is the terminal voltage across the
load. As the power transfered from the primary winding to the secondary winding is same,

Power input to the primary winding = Power output from the secondary winding.

E1I1 = E2I2

(Assuming that the power factor of the primary is equal to the secondary).

Or, ------- (4)

From eqn (3) and (4), we have

--------------- (5)

The directions of emf’s E1 and E2 induced in the primary and secondary windings are such
that, they always oppose the primary applied voltage V1.

EMF Equation of a transformer:

Consider a transformer having,

Dept. Of EEE, SJBIT Page 12

Smartworld.asia 13

Transformers and Generators 15EE33

N1 =Primary turns
N2 = Secondary turns
Φm = Maximum flux in the core
Φm = Bm × A webers
f= frequency of ac input in hertz (Hz)

The flux in the core will vary sinusoidally as shown in figure, so that it increases from zero to
maximum “ϕm” in one quarter of the cycle i.e, second

Therefore, average rate of change of flux =

= 4fφm

We know that, the rate of change of flux per turn means that the induced emf in volts.

Therefore, average emf induced per turn = 4fφm volts.

Since the flux is varying sinusoidally, the rms value of induced emf is obtained by
multiplying the average value by the form factor .

Therefore, rms value of emf induced per turns = 1.11×4f×φm

= 4.44fφm volts

The rms value of induced emfin the entire primary winding = (induced emf per turn) ×
number of primary turns

i.e, E1 =4.44fφm×N1 = 4.44fBm×A×N1

Similarly;

Dept. Of EEE, SJBIT Page 13

Smartworld.asia 14

Transformers and Generators 15EE33

E2= 4.44 f φm × N2 = 4.44 f Bm × A × N2

Transformation Ratio:
(1) Voltage Transformation Ratio
(2) Current Transformation Ratio

Voltage Transformation Ratio:

Voltage transformation ratio can be defined as the ratio of the secondary voltage to
the primary voltage denoted by K

Mathematically given as

Current Transformation Ratio:

Consider an ideal transformer and we have the input voltampere is equal to output
voltampere.

Mathematically, Input Voltampere = Output Voltampere

Dept. Of EEE, SJBIT Page 14

Smartworld.asia 15

Transformers and Generators 15EE33

Coupled circuits

 When two coils separated by each other, a change in current in one coil will effect the
voltage in another coil by mutual induction
 Self Inductance: A coil capable of inducing an emf in itself by changing current
flowing through it, this property of coil is known as self inductance.
 The self induced emf is directly proportional to the rate of change of current.

eα di/dt; e =L di/dt

 Where L=coefficient of self inductance.

Mutual Inductance

 Current in one coil changes, there occurs a change in flux linking with other as result
an emf is induced in the adjacent coils.
 The mutually induced emf e2 in the second coil id dependent on the rate of change of
current in the first coil.
 e2 α di1/dt; e2=Mdi1/dt

COEFFCIENT OF COUPLING

 K= M/(L1L2)
 The two coils is said to be tightly or perfectly coupled only when K=1 and therefore
M=L1L2 it’s said to be maximum mutual inductance
 When the distance between the two coils is greater than the coils are said to be loosely
packed
 Coefficient of coupling will help in deciding whether the coils are closely packed or
loosely packed.

Dept. Of EEE, SJBIT Page 15

Smartworld.asia 16

Transformers and Generators 15EE33

Derivation for Co-efficient of coupling

Dot Convention

 A current entering the dotted terminal of one coil produces an open-circuit voltage
which is positively sensed at the dotted terminal of the second coil
 A current entering the undotted terminal of one coil produces an open-circuit voltage
which is positively sensed at the undotted terminal of the second coil.
 The advantage of dot convention is to find out the direction of the winding and
direction of flux linking the coil
 The direction of the flux due to rate of change of flux can be analyzed by right hand
thumb rule.

Different connections of coupled circuits

 Series Aiding:
 Series Opposing:
 Parallel Aiding:
 Parallel Opposing
 Refer Circuit diagram and derivation for the class notes.

Dept. Of EEE, SJBIT Page 16

Smartworld.asia 17

Transformers and Generators 15EE33

Equilibrium Equations

 The coil where electrical energy is fed is considered as Primary

 The coil where load is connected to draw the current from mutual induction is
Secondary
 There are Two main part in Transformer 1) Core 2) Windings
 Core: The top and bottom part of the core is Yoke, The side limbs are considered as
Legs. The core is made up of Silicon steel to avoid the Eddy current and Hystersis
Loss.
 Windings: Basically it is made up of Copper and depends on the current value based
on this it is of two types Low Voltage and High Voltage Winding.

Dept. Of EEE, SJBIT Page 17

Smartworld.asia 18

Transformers and Generators 15EE33

 There are Two main part in Transformer

1) Core 2) Windings

 Core: The top and bottom part of the core is Yoke, the Vertical portions are
considered as of Limbs Legs.
 The core is made up of Silicon steel laminations of thickness 0.33m (CRGO) to avoid
the Eddy current and Hysteresis Loss.
 Each laminations are varnished one another and bolted to form a L or T or I shaped
structures.

Dept. Of EEE, SJBIT Page 18

Smartworld.asia 19

Transformers and Generators 15EE33

 Windings: Basically it is made up of Copper and depends on the current value based
on this it is of two types Low Voltage and High Voltage Winding.
 The LV and HV coils should be placed close to each other as to increase the mutual
induction.
 The two coils are separated by insulated materials such as paper, cloth or mica
 Coils maybe placed Helically(Cylindrical) or Sandwiched in the window of
transformer

Dept. Of EEE, SJBIT Page 19

Smartworld.asia 20

Transformers and Generators 15EE33

 Rectangular core, two limbs.

 Winding encircles core and Low voltage coil is placed near the limb and insulation by
paper and High voltage on it.
 Windings are distributive type and natural cooling is effective and top laminations can
be removed for maintenance work.

Dept. Of EEE, SJBIT Page 20

Smartworld.asia 21

Transformers and Generators 15EE33

 Core Encircles most of windings

 Natural cooling is not possible
 Maintenance work is difficult
 For HV Transformers
 1- ф requires three limbs
 Double magnetic circuit

 Core consists of three limbs, top and bottom yokes.

 Each limb consists of primary and secondary winding(LV and HV winding)
 Three phase transformer can also designed by arranging three single phase
transformer in series.

Dept. Of EEE, SJBIT Page 21

Smartworld.asia 22

Transformers and Generators 15EE33

 Shell type(five limb)is used for large transformer because they can be made with a
reduced height.
 The cost of three phase shell type transformer is more.
 For cooling of transformer fans are fixed at the radiators.

Dept. Of EEE, SJBIT Page 22

Smartworld.asia 23

Transformers and Generators 15EE33

Core type

 Winding encircles core

 Cylindrical coils
 Natural cooling is effective
 Maintenance work is easy
 Single magnetic circuit
 Low Voltage and distribution type
 Two limbs for 1-phase and three for 3-phase

Shell type

 Core encircles windings

 Disc type

 Natural cooling is not effective

 Maintenance work is difficult
 Double magnetic circuit
 High Voltage transformer
 Three limbs for 1-phase and 6-limbs for three phase

Types of Transformer

 Power Transformer
 Distribution Transformer
 Constant Voltage Transformer
 Constant Current Transformer
 Variable Frequency Transformer
 Auto Transformer

Dept. Of EEE, SJBIT Page 23

Smartworld.asia 24

Transformers and Generators 15EE33

Power transformer of rating 500 mVA 11kv/230v

 Transformer having rating more than 200kva is power transformers

 Usually this transformers are placed near the generating and substations to either step
up or step down voltage levels
 The transformers which are used to transform the transmission voltage to the voltage
level of primary feeders are called substation transformers

Fig: Power Transformer

Dept. Of EEE, SJBIT Page 24

Smartworld.asia 25

Transformers and Generators 15EE33

Pad mounted & pole mounted distribution transformer

 It changes feeder voltage to the utilization voltage for customer requirements.

