Index

Unit One :Mechanics

Chapter 1 Measurements 1
Chapter 2 Kinematics 5
Chapter 3 Forces 9
Chapter 4 Moment 19
Chapter 5 Pressure 21
Chapter6 Work & Energy 23

Unit Two :Thermal Physics

Chapter1 Kinetic Molecular Theory 28

Chapter 2 Thermometers 33
Chapter 3 Heat transmission 36
Chapter 4 Heat energy 40
Unit Three :Waves

Chapter1 General properties of waves 45

Chapter 2 Sound Waves 49
Chapter 3 Light Waves 51
Chapter 4 Optics (Lenses) 57

Mohammed Allam
 Index
Unit Four: Electricity

Chapter 1 Electrostatics 59
Chapter 2 Electric current 61
Chapter 3 Magnetism 67
Chapter 4 Magnetic Effect of Current 71
Chapter 5 Electromagnetic Induction 75
Chapter6 Electronic Devices 80

Unit Five :Atomic Physics

Chapter 1 The Nuclear Atom 83

Chapter 2 Radioactivity 85

Mohammed Allam
Unit one
Mechanics

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 Unit one: Mechanics PHYSICS IGCSE

Chapter 1:- Measurements

Measuring length
Instruments
 Micrometer ( up to 1 cm with accuracy 0.001cm )
 Vernier caliper ( up to 10 cm with accuracy 0.01cm )
 The ruler ( up to 30 cm with accuracy 0.1 cm )
 The meter rule ( up to 1 m with accuracy 0.1 cm )
 The measuring tape ( distance more than 1 m with accuracy 1 cm )

Precautions:

 Avoid parallax error by viewing perpendicular

to instrument scale.
Sphere
 Repeat and take average result. or
clinder
Techniques:
Measuring diameter or curved lengths by using
two wooden blocks. 2 wooden blocks

Vernier scale reading: main scale (to the nearest 0.0mm) + Vernier scale (to the
nearest 0.00mm)

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 Unit one: Mechanics PHYSICS IGCSE

Micrometer scale reading: main scale main scale (to the nearest 0.0mm) +
rotating scale (to the nearest 0.00mm)

For sheets thickness, measure certain number of sheets and find the average.

Measure Volume
Volume: space occupied by a body.

 Volume is measured in m3 or cm3 or mm3

 For regular shapes: we use ruler to find dimensions of the body and
use geometrics rules to find the volume (cube, cuboid, cylinder,
sphere).
 For irregular shapes: we use displacement method.
1. Put some liquid in a measuring cylinder and
measure its volume V1
2. Insert the solid gently in the measuring
cylinder so that it becomes totally
submerged and measure volume V2 of the
solid and liquid.
3. The volume of the solid is V= V2 – V1

Precautions:
1. The measuring cylinder must be vertical by putting it on a horizontal
bench.
2. The eye should be placed perpendicular to any scale to avoid parallax
error.
3. The reading should be taken at the bottom of the meniscus of the
water surface (for mercury the reading should be at the top of the
meniscus).
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 Unit one: Mechanics PHYSICS IGCSE
Measuring mass
Mass: amount of matter inside a body.

 Mass is measured in Kg or g or mg.

 Mass of body is always constant.
 We use spring balance or two pan balance to
measure mass.
 To find mass using spring balance, the reading
must be divided by 10.

Measuring time
 Time is measured in second or minutes or hours.
 We use clock or stopwatch to measure time.
 To increase accuracy of measuring for oscillations, measure time for
number of oscillations from fixed position and find the average.

Density:
It is mass per unit volume

- ρ: density (Kg/m3 or g/cm3)

- m: mass (Kg or g)
- V: volume (m3 or cm3)
 Density is scalar quantity.
 Density is constant for material, but it can varies by temperature.

Basic Physical quantities

Quantity Unit (Sl)

Length (m) Meter
Mass (kg) Kilogram
Time (s) Second
Temperature Kelvin

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 Unit one: Mechanics PHYSICS IGCSE

 Vector and scalar quantities

Scalar Vector
They have magnitude only They have magnitude and
direction
Distance Displacement
Time
Mass weight
Speed Velocity
Temperature Acceleration
Work& Energy Force
Density Momentum
Power Moment
pressure Impulse

Proportionality
1. Directly proportional 2. Inversely proportional

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 Unit one: Mechanics PHYSICS IGCSE

Chapter 2: Kinematics

Speed & velocity

 Speed: It is the distance moved per unit time (scalar quantity)
 Velocity: It is displacement per unit time (vector quantity)
- : speed (m/s)
𝑑
- : distance (m) 𝑣=
𝑡
- : Time (s)
m/s
 This formula is used only if speed is constant.
- : velocity (m/s)
𝑠
- s: displacement (m) 𝑣=
𝑡
- : Time (s)
 If speed is constant, that doesn’t mean that velocity is constant
(because velocity is quantity which depends on direction).
 If velocity is constant, that means that is definitely constant.

