CHAPTER TWO!.

"LITERATURE REVIEW

Building construction is an ancient human activity$ It began with the purelyfunctional need for a
controlled environment to moderate the effects of climate$Constructed shelters were one means by
which human beings were able to adaptthemselves to a wide variety of climates and become a global
species$The present state of building construction is comple*$ There is a wide range of building
products and systems which are aimed primarily at groups of buildingtypes or markets$ The design
process for buildings is highly organi6eaaad and drawsupon research establishments that study material
properties and performance, code officials who adopt and enforce safety standards, and design
professionals whodetermine user needs and design a building to meet those needs$ The construction
process is also highly organi6ed  it includes the manufacturers of building productsand systems, the
craftsmen who assemble them on the building site, thecontractors who employ and coordinate the
wor  of the craftsmen, and consultantswho speciali6e in such aspects as construction management,
5uality control, andinsurance$Building construction today is a significant part of industrial culture,
amanifestation of its diversity and comple*ity and a measure of its mastery of natural forces, which can
produce a widely varied built environment to serve thediverse needs of society$

!.1BUILDING DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTIOND 3'   4-2 - *00'  

The design of a building begins with its future user or owner, who has in mind a perceived need for the
structure, as well as a specific site and a general idea of its pro(ected cost$ The user, or client, brings
these facts to a team of design professionals composed of architects and engineers, who can develop
from them aset of construction documents that define the proposed building e*actly and fromwhich it
can be constructed$Building design professionals include those licensed by the stateGsuch asarchitects
and structural, mechanical, and electrical engineersGwho must formallycertify that the building they
design will conform to all governmental codes andregulations$ !rchitects are the primary design
professionals  they orchestrate anddirect the wor  of engineers, as well as many other consultants in
such speciali6edareas as lighting, acoustics, and vertical transportation.

The design professionals draw upon a number of sources in preparing their design$The most
fundamental of these is building science, which has been gradually builtup over the past 022 years$ This
includes the parts of physical theory that relate to building, such as the elastic theory of structures and
theories of light, electricity,and fluid flow$ There is a large compendium of information on the specific
properties of building materials that can be applied in mathematical models toreliably pro(ect building
performance$ There is also a large body of data on criteriafor human comfort in such matters as thermal
environment, lighting levels, andsound levels that influence building design$In addition to general
 nowledge of building science, the design team collectsspecific data related to the proposed building
site$ These include topographic and boundary surveys, investigations of subsoil conditions for
foundation and water8e*clusion design, and climate data and other local elements$

C2 3+- ,5+'2 

Construction of a building is usually e*ecuted by a speciali6ed construction team it is normally separate
from the design team, although some large organi6ationsmay combine both functions$ The
construction team is headed by a coordinatingorgani6ation, often called a generalcontractor , which
ta es the primaryresponsibility for e*ecuting the building and signs a contract to do so with the building
user$ The cost of the contract is usually an agreed lump sum, althoughcost8plus8fee contracts are
sometimes used on large pro(ects for whichconstruction begins before the contract documents are
complete and the buildingscope is not fully defined$ The general contractor may do some of the actual
wor  on the building in addition to its coordinating role  the remainder of the wor  isdone by a group of
specialty subcontractors who are under contract to the generalcontractor$ Each subcontractor provides
and installs one or more of the buildingsystemsGe$g$, the structural or electrical system$ The
subcontractors in turn buy the system components from the manufacturers$ During the construction
processthe design team continues to act as the ownerHs representative, ma ing sure that thee*ecuted
building conforms to the contract documents and that the systems andcomponents meet the specified
standards of 5uality and performance$

CHAPTER ."WORK EXPERIENCED DURING ATTACHMENT

I was introduced by my site supervisor to the construction site in general,the contractor, pro(ect
manager, and site engineers in charge of the on8going pro(ect who further e*posed me to proper site
wor $ The on8going pro(ect was theconstruction of a Terraced Triple* #ouse

! Terraced house is a type of building that has a row of dwellings (oined together by dividing walls, each
having its own entrance at ground level while the Triple*is a residential building of three floors all
connected together owned by a person$

.1INTRODUCTION

TO SITE MATERIALS  E?UIPMENT ANDMACHINERIES

In the process of my wor  e*perience program I was introduced to variousmaterials, e5uipments and
machineries used in the construction and developmentof a building$

MATERIALS

E*ample of materials used in building construction is as follows 

1 This is a powdered substance that develops strong adhesive propertieswhen mi*ed with water$ It is
used in Bloc  wor , %lastering, ;endering andConcreting$ The establishment of Cement is achieved by
burning a mi*ture of clayand chal  or limestone in a  iln$ ! proportion of the raw materials in a definite
proportion are converted into li5uid state by grinding, mi*ing and watering,termed Slurry$ The slurry is
then conveyed through a set of pipes to rotary  ilnwhich dry and burn the constituent in a high
temperature to form hard lumps$ This process changes the slurry to hard lumps called Clin er, which
afterwards pass onthrough a conveyor belt to the grinding mills for grinding to a fine powder in itsfinal
process$ During the final grinding, small 5uantity of gypsum of between /and 3  of the whole materials
is added to retard the setting time$ Tests are usuallycarried out on the finished product occasionally to
ensure high 5uality$This process is mainly on .rdinary %ortland Cement =.%C> used for general
purposes$ There are other types of cement made for special purposes, including;apid #ardening
%ortland Cement =;#%C>, Sulphate resisting %ortland cementand )ow #eat %ortland Cement$