 This transformers operate throughout the day therefore iron loss will be throughout
the day and copper loss occur only when it is loaded.
 These are low load high efficiency machines.
 It is designed in such way to maintain the small leakage reactance to get good voltage
regulation as it want to operate throughout the day.
 Depending on the installation it is of pole mounted or pad mounted as shown in the
diagram.

Dept. Of EEE, SJBIT Page 25

Smartworld.asia 26

Transformers and Generators 15EE33

Constant voltage transformer and its output

 It uses the leakage inductance of its secondary windings in combination with external
capacitors to create one or more resonant circuits.
 It consists of linear inductor which is unsaturated and this will be primary.
 The non linear inductor( saturated) forms the secondary of the transformer.
 The capacitor connected in parallel saturates by drawing the secondary current due to
saturation a constant output voltage is produced.
 Since the output is a quasi sine wave because of the constant in output voltage and
this is improved by the compensating winding.

Dept. Of EEE, SJBIT Page 26

Smartworld.asia 27

Transformers and Generators 15EE33

Constant Current transformer

 It consists of Primary and secondary winding but one is movable and mounted on the
same core
 A counter weight is used to balance the moving winding.
 The principle is production of two oppositely directed magnetic field
 If load impedance decreases load current increases due to this large opposition
between two magnetic fields produced by primary and secondary
 Due to repulsion movable winding moves up and further gets separated from
stationary and large leakage flux reduces and in turn mutual flux reduces thus
secondary voltage reduces

Dept. Of EEE, SJBIT Page 27

Smartworld.asia 28

Transformers and Generators 15EE33

Fig: Constant Current Transformer

Dept. Of EEE, SJBIT Page 28

Smartworld.asia 29

Transformers and Generators 15EE33

Variable frequency transformer

 The variable frequency transformer (VFT) is essentially a continuously variable phase

shifting transformer that can operate at an adjustable phase angle
 A variable frequency transformer is used to transmit electricity between
two asynchronous alternating current domains.
 A variable frequency transformer is a doubly-fed electric machine resembling a
vertical shaft hydroelectric generator with a three-phase wound rotor, connected by
slip rings to one external power circuit. A direct-current torque motor is mounted on
the same shaft
 The phase shift between input and output voltage should also be small over the range
of frequencies.
 The applications of VFT are Electronic circuits, Communication, Control and
measurement which uses wide band of frequencies.

Dept. Of EEE, SJBIT Page 29

Smartworld.asia 30

Transformers And Induction Machines 10EE46

Losses in Transformer:

Losses of transformer are divided mainly into two types:

1. Iron Loss
2. Copper Losses

Iron Loss:

This is the power loss that occurs in the iron part. This loss is due to the alternating
frequency of the emf. Iron loss in further classified into two other losses.

a) Eddy current loss b) Hysterisis loss

a) EDDY CURRENT LOSS: This power loss is due to the alternating flux linking the
core, which will induced an emf in the core called the eddy emf, due to which a current
called the eddy current is being circulated in the core. As there is some resistance in the
core with this eddy current circulation converts into heat called the eddy current power loss.
Eddy current loss is proportional to the square of the supply frequency.

b) HYSTERISIS LOSS: This is the loss in the iron core, due to the magnetic reversal of
the flux in the core, which results in the form of heat in the core. This loss is directly
proportional to the supply frequency.

Eddy current loss can be minimized by using the core made of thin sheets of silicon
steel material, and each lamination is coated with varnish insulation to suppress the path of
the eddy currents.

Hysterisis loss can be minimized by using the core material having high
permeability.

Copper Loss:
This is the power loss that occurs in the primary and secondary coils when the
transformer is on load. This power is wasted in the form of heat due to the resistance of the
coils. This loss is proportional to the sequence of the load hence it is called the Variable
loss where as the Iron loss is called as the Constant loss as the supply voltageand frequency
are constants

Dept. Of EEE, SJBIT Page 30

Smartworld.asia 31

Transformers And Induction Machines 10EE46

Efficiency:
It is the ratio of the output power to the input power of a transformer
Input = Output + Total losses
= Output + Iron loss + Copper loss

Efficiency =
outputpower

outputpower  Ironloss  copperloss
V2 I 2 cos

V2 I 2 cos  Weron  Wcopper

Where, V2 is the secondary (output) voltage, I2 is the secondary (output) current and cosФ
is the power factor of the load.

The transformers are normally specified with their ratings as KVA,

Therefore,

Since the copper loss varies as the square of the load the efficiency of the transformer at
any desired load n is given by

where Wcopper is the copper loss at full load

Wcopper = I2R watts

CONDITION FOR MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY:

In general for the efficiency to be maximum for any device the losses must be
minimum. Between the iron and copper losses the iron loss is the fixed loss and the
copper loss is the variable loss. When these two losses are equal and also minimum the
efficiency will be maximum.

Dept. Of EEE, SJBIT Page 31

Smartworld.asia 32

Transformers And Induction Machines 10EE46

Therefore the condition for maximum efficiency in a transformer is

Copper loss== Iron loss (whichever is minimum)

VOLTAGE REGULATION:

The voltage regulation of a transformer is defined as the change in the secondary

terminal voltage between no load and full load at a specified power factor expressed as
a percentage of the full load terminal voltage.

Voltage regulation is a measure of the change in the terminal voltage of a

transformer between No load and Full load. A good transformer has least value of the
regulation of the order of ±5%

If a load is connected to the secondary, an electric current will flow in the secondary
winding and electrical energy will be transferred from the primary circuit through the
transformer to the load. In an ideal transformer, the induced voltage in the secondary
winding (Vs) is in proportion to the primary voltage (Vp), and is given by the ratio of the
number of turns in the secondary (Ns) to the number of turns in the primary (Np) as follows:

Earlier it is seen that a voltage is induced in a coil when the flux linkage associated with the
same changed. If one can generate a time varying magnetic field any coil placed in the field
of influence linking the same experiences an induced emf. A time varying field can be
created by passing an alternating current through an electric coil. This is called mutual
induction. The medium can even be air. Such an arrangement is called air cored
transformer.

Dept. Of EEE, SJBIT Page 32

Smartworld.asia 33

Transformers And Induction Machines 10EE46

Indeed such arrangements are used in very high frequency transformers. Even though the
principle of transformer action is not changed, the medium has considerable influence on
the working of such devices. These effects can be summarized as the followings.

1. The magnetizing current required to establish the field is very large, as the reluctance of
the medium is very high.

2. There is linear relationship between the mmf created and the flux produced.

3. The medium is non-lossy and hence no power is wasted in the medium.

4. Substantial amount of leakage flux exists.

5. It is very hard to direct the flux lines as we desire, as the whole medium is homogeneous.

If the secondary is not loaded the energy stored in the magnetic field finds its way back to
the source as the flux collapses. If the secondary winding is connected to a load then part of
the power from the source is delivered to the load through the magnetic field as a link.

The medium does not absorb and lose any energy. Power is required to create the field and
not to maintain the same. As the winding losses can be made very small by proper choice of
material, the ideal efficiency of a transformer approaches 100%. The large magnetizing
current requirement is a major deterrent.