Average speed
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
 For complete journey: 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 =
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
 For certain set journey with uniform acceleration in straight line so:
𝑣+𝑢
- u: initial velocity 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
2
- v: final velocity
Acceleration(a)
𝑣−𝑢
It’s the change of velocity per unit time. 𝑎= m/s2
𝑡

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Mohammed Allam
 Unit one: Mechanics PHYSICS IGCSE

Slope (gradient) of the graphs

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Mohammed Allam
 Unit one: Mechanics PHYSICS IGCSE

Distance-time graphs
 Y-axis represents distance travelled.
 The slope represents speed.

At rest Constant speed Increasing speed Decreasing speed

ssssvg

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Mohammed Allam
 Unit one: Mechanics PHYSICS IGCSE

Speed-time graphs
 Y-axis represents speed.
 The slope represents the acceleration.
 Area under the graph represents distance travelled.

v v v
v

t t
t t
Increasing speed Increasing speed
At rest Constant speed
with constant acc. with Increasing acc.

v v v
v

t t t
t
Increasing speed Decreasing speed Decreasing speed Decreasing speed
with decreasing acc. with constant decel. with Increasing decel. with decreasing decel.

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 Unit one: Mechanics PHYSICS IGCSE

Chapter 3: Forces
Newton
 Forces are vector quantities and are measured in Newton.
 Forces can change shape of body & cause a body to accelerate.
 There are two types of forces.
i) Contact force: forces which action bodies only.
ii) Non-contact force: gravitational force, electric & magnetic force.
 Properties of common forces
1. Weight (gravitational force)
It’s the Pull of gravity on a body 𝑤 = 𝑚𝑔
- w: weight (gravitational force)(N)
- m: mass (Kg) surface
w
- g: free fall acceleration (gravitational field strength)
 Gravitational strength is constant for each planet (earth=10m/s2)
But at high altitudes this value may decrease.
 Weight of body is always drawn vertically downwards from a point
called the center of gravity of the body.
 If weight only acting on two bodies released from high point they will
have same speed as they fall even if one body is heavier other one
(Free Falling).

Mass Weight
Amount of matter in body Pull of gravity on a body
Scalar quantity Vector quantity
Measured in Kg Measured in newton
Has the same value anywhere in Varies from one planet to anther due
universe to change in gravitational strength
n
2. Normal contact force (reaction force)
 This is the force experienced by an object when
it pushes against a solid surface.
 The normal contact force is always drawn surface

perpendicular to the solid surface at point of

contact. w

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 Unit one: Mechanics PHYSICS IGCSE
3. Friction force
 Force experienced by an object when it slides or tries to slide on rough
surface, it is always opposes direction of motion.
 It depends on:
i) Type of surface.
ii) Weight of the body
4. Drag force
 This is a friction force which resists the body through fluids (liquid or
gas) (ex. air resistance, water resistance)
 The drag is always opposite to the direction of motion.
 It depends on:
i) Speed of the body.
ii) Surface area exposed to the fluid.
iii) Type of fluid.
 Calculation of resultant force:
Resultant force: a force which is the result of two or more forces acting
together.

 If forces acting in same axis

3N 4N

5N
11N 6N
7N

Resultant force = 12N Resultant force = 7N Resultant force = 5N

F2
 If forces acting in different directions
1. Find suitable scale for the 2 forces. R
2. Measure the angle between them.
3. Draw the 2 forces and complete the parallelogram.
F1
4. The resultant force is the diagonal between the two forces.
5. Measure the length of the diagonal and use same scale.
6. Measure the angle between the resultant force and any force (Direction).

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 Unit one: Mechanics PHYSICS IGCSE
N.B

 Forces in direction of motion called Driving force.

 Forces against direction of motion called Resistive force.

Resultant forces = Driving forces – Resistive forces

Newton’s law of motion

Three laws that describes the effect of forces on objects:

Newton’s first law:

Everybody remains its state of rest or motion unless an external
force is applied to it. ∑ F=zero

Newton’s Second Law:

The net force acting on a body equals the product of its mass and
acceleration. Fnet =m×a

1. If Driving force > Resistive force

 Resultant in the direction of the motion (body accelerates).
2. If Driving force < Resistive force
 Resultant against the direction of the motion (body decelerates).
3. If Driving force = Resistive force
 Resultant= 0, so the body continuous in its state (no acceleration).

