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CASNSE 1- General
Zoology

This is a property of
PRESIDENT RAMON MAGSAYSAY STATE UNIVERSITY
NOT FOR SALE

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CAS NS 2A – General Zoology

First Edition, 2021

Copyright. Republic Act 8293 Section 176 provides that “No copyright shall subsist in any work of
the Government of the Philippines. However, prior approval of the government agency or office
wherein the work is created shall be necessary for exploitation of such work for profit. Such agency or
office may, among other things, impose as a condition the payment of royalties.

Borrowed materials included in this module are owned by their respective copyright holders. Every
effort has been exerted to reach and seek permission to use these materials from their respective
copyright owners. The University and authors do not claim ownership over them.

Learning Module Development Team

Assigned Chapter Title Author/s

Introduction to Animal
Chapter 1 Mr. Brandon M. Estigoy
Kingdom
Mr. Brandon M. Estigoy
Chapter 2 Compound Microscope
Animal Cell Structure and Mr. Brandon M. Estigoy
Chapter 3
Function
Animal Reproduction and Mr. Brandon M. Estigoy
Chapter 4
Development
Animal Diversity and
Mr. Brandon M. Estigoy
Chapter 5 Classification: Life without
backbone
Animal Diversity and Mr. Brandon M. Estigoy
Chapter 6
Classification: Vertebrates
Mr. Brandon M. Estigoy
Chapter 7 Animal Behavior

Evaluators:

(First Name, Middle Initial, Last Name), Position

(First Name, Middle Initial, Last Name), Position
(First Name, Middle Initial, Last Name), Position

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General Zoology

Chapter 3

Animal Cell Structure and

Function

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Chapter 3

Animal Cell Structure and Function

Introduction

“Cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all organism. Organisms are
categorized based on the number of cells. They can be unicellular or multicellular. Unicellular
are organism that composed of one cell while multicellular are organisms that are composed of
many cells. These cells are high organized and composed of little organ known as “organelle”.
Organelles performed several function and work together in order for a cellar process to occur
in a living cell. Cells reproduced under the process of cellular division, in order to multiply and
achieved multicellularity. The variety and form of cells seem almost infinite, but certain
features are shared by most of them.

This module provides knowledge on the types, structure and functions of the cells.
Movement and regulation of materials in and out of the cell as well as the cellular reproduction
is also be discussed in following lectures.

Specific Objectives

At the end of this chapter, the students should be able to:

1. Distinguish the types of cells
2. Identify the different types of cell organelles
3. Learn the process of cell division
4. Compare and Contrast Mitosis and Meiosis
5. Identify different process of cell transport

Duration

Chapter 1: Animal Cell Structure and Function = 9 hours

(3 hour discussion; 6 hours
assessment)

Lesson Proper

Cell Discovery and the Cell Theory

 Cell were first discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665 by observing a thin slice of
nonliving bark of an oak tree under crude microscope. He called them “cella” literally
means cells. His observation were published under his book Micrographia.
 1674, a Anton Van Leeuwenhoek observed the moving organisms which he called
“animalcules” literally means little animals.
 1824, Henri Dutrochet stated that cell is the basic unit of organization.
 1831, Robert was able to observed nucleus

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 Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann suggested that living organism are made up
of cells.
 1855, Rudolf Virchow declared that living cells come only from pre-existing cells.

The Cell Theory

Observations of Schleiden, Schwann, and Virchow contributed to the formulation of cell

theory. Cell theory is one of the basic principles of biology. It states that:
1. Cells are the fundamental units of structures and functions of living thisngs;
2. All living things are made up of one or more cells;
3. Cells come from pre-existing cells through cell division

Extension of Cell Theory

4. The cell contains hereditary information(DNA) which is passed on from cell to cell
during cell division.
5. All cells are basically the same in chemical composition and metabolic activities.
6. All basic chemical & physiological functions are carried out inside the
cells.(movement, digestion,etc)
7. Cell activity depends on the activities of sub-cellular structures within the
cell(organelles, nucleus, plasma membrane)

Cell Types

There are different kinds of living things and thus, there are also different kinds of
cells. One major classification is based on the presence or absence of nucleus. Cell without
nucleus are called prokaryotes while cells that contains nucleus are called eukaryotic cells.