R '  @2- 5 0   + :

;einforcement is provided in concrete structures to enhance itstensile strength$ Therefore in all

A -   *+  3

1 This consists of sand, ground crushed stone, pebbles, bro en bloc sand similar such materials$ !
ggregates may either be light or heavy weight andalso !ll8in8!ggregates$ !ggregates must be clean,
structural sound, well graded,weather resistance and inert in the presence of water$!ggregates are of
two types1+ine !ggregate  this should be clean, sharp and passes through the sieve si6e of
7$3mm$Coarse !ggregate  aggregate which consists largely of particles over 3mm indiameter$ This is
usually gravel or crushed stones$

W*+ - B*-3:

! strip of rubber or plastic embedded into a sill or threshold toinhibit the passage of water$ The water
bars were fi*ed into the reinforcementswith the use of Binding wire at the four edgesFcorners of the
septic tan  to avoidthe passage of 'oisture$

B'+,0' 2,3 F   + :

!
waterproofing membrane consisting of a thin fibrous mat of polyester or glass fibres saturated with
bitumen or a bitumen8polymer$ TheBituminous +elt was used for the tan ing of the Tan  Slab on the
Building and itwas applied with the use of a Burner$

E?UIPMENTS

The following are e*amples of various tools used in construction 

T-2:

This is a flat metal blade fi*ed to a short handle used for the application, (ointing, smoothing and
shaping of mortar in masonry$ It is also used in the

trimming of bloc Fbric  s$ Trowel si6es ranges from //38032mm measuring fromthe blade$

S4'-'+ L =   :

This is a #and8tool used

for indicating true hori6ontal and vertical of a wor , by means of an air bubble sealed in a mar ed,
li5uid8filled glass tubemounted in a frame  the tube is hori6ontal when the bubble is between two
mar s$Spirit levels are of various length ranging from about //3mm to -$/m$

S+-*'   + E    :

The  ind of straight edge that was used on the construction site isan !luminum frame of about /m in
length$ The straight edge is used to chec  thefairness of the newly laid piece of a wall and to ensure
that all the bloc s are laidto the same level of each course$

I-2  S ,*-  :

This is a hand tool of angle ?2 which measures 922mm by 732mmlong$ It is used for setting out walls at
right angles to chec  for s5uare nature of asection of wor $

MACHINERIES

The machineries that were used on site were brought into considerations so as to promote high
standards re5uired particularly in the conte*t of structuralengineering wor s$ 'achineries are used on
site to eliminate heavy manual wor  thus reducing fatigue and as a conse5uence increasing
productivity$ Suchmachineries that were used include 

T' +'   D-,0 C2 5-  +  M'< - :

This is a type of concrete mi*er with a rotatinghinged drum in which the constituent materials are mi*ed
thoroughly and can betilted to enable emptying$ Choice of 'i*er J the factors to be ta en
intoconsideration when selecting the type of concrete mi*er re5uired are K-$ 'a*imum output re5uired
=m0F hour>$/$ Total output re5uired =m0>$0$ Type or method of transporting the mi*ed concrete

7$ Discharge height of mi*er =compatibility with transporting method>$

F' ,-  1: T' +'   D-,0 C2 5-  +  M'< - %*5  H*00 - :

This is a percussive power tool that combines a hammer andchisel used for the drilling, brea ing,
demolishing and the digging of stone$ Duringmy attachment it was used in the demolitionF leveling of
the e*tended pilefoundation for the septic tan  in the process of its e*cavation$

11

.CONSTRUCTION OF THE SECOND FLOOR

The construction of the second floor involved the establishment of the

F2-02-&

Temporary structure erected to contain concrete during placing andinitial hardening$ It is used to give
temporary support for in8situ concrete while ithardens$

!fter the Establishment of formwor , the arrangement of reinforcement rods proceeded$ The
reinforcements of -/mm in diameter were arranged in a "ridmanner at-32mm centres$ The
reinforcements are then tied with

B'   '   W'- &

soft iron wire for tying reinforcing bars together before the casting of concrete$The insertion of
S4*5 - 3&

a small piece of concrete fi*ed under the reinforcing bars to provide the appropriate amount of
concrete cover between the bar and theformwor  surface$

F',- : C23+-,5+'2 2@ + S52 F22-CONCRETING&

This is generally referred to as Casting$ It is a process of wor ing with freshly mi*ed concrete especially
the placing of concrete$ Before theestablishment of the second floor some procedures where
underta en$ Such procedures include - $

M*+-'* S,44 * S+2-*:

This is the receiving on site of the basicmaterials namely cement, fine aggregate and coarse aggregate
and storing themunder satisfactory conditions$Cement is supplied in bags form and was stored on
rac s to prevent moisture penetration from the ground in a dry store free from draughts which can