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 Unit one: Mechanics PHYSICS IGCSE

Newton’s third law:

Every action (Force) has opposite and equal reaction.
(Same type of forces)

Direction of
rotation
Centripetal force
 When a body moves in a uniform circular
Centripetal
motion, speed of the ball is constant force
 Velocity changes as direction of motion
changes every time.
 To change direction of velocity a force must
be acted to the body, this force called Direction of
centripetal force. motion
 Centripetal force: is the resultant force which
is always directed towards the center of the
circle (perpendicular to the direction of
motion) and its effect only in direction of
motion.

Examples for centripetal forces

1. Planets, moons, orbital satellites (gravitational force).
2. Electrons around nucleus (electrostatic force).
3. Vehicles when turn (friction force)
4. Pendulum swing (Tension force).

Factors affecting this force:

1. If mass increases, force must be increased.
2. If speed increases, force must be increased. F =mv2 /r
3. If radius of circle decreases, force must be increased.

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 Unit one: Mechanics PHYSICS IGCSE

Elastic force

 Deformation means change in shape.

 Elastic deformation: body returns to it is
original shape when the force causing
deformation removed.
 Plastic deformation: body does not return
to it is original shape when the force is
Force
removed. (load) elastic
Relation between force and extension (F) limit E Plastic
deformation
 Record length of a un stretched spring (d)
 Add weight spring of known mass. elastic
deformation
 Record length of the stretched spring (d1)
 Repeat experiment and plot a graph between load and extension.Extension(x)

Extension = stretched length – original length

Hooke’s law
Force and extension are directly proportional to the elastic limit (limit of
proportionality).(F α x)

F= kx
- F: force applied to the spring (N).
- x: extension (cm or mm)
- k: spring constant (N/cm or N/mm)

N.B: the spring constant (stiffness) is the gradient of the curve until elastic
limit and it depends on characteristics of the spring.

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 Unit one: Mechanics PHYSICS IGCSE

Parachute motion and terminal velocity:

Weight only and no drag so accelerates.

Speed increases so drag increases so net force decreases so

acceleration decreases.

Weight = drag so net force = 0

So acceleration =0
So moves with constant speed (terminal velocity).

Parachute opens increases the drag so net force is now

upwards opposing motion
Force opposing motion causes deceleration so speed decreases

Drag decreases until it = the weight again

weight = drag
net force = 0
acceleration = 0
Another constant speed (terminal velocity)

But slower than the previous one.

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 Unit one: Mechanics PHYSICS IGCSE

Balanced and unbalanced forces

If an object has two or more forces action on it, we have to consider
whether or not they are balanced consider how the unbalanced force affects
the acceleration of a skydiver, and the figure below shows how his speed
might change during descent.

AB: At first, as the skydiver jumps from the aircraft, when he is travelling
slowly, he encounters little air resistance, so accelerates freely, i.e. his weight
gives him acceleration g.(One way to start an object moving is to release it and
allow the Earth to pull it down. The Earth’s pull causes the object to accelerate
downwards at the rate of 10 m/s2. This constant acceleration is what we call free
fall acceleration, which takes place when weight is the only force acting on a
falling object.)
However, the faster he goes, the more air he has to push out of way each
second, and so the greater the air resistance that opposes his fall so the resultant
force becomes smaller and his acceleration decreases (this is shown by the
decreasing gradient of the velocity-time graph).
BC: Eventually, when air resistance equals his weight,(resistive force is equal to
the driving force), the forces on the skydiver are balanced ( the resultant force is
zero) where his acceleration reaches zero, which is a top speed, known as
terminal velocity.
CD: The idea of a parachute is to greatly increase the force of air resistance so
as it opens, the resultant force is upwards causing deceleration.
DE: As she slows, air resistance becomes less. Once again the two forces are
equal and falls at a much lower terminal velocity, so the parachutist can land
safely.

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 Unit one: Mechanics PHYSICS IGCSE
Momentum
Introduction

What happens to a moving object involved in a collision depends on two

factors: the mass of the object and its velocity. The concept of momentum
is used to explain the results of collisions between objects, and defined as
the mass of an object multiplied by velocity.
Momentum = mass × velocity
Pl = mv

Because momentum is the product of a scalar (mass) and a vector

(velocity), it follows that momentum is a vector quantity, the direction being
the same as that of the velocity and measured in :
N.s or kg.m/s
These units are equivalent………………………………….