Figure 3.1. The Structure of Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cell

(Source: https://sites.google.com/site/laurelbiology/cells/prokaryotes-vs-eukaryotes)

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Table 3.1. The Difference between Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes.

Prokaryote Eukaryote

Nucleus Absent Present

Membrane-bound organelles Absent Present

Cell structure Unicellular Mostly multicellular; some unicellular

Cell size Smaller (0.1-5 μm) Larger (10-100 μm)

Complexity Simpler More complex

DNA Form Circular Linear

Examples Bacteria, archaea Animals, plants, fungi, protists

General Anatomy of a Cell

In general, all cells have three main regions or parts – a nucleus, plasma membrane,
and the cytoplasm. The nucleus is located near the center of the cell. It is surrounded by the
semi-fluid cytoplasm, which in turn is enclosed by the plasma membrane, which forms the
outer cell boundary.

Nucleus
Also known as the “headquarters” or the control center of the cell. The genetics
materials, or deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), is a blueprint that contains all the instructions
needed for building the whole body. More specifically, DNA has genes, which carry the
instructions for building proteins. DNA is absolutely necessary for cell reproduction. A cell
that has lost or ejected its nucleus is destined to “self-destruction.”

Figure 3.2. Structure of a Nucleus

(Source: http://lifeofplant.blogspot.com/2011/03/nucleoplasm.html)

The nucleus has three recognized regions or structures: the nuclear envelope,
nucleolus, and the chromatin.

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a. Nuclear Envelope
- the nuclear boundary is a double membrane barrier called nuclear envelope, or
nuclear membrane. Between the two membranes is a fluid-filled “moat”, or
space. At various points, the two layers of the nuclear envelope fuse, generating
openings called nuclear pores. The nuclear envelope controls the passage of
materials in and out of the nucleus. The nuclear membrane encloses a jellylike
fluid called nucleoplasm in which other nuclear elements are suspended.

b. Nucleolus
- the nucleus contains one or more small, dark-staining, essentially round bodies
called nucleoli (little nuclei). Nuclei are sites for ribosomes assemblage.
Ribosomes is the sites of protein synthesis.

c. Chromatin
- the chromatin is the substance that contains DNA and proteins. The DNA inside
the nucleus is carefully wound around the protein called histones to form a loose
network of “beads on string” called chromatin. During cell division the
chromatin threads coil and condense to form dense, rodlike bodies called
chromosomes (chromo = colored, soma = body).

Plasma Membrane
Is a fragile, transparent semi permeable barrier that contains the cell contents and
separates them from the surrounding environment. It controls the passage of materials in and
out of the cell.

Figure 3.3 Structure of Plasma Membrane

(Source: https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/345651340141271149/)

The structure of plasma membrane composed of two phospholipid bilayer (fats)

arranged “tail to tail,” with cholesterol and floating proteins scattered among them. Some
phospholipids may also have sugar groups attached, forming glycolipids. The free moving
protein and bob in the lipid layer, form a constantly changing pattern or mosaic, hence its
structure exhibit a fluid mosaic structure.
The olive oil-like phospholipid bilayer forms the basic “fabric” of the membrane. The
polar “heads” of the lollipop-shaped phospholipid molecules are hydrophilic (“water loving”)
and are attracted to water. Their nonpolar fatty acid “tails” are hydrophobic (“water
fearing”), avoid water and line up in the center (interior) of the membrane. The self-orienting
property of the phospholipids allows biological membranes to reseal themselves quickly when
torn.

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The scattered proteins in the lipid bilayer are responsible for most of the specialized
functions of the membrane. Most proteins involved in in transporting water and small water-
soluble molecules or ions. Other proteins act as carriers that bind to a substance and move it
through the membrane. Many of the proteins protruding from the cell exterior are receptors for
hormones or other chemical messengers or are binding sites for anchoring the cell to fibers or
to other structures inside and outside the cell.