Dept. Of EEE, SJBIT Page 33

Smartworld.asia 34

Transformers And Induction Machines 10EE46

1. Due to the large value for the permeance ( μr of the order of 1000 as compared to air) the
magnetizing current requirement decreases dramatically. This can also be visualized as a
dramatic increase in the flux produced for a given value of magnetizing current.

2. The magnetic medium is linear for low values of induction and exhibits saturation type of
non-linearity at higher flux densities.

3. The iron also has hysteresis type of non-linearity due to which certain amount of power is
lost in the iron (in the form of hysteresis loss), as the B H characteristic is traversed.

4. Most of the flux lines are confined to iron path and hence the mutual flux is increased
very much and leakage flux is greatly reduced.

5. The flux can be easily ‘directed’ as it takes the path through steel which gives great
freedom for the designer in physical arrangement of the excitation and output windings.

6. As the medium is made of a conducting material eddy currents are induced in the same
and produce losses. These are called ‘eddy current losses’. To minimize the eddy current
losses the steel core is required to be in the form of a stack of insulated laminations.

From the above it is seen that the introduction of magnetic core to carry the flux introduced
two more losses. Fortunately the losses due to hysteresis and eddy current for the available
grades of steel are very small at power frequencies. Also the copper losses in the winding

Dept. Of EEE, SJBIT Page 34

Smartworld.asia 35

Transformers And Induction Machines 10EE46

due to magnetization current are reduced to an almost insignificant fraction of the full load
losses. Hence steel core is used in power transformers.

In order to have better understanding of the behavior of the transformer, initially certain
idealizations are made and the resulting ‘ideal’ transformer is studied. These idealizations
are as follows:

1. Magnetic circuit is linear and has infinite permeability. The consequence is that a
vanishingly small current is enough to establish the given flux. Hysteresis loss is negligible.
As all the flux generated confines itself to the iron, there is no leakage flux.

2. Windings do not have resistance. This means that there are no copper losses, nor there is
any ohmic drop in the electric circuit.

In fact the practical transformers are very close to this model and hence no major
departure is made in making these assumptions. Fig 11 shows a two winding ideal
transformer. The primary winding has T1 turns and is connected to a voltage source of V1
volts. The secondary has T2 turns. Secondary can be connected to load impedance for
loading the transformer. The primary and secondary are shown on the same limb and
separately for clarity.

As a current I0 amps is passed through the primary winding of T1 turns it sets up an

MMF of I0T1 ampere which is in turn sets up a flux _ through the core. Since the reluctance
of the iron path given by R = l/μA is zero as μ −1, a vanishingly small value of current I0 is
enough to setup a flux which is finite. As I0 establishes the field inside the transformer

Dept. Of EEE, SJBIT Page 35

Smartworld.asia 36

Transformers And Induction Machines 10EE46

it is called the magnetizing current of the transformer.

Dept. Of EEE, SJBIT Page 36

Smartworld.asia 37

Transformers And Induction Machines 10EE46

This current is the result of a sinusoidal voltage V applied to the primary. As the
current through the loop is zero (or vanishingly small), at every instant of time, the sum of
the voltages must be zero inside the same. Writing this in terms of instantaneous values we
have, v1 − e1 = 0 where v1 is the instantaneous value of the applied voltage and e1 is the
induced emf due to Faradays principle. The negative sign is due to the application of the
Lenz’s law and shows that it is in the form of a voltage drop. Kirchoff’s law application to
the loop will result in the same thing.

This equation results in v1 = e1 or the induced emf must be same in magnitude to the
applied voltage at every instant of time. Let v1 = V1peak cosωt where V1peak is the peak
value and ω= 2πf t. f is the frequency of the supply. As v1 = e1; e1 = d 1/dt but e1 = E1peak
cosωt) E1 = V1 . It can be easily seen that the variation of flux linkages can be obtained as
ψ1 = ψ1peak sinωt. Here ψ1peak is the peak value of the flux linkages of the primary.

Thus the RMS primary induced EMF is

Here ψ1peak is the peak value of the flux linkages of the primary. The same mutual flux
links the secondary winding. However the magnitude of the flux linkages will be ψ2peak
=T2φm. The induced emf in the secondary can be similarly obtained as

,
Dept. Of EEE, SJBIT Page 37
Smartworld.asia 38

Transformers And Induction Machines 10EE46

Which yields the voltage ratio as E1/E2=T1/T2

Transformer at loaded condition.

So far, an unloaded ideal transformer is considered. If now a load impedance ZL is

connected across the terminals of the secondary winding a load current flows as marked in
Fig. 11(c).This load current produces a demagnetizing mmf and the flux tends to collapse.
However this is detected by the primary immediately as both E2 and E1 tend to collapse.

The current drawn from supply increases up to a point the flux in the core is restored
back to its original value. The demagnetizing mmf produced by the secondary is neutralized
by additional magnetizing mmf produces by the primary leaving the mmf and flux in the
core as in the case of no-load. Thus the transformer operates under constant induced emf
mode. Thus

If the reference directions for the two currents are chosen as in the Fig. 12, then the above
equation can be written in phasor form as,

Thus voltage and current transformation ratio are inverse of one another. If an impedance of
ZL is connected across the secondary,

Dept. Of EEE, SJBIT Page 38

Smartworld.asia 39

Transformers And Induction Machines 10EE46

An impedance of ZL when viewed ‘through’ a transformer of turns ratio (T1/T2) is

seen as (T1/T2)2.ZL. Transformer thus acts as an impedance converter. The transformer can
be interposed in between a source and a load to ‘match’ the impedance.

Finally, the phasor diagram for the operation of the ideal transformer is shown in

Fig. 13 in which θ 1 and θ 2 are power factor angles on the primary and secondary sides. As
the transformer itself does not absorb any active or reactive power it is easy to see that θ1 =
θ2 .

Thus, from the study of the ideal transformer it is seen that the transformer provides
electrical isolation between two coupled electric circuits while maintaining power
invariance at its two ends. However, grounding of loads and one terminal of the transformer
on the secondary/primary side are followed with the provision of leakage current detection
devices to safe guard the persons working with the devices. Even though the isolation
aspect is a desirable one its utility cannot be over emphasized. It can be used to step up or
step down the voltage/current at constant volt-ampere. Also, the transformer can be used for
impedance matching. In the case of an ideal transformer the efficiency is 100% as there are
no losses inside the device.

Dept. Of EEE, SJBIT Page 39

Smartworld.asia 40

Transformers And Induction Machines 10EE46

Practical Transformer

An ideal transformer is useful in understanding the working of a transformer. But it

cannot be used for the computation of the performance of a practical transformer due to the
non-ideal nature of the practical transformer. In a working transformer the performance
aspects like magnetizing current, losses, voltage regulation, efficiency etc are important.
Hence the effects of the non-idealization like finite permeability, saturation, hysteresis and
winding resistances have to be added to an ideal transformer to make it a practical
transformer.

Conversely, if these effects are removed from a working transformer what is left behind is
an ideal transformer.

Finite permeability of the magnetic circuit necessitates a finite value of the current to be
drawn from the mains to produce the mmf required to establish the necessary flux.