!fter the Establishment of formwor , the arrangement of reinforcement rods proceeded$ The
reinforcements of -/mm in diameter were arranged in a "ridmanner at-32mm centres$ The
reinforcements are then tied with

B'' W'-&

soft iron wire for tying reinforcing bars together before the casting of concrete$The insertion of

S4*5-3&

a small piece of concrete fi*ed under the reinforcing bars to provide the appropriate amount of
concrete cover between the bar and theformwor  surface$

F',- : C23+-,5+'2 2@ + S52 F22-CONCRETING&

This is generally referred to as Casting$ It is a process of wor ing with freshly mi*ed concrete especially
the placing of concrete$ Before theestablishment of the second floor some procedures where
underta en$ Such procedures include - $

M*+-'* S,44 * S+2-*:

This is the receiving on site of the basicmaterials namely cement, fine aggregate and coarse aggregate
and storing themunder satisfactory conditions$Cement is supplied in bags form and was stored on
rac s to prevent moisture penetration from the ground in a dry store free from draughts which can
introduce moist air and cause air set of the material$ Cement should not bestored on the site for long
period of time on site therefore provision should bemade for rotational use so that the material being
used comes from older stoc $!ggregates were stored in Bays on a clean firm base to ensure that
foreignmatter is not included when e*tracting materials from the base of the stoc  pile$/$

B*+5':

Before mi*ing was carried out, the ingredients have to be measuredin their correct proportion to
enhance the 5uality of the concrete$ olume batching was used in this process with the aid of a head
pan with a ratio of -1/17 and this was supervised by the site engineer$0$

M'<':

The purpose of mi*ing is to coat the surfaces of !ggregate particleswith cement paste and to ma e it a
uniform mass$ The 5uality of mi*turedepends on the accuracy of proportioning of the materials and the
method of mi*ing$ The method of mi*ing was carried out mechanically through the use of a Tilting
Drum concrete mi*er$7$

T-*342-+*+'2:

This involves the

means of conveying concrete from the pointof mi*ing to the point of placement$ The choice of
transportation depends onthe si6e and comple*ity of the site, weather condition and the height of the
placement of the concrete$ The mode of transportation used was the manualmethod with the use of
head pans and labour$ ! mason@s ladder made of both bamboo and timber was constructed to
enhance verticalFinclined movements$3$

P*5':

Before the concrete was placed in the formwor , the inside of theformwor  is thoroughly cleaned
and a release agent =lubricant> was appliedafter the formwor  was blown off of dust$ The concrete
was placed at areasonable height of not more than -m so as to avoid the segregation of itscomponent
materials$9$

C204*5+':

The Compacting of freshly placed concrete is to ma e it a unitmass by eliminating voids within it$ The
method and the type of compaction
given to concrete depend on the nature of wor $ %o er  ibrator was used for the compacting of
concrete during the construction of the second floor$:$

C,-':

!fter the placing and compacting of the concrete it is allowed tosufficiently harden for a day then the
curing process comes in which involvesthe prevention of the evaporation of moisture in the concrete$
The concrete waswatered for :days with use of a hose pipe connected to a tan $ This was doneto avoid
shrin age of the concrete and cause a more permanent and durablematerial produced$!fter /- days
the formwor  and !rcos used in supporting the second floor areremoved completely to enhance the
full setting of the reinforced concrete floor$

.9BLOCKWORK

The walling system was mostly carried out using sandcrete hollow bloc s$ Thesi6es of bloc s were
used in respect to their functions$ The 9 inches bloc s wereused mostly for internal walls li e the
toilets and the store partitioning while the?inches bloc s were used in load bearing areas and e*ternal
walling$ The bonding process used in the union of these bloc  is Stretcher Bond  which is when
thestretcher faces of the bloc s appear on the front or rear elevation of the wall$

.#LINTELS

)intel is referred to as the beam above an opening in a building, which supportsthe weight above it and
transmits such weight of the imposed materials to thevertical sides of the wall opening$ The lintels used
on the site were %recast;einforced Concrete )intels that were constructed on site by using a
woodenmould$ The precast lintels were transported and placed manually with use of labor$.ne of the
advantages of precast lintel is that it 5uic ens production$

.6PLASTERING

%laster is referred to as the type of aggregate when mi*ed with cement and water itis used to spread
over irregular and coarse te*tured walls and ceiling surfaces to

provide a smooth level finishes$ The purpose of plastering is to provide a smooth,hard, level finish
which can be painted for the sa e of appearance and as a lightcolored finish to gain the reflection of
daylight$ %lastering is considered only onthe internal part of building$ ! gauge is established on the wall
to determine thethic ness of the plaster$ The average thic ness of plaster on site is -$3inches$

.RENDERING

This is a type of %lastering done on the e*ternal or outer part of a building$ Itmi*ing ratio defers from
plastering due to their differences in functionalre5uirement$ ;endering serves as a protection against
weather conditions$ ! gaugeis established on the wall to determine the thic ness of the rendering$
The averagethic ness of plaster on site is /inches