The Cytoplasm

The cytoplasm is the cellular material outside the nucleus and inside the plasma
membrane. It is the site of most cellular activities. It contains the jellylike fluid known as the
cytosol where all organelles are embedded.
The cytosol is semitransparent fluid that suspends the other elements. Dissolved
cytosol, which is largely water, are nutrients and a variety of other solutes.
Inclusion are chemical substances that may or may not be present, depending on the
specific cell type. Most inclusions are stored nutrients or cell products floating in the cytosol.
These includes lipid droplets common in fat cells, glycogen granules abundant in liver and
muscle cells, pigments such as melanin in skin and hair cells, mucous and other secretory
products.

Membrane Bound Organelles

The organelles are specialized cellular compartments that are the metabolic machinery of the
cell. Each type of organelles is specialized to carry out a specific function. Most organelles are
bounded by a membrane similar to the plasma membrane. These membrane boundaries allow
to maintain an internal environment.

1. Mitochondria – are usually depicted as tiny, lozenge-like sausage-shaped organelles.

It consists of a double membrane, equal to two plasma membrane placed side by side.
It contains an inner folding known as the cristae. Cristae carry out the reaction in which
oxygen is used to breakdown foods. As the foods breakdown, energy is released in the
form of ATP molecules. ATP provides the energy for all cellular works and activities.

Figure 4.4. Structure of Mitochondria

(Source: https://pngimage.net/mitocondria-png-5/)

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2. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

Endoplasmic reticulum often
referred as ER, is an enclosed space consisting
of a network of flattened sacs and tubes that
form channels throughout the cell interiors.
The endoplasmic reticulum facilitates cellular
communication and channeling of materials.
Many important activities, such as the
synthesis of membranes for other organelles
and modification of proteins from components
assembled from elsewhere within the cell,
occur either on the surface of the endoplasmic
reticulum or within its compartments.
Figure 3.5 Structure of Endoplasmic Reticulum
(Source: https://www.biologyexams4u.com/2012/04/endoplasmic-
reticulam.html)

Endoplasmic reticulum is categorized into two; Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

(ER) and Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER). Rough ER is studded with ribosomes
which is primarily associated in the synthesis, secretion and storage of proteins. In contrast,
Smooth ER lacks ribosomes and associated in lipid synthesis. Both types of endoplasmic
reticulum can occur in the same cell and can be interconverted, depending on the demands of
the cell.

3. Ribosomes – are tiny, bilobed, dark bodies made of proteins and one variety of RNA
called ribosomal RNA or rRNA. Ribosomes are the actual sites of protein synthesis
in the cell. Ribosomes that float freely in the cytoplasm manufacture proteins that
function inside the cell, while others attach to membranes such as the rough ER, which
produces proteins that function outside the cell.

4. Golgi Apparatus – appears as a stacks of flattened membranous sacs that are associated
with swarms of tiny vesicles. Its major function is to modify, package, and ship proteins
(sent to it by the rough ER via transport vesicles) in specific ways, depending on their
final destination. Initially, all proteins leaving the Golgi apparatus accumulate in sacs
called Golgi vesicles.

5. Lysosomes – appears in different sizes, are membranous “bags” containing powerful

digestive enzymes. Lysosomal enzymes (acid hydrolyses/hydrolytic enzymes) are
capable of digesting worn-out or nonusable cell structures and most foreign substances
that enter the cell lysosomes functions as cellular “stomachs.”

6. Peroxisome – are membranous sacs containing powerful oxidase enzymes that use
molecular oxygen to detoxify a number of harmful or poisonous substances, including
alcohol and formaldehyde. The most important function of peroxisome is to “disarm”
free radicals. Peroxisomes convert free radicals to hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). The
enzyme catalase then converts excess hydrogen peroxide to water. Peroxisomes are
especially numerous in liver and kidney cells.