The current and mmf required is proportional to the flux density B that is required to be
established in the core.

where A is the area of cross section of the iron core m2. H is the magnetizing force which is
given by,

where l is the length of the magnetic path, m. or

The magnetizing force and the current vary linearly with the applied voltage as long
as the magnetic circuit is not saturated. Once saturation sets in, the current has to vary in a
Dept. Of EEE, SJBIT Page 40
Smartworld.asia 41

Transformers And Induction Machines 10EE46

nonlinear manner to establish the flux of sinusoidal shape. This non-linear current can be
resolved into fundamental and harmonic currents. This is discussed to some extent under
harmonics. At present the effect of this non-linear behavior is neglected as a secondary
effect. Hence the current drawn from the mains is assumed to be purely sinusoidal and
directly proportional to the flux density of operation. This current can be represented by a
current drawn by an inductive reactance in the circuit as the net energy associated with the
same over a cycle is zero. The energy absorbed when the current increases are returned to
the electric circuit when the current collapses to zero. This current is called the magnetizing
current of the transformer. The magnetizing current Im is given by Im = E1/Xm where Xm
is called the magnetizing reactance. The magnetic circuit being lossy absorbs and dissipates
the power depending upon the flux density of operation. These losses arise out of
hysteresis, eddy current inside the magnetic core. These are given by the following
expressions:

Ph -Hysteresis loss, Watts

B- Flux density of operation Tesla.

f - Frequency of operation, Hz

t - Thickness of the laminations of the core, m.

For a constant voltage, constant frequency operation B is constant and so are these
losses. An active power consumption by the no-load current can be represented in the input
circuit as a resistance Rc connected in parallel to the magnetizing reactance Xm. Thus the
no-load current I0 may be made up of Ic (loss component) and Im (magnetizing component

Dept. Of EEE, SJBIT Page 41

Smartworld.asia 42

Transformers And Induction Machines 10EE46

as) I0 = Ic − jImI2cRc– gives the total core losses (i.e. hysteresis + eddy current loss)
I2mXm- Reactive volt amperes consumed for establishing the mutual flux.

Finite μ of the magnetic core makes a few lines of flux take to a path through the air.
Thus these flux lines do not link the secondary winding. It is called as leakage flux. As the
path of the leakage flux is mainly through the air the flux produced varies linearly with the
primary current I1. Even a large value of the current produces a small value of flux. This
flux produces a voltage drop opposing its cause, which is the current I1. Thus this effect of
the finite permeability of the magnetic core can be represented as a series inductive element
jxl1. This is termed as the reactance due to the primary leakage flux. As this leakage flux
varies linearly with I1, the flux linkages per ampere and the primary leakage inductance are
constant (This is normally represented by ll1 Henry). The primary leakage reactance
therefore becomes xl1 = 2πfll1 ohm.

A similar effect takes place on the secondary side when the transformer is loaded. The
secondary leakage reactance jxl2 arising out of the secondary leakage inductance ll2 is given
by xl2 = 2πfll2 Finally, the primary and secondary windings are wound with copper
(sometimes aluminum in small transformers) conductors; thus the windings have a finite
resistance (though small). This is represented as a series circuit element, as the power lost
and the drop produced in the primary and secondary are proportional to the respective
currents. These are represented by r1 and r2 respectively on primary and secondary side. A
practical transformers ans these imperfections (taken out and represented explicitly in the
electric circuits) is an ideal transformer of turns ratio T1 : T2 (voltage ratio E1 : E2). This is
seen in Fig. 14. I′2 in the circuit represents the primary current component that is required to
flow from the mains in the primary T1 turns to neutralize the demagnetizing secondary
current I2 due to the load in the secondary turns. The total primary current

Dept. Of EEE, SJBIT Page 42

Smartworld.asia 43

Transformers And Induction Machines 10EE46

Dept. Of EEE, SJBIT Page 43

Smartworld.asia 44

Transformers And Induction Machines 10EE46

By solving this circuit for any load impedance ZL one can find out the performance
of the loaded transformer.

The circuit shown in Fig. 14(b). However, it is not very convenient for use due to
the presence of the ideal transformer of turns ratio T1 : T2. If the turns ratio could be made
unity by some transformation the circuit becomes very simple to use. This is done here by
replacing the secondary by a ‘hypothetical’ secondary having T1 turns which is ‘equivalent'
to the physical secondary. The equivalence implies that the ampere turns, active and
reactive power associated with both the circuits must be the same. Then there is no change
as far as their effect on the primary is considered.

Thus

where a -turns ratio T1/T2

As the ideal transformer in this case has a turns ratio of unity the potentials on either
side are the same and hence they may be conductively connected dispensing away with the
ideal transformer. This particular equivalent circuit is as seen from the primary side. It is
also possible to refer all the primary parameters to secondary by making the hypothetical
equivalent primary winding on the input side having the number of turns to be T2. Such an
equivalent circuit having all the parameters referred to the secondary side is shown in fig.

The equivalent circuit can be derived, with equal ease, analytically using the
Kirchoff’s equations applied to the primary and secondary. Referring to fig. 14(a), we have
(by neglecting the shunt branch)

Dept. Of EEE, SJBIT Page 44

Smartworld.asia 45

Transformers And Induction Machines 10EE46

Multiply both sides of Eqn.34 by ‘a’ [This makes the turns ratio unity and retains the power
invariance].

Substituting in Eqn we have

A similar procedure can be used to refer all parameters to secondary side. (Shown in fig)

Dept. Of EEE, SJBIT Page 45

Smartworld.asia 46

Transformers And Induction Machines 10EE46

Phasor Diagrams

The resulting equivalent circuit as shown in Fig. 16 is known as the exact equivalent
circuit. This circuit can be used for the analysis of the behavior of the transformers. As the

Dept. Of EEE, SJBIT Page 46

Smartworld.asia 47

Transformers And Induction Machines 10EE46

no-load current is less than 1% of the load current a simplified circuit known as
‘approximate’ equivalent circuit (see Fig. 16(b)) is usually used, which may be further
simplified to the one shown in Fig. 16(c).

On similar lines to the ideal transformer the phasor diagram of operation can be
drawn for a practical transformer also. The positions of the current and induced emf phasor
are not known uniquely if we start from the phasor V1. Hence it is assumed that the phasor
is known. The E1 and E2 phasor are then uniquely known. Now, the magnetizing and loss
components of the currents can be easily represented. Once I0 is known, the drop that takes
place in the primary resistance and series reactance can be obtained which when added to
E1 gives uniquely the position of V1 which satisfies all other parameters. This is
represented in Fig. 17(a) as phasor diagram on no-load.

Next we proceed to draw the phasor diagram corresponding to a loaded transformer.

The position of the E2 vector is known from the flux phasor. Magnitude of I2 and the load
power factor angle θ2 are assumed to be known. But the angle θ2 is defined with respect to
the terminal voltage V2 and not E2. By trial and error the position of I2 and V2 are
determined. V2 should also satisfy the Kirchoff’s equation for the secondary. Rest of the
construction of the phasor diagram then becomes routine. The equivalent primary current I’2
is added vectorially to I0 to yield I1. I1(r1+jxl1)is added to E1 to yield V1. This is shown in
fig. 17(b) as phasor diagram for a loaded transformer.

Dept. Of EEE, SJBIT Page 47

Smartworld.asia 48

Transformers And Induction Machines 10EE46

Dept. Of EEE, SJBIT Page 48

Smartworld.asia 49

Transformers And Induction Machines 10EE46

Open Circuit Test

As the name suggests, the secondary is kept open circuited and nominal value of the
input voltage is applied to the primary winding and the input current and power are
measured. In Fig. 19(a) V,A,W are the voltmeter, ammeter and wattmeter respectively. Let
these meters read V1, I0 and W0 respectively.Fig. 19(b) shows the equivalent circuit of the
transformer under this test. The no load current at rated voltage is less than 1 percent of
nominal current and hence the loss and drop that take place in primary impedance r1 +jxl1
due to the no load current I0 is negligible. The active component Iw of the no load current
I0 represents the core losses and reactive current Im is the current needed for the
magnetization.

Thus the watt meter reading

Dept. Of EEE, SJBIT Page 49

Smartworld.asia 50

Transformers And Induction Machines 10EE46

The parameters measured already are in terms of the primary. Sometimes the
primary voltage required may be in kilo-Volts and it may not be feasible to apply nominal
voltage to primary from the point of safety to personnel and equipment. If the secondary
voltage is low, one can perform the test with LV side energized keeping the HV side open
circuited. In this case the parameters that are obtained are in terms of LV . These have to be
referred to HV side if we need the equivalent circuit referred to HV side.

Dept. Of EEE, SJBIT Page 50

Smartworld.asia 51

Transformers And Induction Machines 10EE46

Sometimes the nominal value of high voltage itself may not be known, or in doubt,
especially in a rewound transformer. In such cases an open circuit characteristics is first
obtained, which is a graph showing the applied voltage as a function of the no load current.

This is a non linear curve as shown in Fig. 20. This graph is obtained by noting the
current drawn by transformer at different applied voltage, keeping the secondary open
circuited. The usual operating point selected for operation lies at some standard voltage
around the knee point of the characteristic. After this value is chosen as the nominal value
the parameters are calculated as mentioned above.

Short Circuit Test

The purpose of this test is to determine the series branch parameters of the
equivalent circuit of Fig. 21(b). As the name suggests, in this test primary applied voltage,
the current and power input are measured keeping the secondary terminals short circuited.
Let these values be Vsc, Isc and Wsc respectively. The supply voltage required to circulate
rated current through the transformer is usually very small and is of the order of a few
percent of the nominal voltage. The excitation current which is only 1 percent or less even
at rated voltage becomes negligibly small during this test and hence is neglected. The shunt
branch is thus assumed to be absent. Also I1 = I2 as I0 ≃ 0. Therefore Wsc is the sum of the
copper losses in primary and secondary put together. The reactive power consumed is that
absorbed by the leakage reactance of the two windings.

Dept. Of EEE, SJBIT Page 51

Smartworld.asia 52

Transformers And Induction Machines 10EE46

If the approximate equivalent circuit is required then there is no need to separate r’1
and r’2 or xl1 and x’l2. However if the exact equivalent circuit is needed then either r’1
or’2 is determined from the resistance measurement and the other separated from the total.

As for the separation of xl1 and x’l2 is concerned, they are assumed to be equal.
This is a fairly valid assumption for many types of transformer windings as the leakage flux
paths are through air and are similar.

Dept. Of EEE, SJBIT Page 52

Smartworld.asia 53

Transformers And Induction Machines 10EE46

Load Test
Load Test helps to determine the total loss that takes place, when the transformer is loaded.
Unlike the tests described previously, in the present case nominal voltage is applied across
the primary and rated current is drown from the secondary. Load test is used mainly

1. to determine the rated load of the machine and the temperature rise

2. to determine the voltage regulation and efficiency of the transformer.

Rated load is determined by loading the transformer on a continuous basis and

observing the steady state temperature rise. The losses that are generated inside the
transformer on load appear as heat. This heats the transformer and the temperature of the
transformer increases. The insulation of the transformer is the one to get affected by this
rise in the temperature. Both paper and oil which are used for insulation in the transformer
start getting degenerated and get decomposed. If the flash point of the oil is reached the
transformer goes up in flames. Hence to have a reasonable life expectancy the loading of
the transformer must be limited to that value which gives the maximum temperature rise
tolerated by the insulation. This aspect of temperature rise cannot be guessed from the
electrical equivalent circuit. Further, the losses like dielectric losses and stray load losses
are not modeled in the equivalent circuit and the actual loss under load condition will be in
error to that extent.

Many external means of removal of heat from the transformer in the form of
different cooling methods give rise to different values for temperature rise of insulation.
Hence these permit different levels of loading for the same transformer. Hence the only sure
way of ascertaining the rating is by conducting a load test. It is rather easy to load a
transformer of small ratings. As the rating increases it becomes difficult to find a load that
can absorb the requisite power and a source to feed the necessary current. As the
transformers come in varied transformation ratios, in many cases it becomes extremely
difficult to get suitable load impedance.

Dept. Of EEE, SJBIT Page 53

Smartworld.asia 54

Transformers And Induction Machines 10EE46

Further, the temperature rise of the transformer is due to the losses that take place
‘inside’ the transformer. The efficiency of the transformer is above 99% even in modest
sizes which means 1 percent of power handled by the transformer actually goes to heat up
the machine. The remaining 99% of the power has to be dissipated in a load impedance
external to the machine. This is very wasteful in terms of energy also. (If the load is of unity
power factor) Thus the actual loading of the transformer is seldom resorted to. Equivalent
loss methods of loading and ‘Phantom’ loading are commonly used in the case of
transformers.

The load is applied and held constant till the temperature rise of transformer reaches
a steady value. If the final steady temperature rise is lower than the maximum permissible
value, then load can be increased else it is decreased. That load current which gives the
maximum permissible temperature rise is declared as the nominal or rated load current and
the volt amperes are computed using the same.

In the equivalent loss method a short circuit test is done on the transformer. The
short circuit current is so chosen that the resulting loss taking place inside the transformer is
equivalent to the sum of the iron losses, full load copper losses and assumed stray load
losses. By this method even though one can pump in equivalent loss inside the transformer,
the actual distribution of this loss vastly differs from that taking place in reality. Therefore
this test comes close to a load test but does not replace one.

Dept. Of EEE, SJBIT Page 54

Smartworld.asia 55

Transformers And Induction Machines 10EE46

In Phantom loading method two identical transformers are needed. The windings are
connected back to back as shown in Fig. 22. Suitable voltage is injected into the loop
formed by the two secondaries such that full load current passes through them. An
equivalent current then passes through the primary also. The voltage source V1 supplies the
magnetizing current and core losses for the two transformers. The second source supplies
the load component of the current and losses due to the same. There is no power wasted in a
load ( as a matter of fact there is no real load at all) and hence the name Phantom or virtual
loading. The power absorbed by the second transformer which acts as a load is

Dept. Of EEE, SJBIT Page 55

Smartworld.asia 56

Transformers And Induction Machines 10EE46

pushed back in to the mains. The two sources put together meet the core and copper losses
of the two transformers. The transformers work with full flux drawing full load currents and
hence are closest to the actual loading condition with a physical load.

Voltage Regulation
Modern power systems operate at some standard voltages. The equipments working
on these systems are therefore given input voltages at these standard values, within certain
agreed tolerance limits. In many applications this voltage itself may not be good enough for
obtaining the best operating condition for the loads. A transformer is interposed in between
the load and the supply terminals in such cases. There are additional drops inside the
transformer due to the load currents. While input voltage is the responsibility of the supply
provider, the voltage at the load is the one which the user has to worry about.

If undue voltage drop is permitted to occur inside the transformer the load voltage
becomes too low and affects its performance. It is therefore necessary to quantify the drop
that takes place inside a transformer when certain load current, at any power factor, is
drawn from its output leads. This drop is termed as the voltage regulation and is expressed
as a ratio of the terminal voltage (the absolute value per se is not too important).

The voltage regulation can be defined in two ways - Regulation Down and
Regulation up. These two definitions differ only in the reference voltage as can be seen
below. Regulation down: This is defined as ” the change in terminal voltage when a load
current at any power factor is applied, expressed as a fraction of the no-load terminal
voltage”.

Expressed in symbolic form we have,

Dept. Of EEE, SJBIT Page 56

Smartworld.asia 57

Transformers And Induction Machines 10EE46

Vnl is the no-load terminal voltage. Vl is load voltage. Normally full load regulation is of
interest as the part load regulation is going to be lower.