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7. Cytoskeleton – acts as a cell’s “bones and muscles” by furnishing an internal

framework that determines cell shape, supports other organelles, and provides the
machinery for intracellular transport and various types of cellular movements.
Cytoskeleton is made up of microfilament, intermediate filament, and microtubules.

a. Microfilaments (such as actin and myosin) are most involved in cell motility
and in producing changes in cell shapes. (we could say that cells move when
they get their act(in) together).

b. Intermediate filaments are made up of fibrous subunits (keratin). They help

form desmosomes and provide internal guys wires to resist to pulling forces on
the cell.

c. Microtubules are made up of repeating subunits of the protein tubulin. They

determine the overall shape of a cell and the distribution of organelles. They are
very important during cell division

Figure 3.6 The Structure of Cytoskeleton

(Source: http://qrbiology.weebly.com/cytoskeleton.html)

8. Centrioles - The paired of centrioles collectively called the centrosome, lie close to
the nucleus. They are rod-shaped bodies that lie at right angles to each other; internally
they are made up of a pinwheel array of nine triplets of fine microtubules. Centrioles
are known for the formation of mitotic spindle during cell division.

Cell Extensions

In addition to the cell structures described previously, some cells have obvious surface
extensions. These come in two major “flavors,” or varieties, depending on whether they have
a core of microtubules or actin filaments.

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a. Cilia – are whiplike cellular extension that move substances along the cell surface.
When a cell is about to make cilia, its centrioles multiply and then line up beneath the
plasma membrane at the free surface. Microtubules then begin to “sprout” from the
centrioles and put pressure on the membrane, forming the projections.

Figure 3.7 Epithelial cells found on the intestine are example of Ciliated cells
(Source: https://keystagewiki.com/index.php/Ciliated_Epithelial_Cell)

b. Flagella – are long projections formed by centrioles. The only example of a flagellated
cell in the human body is the sperm, which has a single propulsive flagellum called its
tail. Notice that cilia propel other substances across a cell’s surface, whereas a flagellum
propels the cell itself.

Figure 3.8 Sperm cell in Man is an example of Flagellated Cells

(Source: https://microgembio.com/products/sperm/)

c. Microvilli – are tiny, fingerlike extension of the plasma membrane that projects from
an exposed cell surface. They increase the cell’s surface area tremendously and so are
usually found on the surface of the cells active in absorption such as intestinal and
kidney tubule cells.

The Cell Cycle

Cell divides to give rise to new cells and it is through cell division that the
mechanism of genetic transmission could be explained.
The bacteria increase in number by dividing into two daughter cells.
Multicellular organism increase in size through the division of its constituent cell.
When the cell is growing, it continuously undergoes metabolic activities in a
repetitive manner. This is called the cell cycle, wherein the cells double its entire
content in preparation for cell division.

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The Cell Cycle

Cell divides to give rise to new cells and it is through cell division that the mechanism
of genetic transmission could be explained.

The bacteria increase in number by dividing into two daughter cells. Multicellular
organism increase in size through the division of its constituent cell. When the cell is growing,
it continuously undergoes metabolic activities in a repetitive manner. This is called the cell
cycle, wherein the cells double its entire content in preparation for cell division.

Growth of organism requires three basic processes as shows below;

Increase in cell mass duplication of the genetic material cell division

Figure 3.10. Stages of Life Cycle

(Source: https://www.emaze.com/@AWIZOZZL)

1. Interphase or non-dividing phase

a. G-1 phase or (first growth phase)

 Cell increase in volume by imbibing water and nutrients and building new protoplasm.
 Characterized by growth and increase in cell mass
 Cell preparing the chemicals necessary for DNA synthesis.
 ER, Golgi apparatus, ribosomes, mitochondria, and chloroplast are formed.

b. S phase – where the DNA synthesis/occurs

 There is an active synthesis of histones and proteins (components of chromatin)

 Genetic material of each chromosome is replicated.

c. G-2 phase or (second growth phase)

 Active synthesis of RNA and proteins (needed for synthesis of chromosomes).

 Formation of mitotic spindle occurs
 Doubled chromatin fiber folds to form a chromosome
 Continue until the onset of mitosis.