This definition is more commonly used in the case of alternators and power systems
as the user-end voltage is guaranteed by the power supply provider. He has to generate
proper no-load voltage at the generating station to provide the user the voltage he has asked
for. In the expressions for the regulation, only the numerical differences of the voltages are
taken and not vector differences.

In the case of transformers both definitions result in more or less the same value for
the regulation as the transformer impedance is very low and the power factor of operation is
quite high. The power factor of the load is defined with respect to the terminal voltage on
load. Hence a convenient starting point is the load voltage. Also the full load output voltage
is taken from the name plate. Hence regulation up has some advantage when it comes to its
application. Fig. 23 shows the phasor diagram of operation of the transformer under loaded
condition. The no-load current I0 is neglected in view of the large magnitude of I’2. Then

Dept. Of EEE, SJBIT Page 57

Smartworld.asia 58

Transformers And Induction Machines 10EE46

Dept. Of EEE, SJBIT Page 58

Smartworld.asia 59

Transformers And Induction Machines 10EE46

Dept. Of EEE, SJBIT Page 59

Smartworld.asia 60

Transformers And Induction Machines 10EE46

Powers higher than 2 for v1 and v2 are negligible as v1 and v2 are already small. As v2 is
small its second power may be neglected as a further approximation and the expression for

the regulation of the transform boils down to regulation

The negative sign is applicable when the power factor is leading. It can be seen from the
above expression, the full load regulation becomes zero when the power factor is leading

Dept. Of EEE, SJBIT Page 60

Smartworld.asia 61

Transformers And Induction Machines 10EE46

Thus this expression may not be as convenient as the earlier one due to the square
root involved. Fig. shows the variation of full load regulation of a typical transformer as the
power factor is varied from zero power factor leading, through unity power factor, to zero
power factor lagging.

It is seen from Fig. that the full load regulation at unity power factor is nothing but
the percentage resistance of the transformer. It is therefore very small and negligible. Only
with low power factor loads the drop in the series impedance of the transformer contributes
substantially to the regulation. In small transformers the designer tends to keep the Xe very
low (less than 5%) so that the regulation performance of the transformer is satisfactory.

Dept. Of EEE, SJBIT Page 61

Smartworld.asia 62

Transformers And Induction Machines 10EE46

A low value of the short circuit impedance /reactance results in a large short circuit
current in case of a short circuit. This in turn results in large mechanical forces on the
winding. So, in large transformers the short circuit impedance is made high to give better
short circuit protection to the transformer which results in poorer regulation performance.
In the case of transformers provided with taps on windings, so that the turns ratio can be
changed, the voltage regulation is not a serious issue. In other cases care has to be exercised
in the selection of the short circuit impedance as it affects the voltage regulation.

Dept. Of EEE, SJBIT Page 62

Smartworld.asia 63

Transformers And Induction Machines 10EE46

Efficiency
Transformers which are connected to the power supplies and loads and are in
operation are required to handle load current and power as per the requirements of the load.
An unloaded transformer draws only the magnetization current on the primary side, the
secondary current being zero. As the load is increased the primary and secondary currents
increase as per the load requirements. The volt amperes and wattage handled by the
transformer also increases. Due to the presence of no load losses and I2R losses in the
windings certain amount of electrical energy gets dissipated as heat inside the transformer.
This gives rise to the concept of efficiency.

Efficiency of a power equipment is defined at any load as the ratio of the power output to
the power input. Putting in the form of an expression,

While the efficiency tells us the fraction of the input power delivered to the load, the
deficiency focuses our attention on losses taking place inside transformer. As a matter of
fact the losses heat up machine. The temperature rise decides the rating of the equipment.

The temperature rise of the machine is a function of heat generated the structural
configuration, method of cooling and type of loading (or duty cycle of load). The peak
temperature attained directly affects the life of the insulations of the machine for any class
of insulation.

Dept. Of EEE, SJBIT Page 63

Smartworld.asia 64

Transformers And Induction Machines 10EE46

These aspects are briefly mentioned under section 7.5 on load test.

A typical curve for the variation of efficiency as a function of output is given in Fig.
The losses that take place inside the machine expressed as a fraction of the input is some
times termed as deficiency. Except in the case of an ideal machine, a certain fraction of the
input power gets lost inside the machine while handling the power. Thus the value for the
efficiency is always less than one. In the case of a.c. machines the rating is expressed in
terms of apparent power. It is nothing but the product of the applied voltage and the current
drawn. The actual power delivered is a function of the power factor at which this current is
drawn. As the reactive power shuttles between the source and the load and has a zero
average value over a cycle of the supply wave it does not have any direct effect on the
efficiency. The reactive power however increases the current handled by the machine and
Dept. Of EEE, SJBIT Page 64
Smartworld.asia 65

Transformers And Induction Machines 10EE46

the losses resulting from it. Therefore the losses that take place inside a transformer at any
given load play a vital role in determining the efficiency. The losses taking place inside a
transformer can be enumerated as below:

1. Primary copper loss

2. Secondary copper loss

3. Iron loss

4. Dielectric loss

5. Stray load loss

These are explained in sequence below.

Primary and secondary copper losses take place in the respective winding resistances due to
the flow of the current in them.

The primary and secondary resistances differ from their d.c. values due to skin
effect and the temperature rise of the windings. While the average temperature rise can be
approximately used, the skin effect is harder to get analytically. The short circuit test gives
the value of Re taking into account the skin effect.

The iron losses contain two components - Hysteresis loss and Eddy current loss. The
Hysteresis loss is a function of the material used for the core.

For constant voltage and constant frequency operation this can be taken to be
constant. The eddy current loss in the core arises because of the induced emf in the steel
lamination sheets and the eddies of current formed due to it. This again produces a power
loss Pe in the lamination.

Dept. Of EEE, SJBIT Page 65

Smartworld.asia 66

Transformers And Induction Machines 10EE46

where t is the thickness of the steel lamination used. As the lamination thickness is much
smaller than the depth of penetration of the field, the eddy current loss can be reduced by
reducing the thickness of the lamination. Present day laminations are of 0.25 mm thickness
and are capable of operation at 2 Tesla. These reduce the eddy current losses in the core.
This loss also remains constant due to constant voltage and frequency of operation. The
sum of hysteresis and eddy current losses can be obtained by the open circuit test.

The dielectric losses take place in the insulation of the transformer due to the large
electric stress. In the case of low voltage transformers this can be neglected. For constant
voltage operation this can be assumed to be a constant.

The stray load losses arise out of the leakage fluxes of the transformer. These
leakage fluxes link the metallic structural parts, tank etc. and produce eddy current losses in
them. Thus they take place ’all round’ the transformer instead of a definite place , hence the
name ’stray’. Also the leakage flux is directly proportional to the load current unlike the
mutual flux which is proportional to the applied voltage. Hence this loss is called ’stray
load’ loss. This can also be estimated experimentally. It can be modeled by another
resistance in the series branch in the equivalent circuit. The stray load losses are very low in
air-cored transformers due to the absence of the metallic tank.

Thus, the different losses fall in to two categories Constant losses (mainly voltage
dependant) and Variable losses (current dependant). The expression for the efficiency of the
transformer operating at a fractional load x of its rating, at a load power factor of Ө2, can be
written as

Here S in the volt ampere rating of the transformer (V’2 I’2 at full load), Pconst being
constant losses and Pvar the variable losses at full load.

Dept. Of EEE, SJBIT Page 66

Smartworld.asia 67

Transformers And Induction Machines 10EE46

For a given power factor an expression for Ө2 in terms of the variable x is thus obtained.
By differentiating Ө2with respect to x and equating the same to zero, the condition for
maximum efficiency is obtained. In the present case that condition comes out to be

That is, when constant losses equal the variable losses at any fractional load x the efficiency
reaches a maximum value. The maximum value of that efficiency at any given power factor
is given by,

From the expression for the maximum efficiency it can be easily deduced that this
maximum value increases with increase in power factor and is zero at zero power factor of
the load. It may be considered a good practice to select the operating load point to be at the
maximum efficiency point. Thus if a transformer is on full load, for most part of the time
then the Ө2max can be made to occur at full load by proper selection of constant and
variable losses. However, in the modern transformers the iron losses are so low that it is
practically impossible to reduce the full load copper losses to that value. Such a design
wastes lot of copper.

All day efficiency

Large capacity transformers used in power systems are classified broadly into Power
transformers and Distribution transformers. The former variety is seen in generating
stations and large substations. Distribution transformers are seen at the distribution
substations. The basic difference between the two types arise from the fact that the power
transformers are switched in or out of the circuit depending upon the load to be handled by
them. Thus at 50% load on the station only 50% of the transformers need to be connected in
the circuit.

Dept. Of EEE, SJBIT Page 67

Smartworld.asia 68

Transformers And Induction Machines 10EE46

On the other hand a distribution transformer is never switched off. It has to remain
in the circuit irrespective of the load connected. In such cases the constant loss of the
transformer continues to be dissipated. Hence the concept of energy based efficiency is
defined for such

transformers. It is called ’all day’ efficiency. The all day efficiency is thus the ratio of the
energy output of the transformer over a day to the corresponding energy input. One day is
taken as a duration of time over which the load pattern repeats itself. This assumption,
however, is far from being true. The power output varies from zero to full load depending
on the requirement of the user and the load losses vary as the square of the fractional loads.

The no-load losses or constant losses occur throughout the 24 hours. Thus, the
comparison of loads on different days becomes difficult. Even the load factor, which is
given by the ratio of the average load to rated load, does not give satisfactory results. The
calculation of the all day efficiency is illustrated below with an example. The graph of load
on the transformer, expressed as a fraction of the full load is plotted against time in Fig. 27.
In an actual situation the load on the transformer continuously changes. This has been
presented by a stepped curve for convenience. The average load can be calculated by

Dept. Of EEE, SJBIT Page 68

Smartworld.asia 69

Transformers And Induction Machines 10EE46

Where Pi is the load during an interval i. n intervals are assumed. xi is the fractional load.

Si = xiSn

where Sn is nominal load. The average loss during the day is given by

This is a non-linear function. For the same load factor different average loss can be
there depending upon the values of xi and ti. Hence a better option would be to keep the
constant losses very low to keep the all day efficiency high. Variable losses are related to
load and are associated with revenue earned. The constant losses on the other hand has to be
incurred to make the service available. The concept of all day efficiency may therefore be
more useful for comparing two transformers subjected to the same load cycle.

The concept of minimizing the lost energy comes into effect right from the time of
procurement of the transformer. The constant losses and variable losses are capitalized and
added to the material cost of the transformer in order to select the most competitive one
which gives minimum cost taking initial cost and running cost put together. Obviously the
iron losses are capitalized more in the process to give an effect to the maximization of
energy efficiency. If the load cycle is known at this stage, it can also be incorporated in
computation of the best transformer.

Dept. Of EEE, SJBIT Page 69

Smartworld.asia 70

Transformers And Induction Machines 10EE46

Harmonics
In addition to the operation of transformers on the sinusoidal supplies, the harmonic
behavior becomes important as the size and rating of the transformer increases. The effects
of the harmonic currents are

1. Additional copper losses due to harmonic currents

2. Increased core losses

3. Increased electro magnetic interference with communication circuits.

On the other hand the harmonic voltages of the transformer cause

1. Increased dielectric stress on insulation

2. Electro static interference with communication circuits.

3. Resonance between winding reactance and feeder capacitance.

In the present times a greater awareness is generated by the problems of harmonic

voltages and currents produced by non-linear loads like the power electronic converters.

These combine with non-linear nature of transformer core and produce severe
distortions in voltages and currents and increase the power loss. Thus the study of
harmonics is of great practical significance in the operation of transformers. The discussion
here is confined to the harmonics generated by transformers only.

Dept. Of EEE, SJBIT Page 70

Smartworld.asia 71

Transformers And Induction Machines 10EE46

Single phase transformers

Modern transformers operate at increasing levels of saturation in order to reduce the
weight and cost of the core used in the same. Because of this and due to the hysteresis, the
transformer core behaves as a highly non-linear element and generates harmonic voltages
and currents. This is explained below. Fig. 34 shows the manner in which the shape of the
magnetizing current can be obtained and plotted. At any instant of the flux density wave the
ampere turns required to establish the same is read out and plotted, traversing the hysteresis
loop once per cycle. The sinusoidal flux density curve represents the sinusoidal applied
voltage to some other scale. The plot of the magnetizing current which is peaky is analyzed
using Fourier analysis. The harmonic current components are obtained from this analysis.
These harmonic currents produce harmonic fields in the core and harmonic voltages in the
windings. Relatively small value of harmonic fields generates considerable magnitude of
harmonic voltages. For example a 10% magnitude of 3rd harmonic flux produces 30%
magnitude of 3rd harmonic voltage. These effects get even more pronounced for higher
order harmonics. As these harmonic voltages get short circuited through the low impedance

Dept. Of EEE, SJBIT Page 71

Smartworld.asia 72

Transformers And Induction Machines 10EE46

of the supply they produce harmonic currents. These currents produce effects according to
Lenz’s law and tend to neutralize the harmonic flux and bring the flux wave to a sinusoid.
Normally third harmonic is the largest in its magnitude and hence the discussion is based on
it. The same can be told of other harmonics also. In the case of a single phase transformer
the harmonics are confined mostly to the primary side as the source impedance is much
smaller compared to the load impedance. The understanding of the phenomenon becomes
more clear if the transformer is supplied with a sinusoidal current source. In this case
current has to be sinusoidal and the harmonic currents cannot be supplied by the source and
hence the induced emf will be peaky containing harmonic voltages. When the load is
connected on the secondary side the harmonic currents flow through the load and voltage
tends to become sinusoidal. The harmonic voltages induce electric stress on dielectrics and
increased electro static interference. The harmonic currents produce losses and electro
magnetic interference as already noted above.

Dept. Of EEE, SJBIT Page 72

Smartworld.asia 73

Transformers And Induction Machines 10EE46

Poly Phase connections and Poly phase Transformers

The individual transformers are connected in a variety of ways in a power system.

Due to the advantages of polyphase power during generation, transmission and utilization
polyphase power handling is very important. As an engineering application is driven by
techno-economic considerations, no single connection or setup is satisfactory for all
applications. Thus transformers are deployed in many forms and connections. Star and
mesh connections are very commonly used. Apart from these, vee or open delta
connections, zigzag connections , T connections, auto transformer connections, multi
winding transformers etc. are a few of the many possibilities. A few of the common
connections and the technical and economic considerations that govern their usage are
discussed here. Literature abounds in the description of many other. Apart from the
characteristics and advantages of these, one must also know their limitations and problems,
to facilitate proper selection of a configuration for an application.