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2. M-phase or the dividing phase

Mitosis

 The mechanism of cell division by which the genetic and chromosome composition of
a cell is faithfully reproduced in each of the daughter cells called mitosis.
 Simply a mode of reproduction for the unicellular organisms, a mean of replacing worn-
out tissues and increasing the number of cells for the higher organism.

Figure 3.11. Stages of Mitosis

(Source:https://www.tes.com/lessons/lG75ncjP8bp4nw/mitosis-meiosis-blendspace)

Table 3.2 The events taking place at the different stages of Mitosis.

Stage of Mitosis Events taking Place

Prophase  Chromosomes are thickened and become shortened
 Nucleoli and nuclear membrane completely disappear at late
prophase
 In animal cells, centrioles divides, spindle radiates from the
aster.
Metaphase  Centrioles reached the opposite end of the nucleus
 Chromosomes become attached to the spindle fibers and
move toward the equator
 Chromosomes tightly coiled and discrete
Anaphase  At early anaphase, centromeres are duplicated and start
moving apart; sister chromatids start to separate
 At late anaphase, two identical sets of chromosome move
toward the opposite poles and spindle begins to disappear;
cytokinesis begins
Telophase  Chromosome in their respective poles become enclosed in a
nuclear membrane
 Cytokinesis is almost complete; chromosome begin to thin out
and uncoil

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Meiosis

 Cell division in which the chromosome number of the daughter cell is reduce into half
 Reduction in cell number is accomplished by two successive cell division but
chromosomes are duplicated only once.

In meiosis I (Reduction Division), homologous chromosome come in pairs followed by

duplication and then separation of the paired chromosomes. In meiosis II (Equational
Division), the two chromatids of each chromosome separate leading to the formation of 4
mature sex cell.

Table 1.2. The event taking place at the different stages of Meiosis.

M-phase Events Taking Place

Meiosis I

Prophase I

Leptotene Stage  Almost similar with early stage of prophase

 Characterized by long and slender chromosomes that
appear as individual structure
 Chromosomes clumped in one side of the nucleus in
plants while chromosomes are found near the centrioles in
animals
Zygotene Stage
 Synapsis occurs and proceed in a zipper like fashion

Pachytene Stage  Characterized by coiled and thin chromosome

 Bivalents consists of 4 chromatids; nucleolus very much
visible
 Crossing over may occur

 Characterized by longitudinal separation by bivalents;

Diplotene Stage separation starts from the centromere toward the of the
chromosome
 Chromosomes are very much coiled and shortened

 Bivalents uniformly distributed in the nucleus

Diakinesis  Characterized by the disintegration of the nucleolus and
the formation of the formation of spindle fibers

Metaphase I  Bivalents move to the metaphase plate; nuclear

membrane disintegrates
Anaphase I  Chromosome move from the center of the cell to the
opposite poles
 Homologous segregate therefore each anaphase group is
composed of haploid number of chromosomes

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Telophase I  Cytoplasm divides and the nuclear membrane is formed

 Chromosomes regroup and began to relax
Meiosis II
Prophase II  Similar with mitotic prophase except that it contains
haploid chromosomes; nucleolus and nuclear membrane
disintegrate
Metaphase II  Formation of new spindle fibers; chromosomes aligned at
the metaphase plate
Anaphase II  Daughter chromosome moves toward the opposite poles
Telophase II  Reappearance of nucleolus and nuclear membrane;
formation of 4 haploid daughter cells

Cytokinesis

In plant cells, cytokinesis is accomplished by the formation of cell plate. As the

chromosome separate during anaphase, the cytoplasm divides and the cytoplasmic contents are
distributed. At the same time the phragmoplast is formed at the metaphase plate. The
phragmoplast increase in diameter as cytokinesis continues until it reaches the lateral walls. As
thin membrane forms across the center opening of the phragmoplast and eventually cuts the
cell in two. This membrane is the cell plate, the primordium of the new cell wall.

Figure 3.12. Cell plate formation during cytokinesis in plants

(Source: https://bodell.mtchs.org/OnlineBio/BIOCD/text/chapter9/concept9.3.html)

In animal cells, cytokinesis proceeds by furrowing. It originates as an indentation of the

outer membrane at the position of the metaphase plate. This indentation gradually moves
inward and halves the cell into two daughter cells.

Figure 3.12. Cytokinesis in Animal Cell

(Source: https://www.abpischools.org.uk/topic/celldivision/3)

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Cell Transport

The cell is dynamic system that has its own organized ways of controlling the
passage and transport of materials. The cell membrane is like a busy highway with lots of
molecules being transported within and outside the cell. The traffic of the transport of
molecules is well coordinated such that molecules know where to pass through, when and
how to be transported.

Biological Membranes

Figure 3.12. Structure of Plasma Membrane

(Source: https://quizlet.com/123452318/biology-structure-and-function-of-plasma-membrane-flash-cards/)

The Membrane Structure

The fluid mosaic model characterizes the plasma membrane and other cell membranes
as consisting of a double layer, or bilayer, of lipid molecules. A number of proteins are
embedded in the lipid bilayer in a way that resembles a mosaic pattern. The membrane structure
is fluid rather than motionless, and the lipids (and protein molecules, to a lesser extent) move
laterally (sideways) within the membrane.

One of the important lipid components of

membranes is phospholipid, composed of a glycerol
molecule to which are attached two fatty acids and a
molecule containing a phosphate group. The
phosphate end of the phospholipid molecule is
polar—that is, slightly charged—whereas the fatty
acid chains are nonpolar. The polar “head” is
hydrophilic (from the Greek hydro, “water,” and phil,
“love”); that is, it has an affinity for water. The
nonpolar “tail” is hydrophobic (from the Greek
hydro, “water,” and phobos, “fear”); that is, it has an Figure 3.13 Lipid Bilayer of a Plasma Membrane
(https://quizlet.com/123452318/biology-structure-and-
aversion to water. function-of-plasma-membrane-flash-cards/)

Because the cell and its surroundings are composed largely of water, phospholipids
and other lipid components of membranes spontaneously arrange themselves in a double layer.
The hydrophilic heads are positioned on the outer edges of each side of the layer—toward the
watery surroundings inside and outside the cell or organelle. The hydrophobic tails form the

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inside of the double layer (away from the water). No chemical reactions occur to hold the
membrane molecules together, nor do covalent bonds connect adjacent molecules. The forces
of hydrophilic portions that are attracted to water and of hydrophobic regions that are repelled
by water are strong enough to form and maintain the membrane’s structure.

Cell Physiology

Each of the cell’s internal parts is designated to perform a specific function for the
cell. Most cells have the ability to metabolize (use nutrients to build new cell material, break
down substances, and make ATP), digest food, dispose waste, reproduce, grow, move and
respond to a stimulus (irritability).

Membrane Transport

The fluid environment on both sides of the plasma membrane is an example of a

solution. Solution is a homogenous mixture of two or more components (ex. Air we breathe,
sea water, rubbing alcohol). The substance present in the largest amount in a solution is called
solvent (or dissolving medium), water is the body’s chief solvent. Components or substances
present in smaller amount are called solutes.

 Intracellular fluid (collectively, nucleoplasm and the cytosol) is a solution containing

small amounts of gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide), nutrients, and salt, dissolved in
water.
 Extracellular fluid, the fluid that continuously bathes the exterior of our cells. It
composes of nutrients, regulatory substances such as hormones and neurotransmitters,
salt, and waste products, to remain healthy, each cell must extract from this fluid the
exact amount of the substances it needs at a specific times and reject the rest.
The plasma membrane is a selectively permeable barrier. This means that it allows
some substance to pass through it and excluding others. Thus, it allows nutrients to enter the
cell but keeps many undesirable or unnecessary substances out. At the same time, valuable cell
proteins and other substances are kept within the cell, and wastes are allowed to pass out of it.
Substances move through the plasma membrane in basically two ways – passively or
actively. In passive processes, substances are transported across the membrane without any
energy input from the cell. In active process, the cell provides the metabolic energy (ATP) that
drives the transport process.