Many polyphase connections can be formed using single phase transformers. In

some cases it may be preferable to design, develop and deploy a polyphase transformer
itself. In a balanced two phase system we encounter two voltages that are equal in
magnitude differing in phase by 90◦. Similarly, in a three phase system there are three equal
voltages differing in phase 120 electrical degrees. Further there is an order in which they
reach a particular voltage magnitude. This is called the phase sequence. In some
applications like a.c. to d.c. conversion, six phases or more may be encountered.
Transformers used in all these applications must be connected properly for proper
functioning. The basic relationship between the primary and secondary voltages (brought
about by a common mutual flux and the number of turns), the polarity of the induced emf
(decided by polarity test and used with dot convention) and some understanding of the
magnetic circuit are all necessary for the same. To facilitate the manufacturer and users,
international standards are also available. Each winding has two ends designated as 1 and 2.
The HV winding is indicated by capital letters and the LV winding by small letters. If more
terminals are brought out from a winding by way of taps there are numbered in the
increasing numbers in accordance to their distance from 1 (eg A1,A2,A3...). If the induced
Dept. Of EEE, SJBIT Page 73
Smartworld.asia 74

Transformers And Induction Machines 10EE46

emf at an instant is from A1 to A2 on the HV winding it will rise from a1 to a2 on the LV

winding.

Out of the different polyphase connections three phase connections are mostly
encountered due to the wide spread use of three phase systems for generation, transmission
and utilization. Three balanced 3-phase voltages can be connected in star or mesh fashion to
yield a balanced 3-phase 3-wire system. The transformers that work on the 3-phase supply
have star, mesh or zig-zag connected windings on either primary secondary or both. In
addition to giving different voltage ratios, they introduce phase shifts between input and
output sides. These connections are broadly classified into 4 popular vector groups.

1. Group I: zero phase displacement between the primary and the secondary.

2. Group II: 180◦ phase displacement.

3. Group III: 30◦ lag phase displacement of the secondary with respect to the primary.

4. Group IV: 30◦ lead phase displacement of the secondary with respect to the primary.

A few examples of the physical connections and phasor diagrams are shown in Fig.
35 and Fig. 36 corresponding to each group. The capital letters indicates primary and the
small letters the secondary. D/d stand for mesh, Y/y - for star, Z/z for zig-zag. The angular
displacement of secondary with respect to the primary are shown as clock position, 00

Dept. Of EEE, SJBIT Page 74

Smartworld.asia 75

Transformers And Induction Machines 10EE46

Dept. Of EEE, SJBIT Page 75

Smartworld.asia 76

Transformers And Induction Machines 10EE46

Dept. Of EEE, SJBIT Page 76

Smartworld.asia 77

Transformers And Induction Machines 10EE46

Dept. Of EEE, SJBIT Page 77

Smartworld.asia 78

Transformers And Induction Machines 10EE46

referring to 12 o’clock position. These vector groups are especially important when two or
more transformers are to be connected in parallel.

Star connection is normally cheaper as there are fewer turns and lesser cost of
insulation. The advantage becomes more with increase in voltage above 11kv. In a star
connected winding with earthed-neutral the maximum voltage to the earth is ( 1√3 )of the
line voltage.

Also star connection permits mixed loading due to the presence of the neutral. Mesh
connections are advantageous in low voltage transformers as insulation costs are
insignificant and the conductor size becomes ( 1√3 ) of that of star connection and permits
ease of winding. The common polyphase connections are briefly discussed now.

Dept. Of EEE, SJBIT Page 78

Smartworld.asia 79

Transformers And Induction Machines 10EE46

Star/star (Yy0, Yy6) connection This is the most economical one for small high
voltage transformers. Insulation cost is highly reduced. Neutral wire can permit mixed
loading. Triplen harmonics are absent in the lines. These triplen harmonic currents cannot
flow, unless there is a neutral wire. This connection produces oscillating neutral. Three
phase shell type units have large triplen harmonic phase voltage. However three phase core
type transformers work satisfactorily. A tertiary mesh connected winding may be required
to stabilize the oscillating neutral due to third harmonics in three phase banks.

Mesh/mesh (Dd0, Dd6) This is an economical configuration for large low voltage
transformers. Large amount of unbalanced load can be met with ease. Mesh permits a
circulating path for triplen harmonics thus attenuates the same. It is possible to operate with
one transformer removed in open delta or Vee connection meeting 58 percent of the
balanced load. Three phase units cannot have this facility. Mixed single phase loading is not
possible due to the absence of neutral.

Star/mesh(Dy or Yd ) This arrangement is very common for power supply

transformers. The delta winding permits triplen harmonic currents to circulate in the closed
path and attenuates them.

Zig zag/ star (ZY1 or Zy11) Zigzag connection is obtained by inter connection of
phases. 4-wire system is possible on both sides. Unbalanced loading is also possible.
Oscillating neutral problem is absent in this connection. This connection requires 15% more
turns for the same voltage on the zigzag side and hence costs more.

Generally speaking a bank of three single phase transformers cost about 15% more
than their 3-phase counter part. Also, they occupy more space. But the spare capacity cost
will be less and single phase units are easier to transport.

Mesh connected three phase transformers resemble 3- single phase units but kept in
a common tank. In view of this single tank, the space occupied is less. Other than that there
is no big difference. The 3-phase core type transformer on the other hand has a simple core
arrangement. The three limbs are equal in cross section. Primary and secondary of each

Dept. Of EEE, SJBIT Page 79

Smartworld.asia 80

Transformers And Induction Machines 10EE46

phase are housed on the same limb. The flux setup in any limb will return through the other
two limbs as the mmf of those limbs are in the directions so as to aid the same. Even though
magnetically this is not a symmetrical arrangement, as the reluctance to the flux setup by
side limbs is different from that of the central limb, it does not adversely affect the
performance. This is due to the fact that the magnetizing current itself forms a small
fraction of the total phase current drawn on load. The added advantage of 3-phase core is
that it can tolerate substantially large value of 3rd harmonic mmf without affecting the
performance. The 3rd harmonic mmf of the three phases will be in phase and hence rise in
all the limbs together.

The 3rd harmonic flux must therefore find its path through the air. Due to the high
reluctance of the air path even a substantially large value of third harmonic mmf produces
negligible value of third harmonic flux. Similarly unbalanced operation of the transformer
with large zero sequence fundamental mmf content also does not affect its performance.
Even with Yy type of poly phase connection without neutral connection the oscillating
neutral does not occur with these cores. Finally, three phase cores themselves cost less than
three single phase units due to compactness.

Dept. Of EEE, SJBIT Page 80

Smartworld.asia 81

Transformers And Induction Machines 10EE46

MODULE - 2
Parallel Operation of Transformers: Necessity of Parallel operation, conditions for
parallel operation – Single phase and three phase. Load sharing in case of similar and
dissimilar transformers.
Auto transformers and Tap changing transformers: Introduction to auto transformer -
copper economy, equivalent circuit, three phase auto connection and voltage regulation.
Voltage regulation by tap changing – off circuit and on load.
Tertiary winding Transformers: Necessity of tertiary winding, equivalent circuit and
voltage regulation, tertiary winding in star/star transformers, rating of tertiary winding.

10 Hours

Parallel operation of one phase and two phase transformers

By parallel operation we mean two or more transformers are connected to the same supply
bus bars on the primary side and to a common bus bar/load on the secondary side.

Such requirement is frequently encountered in practice. The reasons that necessitate parallel
operation are as follows.

1. Non-availability of a single large transformer to meet the total load requirement.

2. The power demand might have increased over a time necessitating augmentation of the
capacity. More transformers connected in parallel will then be pressed into service.

3. To ensure improved reliability. Even if one of the transformers gets into a fault or is
taken out for maintenance/repair the load can continued to be serviced.

4. To reduce the spare capacity. If many smaller size transformers are used one machine can
be used as spare. If only one large machine is feeding the load, a spare of similar rating has

Dept. Of EEE, SJBIT Page 81