Passive Processes: Filtration and Diffusion

1. Filtration is a process by which water and solutes are forced through a membrane (or
capillary wall) by fluid, or hydrostatic, pressure. In the body, hydrostatic pressure is
usually exerted by the blood. Like diffusion, filtration is a passive transport, and a
gradient is involved. The gradient is a pressure gradient that actually pushes solute-
containing fluid (filtrate) from the higher concentration area through the filter to the
lower-pressure area.
In Kidneys, water and small solutes filters out of the capillaries into the kidney tubules because
the blood pressure in the capillaries is greater than the fluid pressure in the tubules. Part of the
filtrate formed in this way eventually becomes urine. Filtration is not very selective. For most

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part, only blood cells and protein molecules too large to pass through the membrane pores are
held back.

2. Diffusion is the process by which molecules (and ions) moves from the area of high
concentration to an area of low concentration. The greater the difference in
concentration between the two areas, the faster diffusion occurs. The rate of diffusion
is affected by the size of the molecules (the smaller the faster) and temperature (the
warmer the faster).
The hydrophobic core of the plasma membrane is physical barrier to diffusion, However,
molecules will diffuse through the plasma membrane if any of the following are true:
 Molecules are small enough to pass through the membrane’s pores (channels formed
by membrane proteins).
 The molecules are lipid soluble
 The molecules are assisted by a membrane carrier.

Figure 3.14. Diffusion of different substance through a Plasma Membrane

(Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passive_transport)

Types of Diffusion

1. Simple of Diffusion – unassisted diffusion of solutes through a plasma membrane.

Solutes transported this way are lipid soluble (such as fats, fat-soluble vitamins, oxygen,
carbon dioxide).
2. Osmosis – diffusion water through a plasma membrane. Because water is highly polar,
it is repelled by the (nonpolar) lipid core of the plasma membrane, but it can and does
pass easily through special pores called aquaporins (“water pores”).
3. Facilitated Diffusion – provides passage for certain needed substances (notably
glucose) that are both lipid-insoluble and too large to pass through membrane pores, or
charged, as in the case of chloride ions passing through a membrane channel. Although
facilitated diffusion follows the concentration gradient (movement from high
concentration area to low concentration area) a protein channel is used, or a membrane
protein acts as a carrier is needed to move glucose and certain substances.

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Tonicity

The tendency of a solution to hold water or “pull” water into its cell is called osmotic
pressure. Osmotic pressure is directly related to the concentration of solutes in the solution.
The higher solute concentration, the greater the osmotic pressure and the greater the tendency
of water to move into the solution.
Any changes in the concentration of on one side of the membrane to the other may
cause the cell to lose or gain water. The ability of a solution to change the size and shape of
cells by altering the amount of water they contain is called tonicity.
A cell’s plasma membrane is relatively impermeable to sugars and salts, but water moves across
the membrane freely in either direction. When a cell is placed in a solution with a solute concentration
equal to that inside the cell, water molecules diffuse through the plasma membrane equally in both
directions. Such solutions are said to be isotonic (from the Greek iso, “equal”)—that is, they have a
solute concentration equal to that in the cell.
When a cell is placed in a solution with a solute concentration higher than that within the cell,
the solution is said to be hypertonic (from the Greek hyper, “over”) to the cell. In such a situation,
water flows out of the cell and into the surrounding and the cytoplasm shrinks.
When a cell is placed in a solution with a solute concentration lower than that within the cell,
the solution is said to be hypotonic (from the Greek hypo, “under”) to the cell. In such a situation,
water flows into the cell from the surrounding solution and the cell swell.

Figure 3.15. Osmosis in Blood Cells

(http://encyclopedia.lubopitko-bg.com/OsmosisAffectsCells.html)

Active Processes

Whenever the cell uses ATP to move substances across the membrane, the process is
active. Substances move actively are usually unable to pass in the desired direction by
diffusion. They may be too large to pass through the membrane channels, the membrane lacks
specific carrier proteins for their transport, they may not be able to dissolve in the fat core, or
they may have to move “uphill” against their concentration gradients. The most important
active processes are Active transport and Vesicular transport.

1. Active transport – sometimes called solute pumping, is similar to facilitated diffusion

in that both processes require transport protein carriers that interact specifically and
reversibly with the substances to be transported across the membrane. Active transport
uses energy (ATP) to energize protein carriers, which are called solute pumps.

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Amino acids, some sugar, and most ions are transported by solute pumps, and most
cases these substances move against the concentration gradients.

 Sodium Potassium (𝑵𝒂+ -𝑲+) pump – alternately carries sodium ions (𝑁𝑎+ ) out of
and potassium (𝐾 +) into the cell. This process is absolutely necessary for normal
transmission of nerve impulses. There are more sodium ions outside the cell than inside,
so those inside tend to remain in the cell than inside unless the cell uses ATP to force,
or “pump,” them out. ATP is split into ADP and 𝑃𝑖 (inorganic substance) and the
phosphate is then attached to the sodium-potassium pump in a process called
phosphorylation. Likewise, there are more potassium ions inside cells than in the
extracellular fluid, and potassium ions leak out of cells must be actively pumped back
inside. Because each of the pumps in the plasma membrane transport only specific
substances, active transport provides a way for the cell to be very selective in cases
where the substances cannot pass by diffusion. (NO pump – no Transport).

Figure 3.16 Sodium and Potassium Pump in a Plasma Membrane

(https://socratic.org/questions/how-does-the-sodium-potassium-pump-work)

2. Vascular Transport - involves help from ATP to fuse or separate membrane vesicles
and the cell membrane, moves substances into or out of the cells “in bulk” without their
actually crossing the plasma membrane directly. The two types of vesicular transport
are exocytosis and endocytosis.

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Exocytosis – is the mechanism that cells use to actively secretes hormones, mucus, and other
cell products or to eject certain cellular wastes. The product to be released is first packaged in
a secretory vesicle. These vesicle migrates to the plasma membrane, fuse with it, and then
ruptures, spilling its contents out of the cell.

Exocytosis involves a “docking” process in which docking proteins on the vesicles recognize
plasma membrane docking proteins and bind with them. This binding causes the membranes
to “cork screw” together and fuse.

Figure 3.17. Exocytosis in the Cell

(Source: https://www.thoughtco.com/what-is-exocytosis-4114427)

Endocytosis – includes those ATP – requiring processes that take up, or engulf, extracellular
substances by enclosing them in a vesicle. Once a vesicle is formed, it detaches from the plasma
membrane and moves into the cytoplasm, where it typically fuses with lysosome and its content
are digested. However, in some cases, vesicle travels to the opposite side of the cell and release
its content by exocytosis there.

If the substances are relatively large particles, such as bacteria or dead body cells, and the cells
separates them from the external environment by pseudopods, the endocytosis process is more
specifically called PHAGOCYTOSIS (“cell eating”). Cell eat by phagocytosis and drink by a
form of endocytosis called PINOCYTOSIS (“cell drinking”).

Figure 3.18. Endocytosis in Cell

(Source: https://www.biomadam.com/difference-between-phagocytosis-and-pinocytosis)

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Suggested Video Links

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RKmaq7jPnYM
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=URUJD5NEXC8
https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/cells/cellular-division/v/cell-cycle-phases
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ev1rGysfTZY
https://www.brightstorm.com/science/biology/cell-functions-and-processes/cell-transport/
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BGeSDI03aaw

Additional Resources

MoranoL.N., Lopez C.S.,and Tan A. E..S., (2011) Fundamental of Biology. Quezon City,
Manila: LORIMAR PUBLISHING, INC

Marieb, E. N. & Keller, S. M., (2018). Essentials of Human Anatomy and Physiology: 12th
Edition. North Buona Vista Drive, Singapore: Pearson Education Limited.

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Learner’s Feedback Form

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Self-Learning Module in Genetics (CASNSE 1) Estigoy., 2022