Conservation of momentum: Everything that moves has momentum and

exerts a force on anything that it interacts with. This force causes an object to
change its velocity, so a change in momentum. When two objects interact, they
exert forces its velocity, so a change in momentum. When two objects interact,
they exert forces on each other and so the momentum of each one changes.

This is illustrated below the 0.4 kg ball loses momentum and the other ball
gains momentum. The changes in momentum are equal in size and opposite in
direction.

The combined momentum of the balls is the same before and after they collide .
This is an example of the principle of conservation of momentum which states
that:
When two or more objects in a system interact (or collide), the total momentum
remains constant provided that is no external resultant force acting on system

m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2

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 Unit one: Mechanics PHYSICS IGCSE
Example
The diagram shows an example of a collision where a light object
collides with a heavier one;

Example
The diagram shows two vehicles approaching each other. The vehicles
join together and move as one;

Application of the principle of conservation of momentum in this case

gives:

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 Unit one: Mechanics PHYSICS IGCSE

Momentum and Newton’s second law

Newton’s second law can be written as follows:

𝒗 − 𝒖 𝒎𝒗 − 𝒎𝒖 ∆𝑷
𝑭=𝒎×𝒂=𝒎× = =
𝒕 𝒕 𝒕
The resultant force F that causes a change in momentum of a body depends
on how big the change in momentum it experiences and depends also on the
time taken to experience the change in momentum.

Impulse: is the change in momentum

 Impulse = F×t = mv-mu
 Impulse is a vector quantity
 Impulse unit :

N.s or kg.m/s

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 Unit one: Mechanics PHYSICS IGCSE

Chapter 4: Turning effect of forces (Moment)

 Moment: is the turning effect of the force around a fixed point.

 Moment of a force(M) = Force x Perpendicular distance from pivot.
 Moment is vector quantity (clockwise & anti-clockwise direction).

M=Fxd
N.m
- M: moment
- F: force (N)
- d: Perpendicular distance of force from pivot (m or cm)
 Principle of moment: If an object is to be balanced on a pivot then the
sum of clockwise moments must be equal to the sum of anti-clockwise
moments.
 Condition for body to rotate around a fixed point that clockwise
moment must be not equal to sum of anti-clockwise moments.

Conditions for equilibrium

1-

2-

Example
Clockwise moment = 450 x 0.4 = 180N.m

Anti-clockwise moment = 120 x 1.5 =180N.m

R+ 120 = 450, R= 330N

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 Unit one: Mechanics PHYSICS IGCSE

 Center of mass (center of gravity)

It’s the Point at which the whole weight of the object my acts.
 For regular objects center of gravity lies on its geometrical center.
 For irregular shapes.

Stability
 Can be improved by:
i) Large base area. N
N
ii) Low center of gravity.
 If the vertical line of
weight passes out of
the base of the body
will topple.
Experimental Notes
1. To check horizontal position h1 = h2
 Measure height from 2defferent points.
h1
 Use spirit level. h2
2. To check vertical or protector
 Use set square or protractor.
3. To place center of mass on Surface
ruler
 Measure width or diameter of
the object & adjust it with ruler
to place mid-point at the
needed point.

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 Unit one: Mechanics PHYSICS IGCSE

Chapter 5: Pressure
It is force per unit area.
 Pressure is scalar quantity measured in Pascal.
𝐹
- P: pressure... Pa or N/m2 𝑃=
𝐴
- F: force exerted (N)
- A: area (m2)
 Pressure is inversely proportional to the area where the same force is
acting.
 Objects with small surface area have high pressure on surface acting
on like: nail, pin & knife.

Pressure in liquids
 A liquid exerts on the sides and the base it is container also, when an
object is submerged in a liquid.
- P: pressure (Pa)
- p: density (kg/m2)
P = pgh h1
h2
- g: gravitational strength (10 m/s2)
- h: depth below surface of the liquid (m)
 Pressure in liquid only depends on depth below the
liquid’s surface.
 Pressure at the bottom is greater than pressure at
the top; this pressure difference is leading to the
body to move upwards with a force called up thrust
force.
 Up thrust force: if a body is partially submerged or
completely submerged in a liquid it well experience
on up thrust force, the up thrust force is always
drawn vertically up wards, it depends on volume of
the body and density of the liquid.
 Pascal’s principle: a change in the pressure applied
to a fluid is transmitted undiminished to every point
of the fluid and to the walls of the container.
 This idea used in many hydraulic applications.

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 Unit one: Mechanics PHYSICS IGCSE

 Atmospheric pressure
 It is due to the weight of atmosphere mass.
 Atmospheric pressure varies with altitudes.

Barometer
 Used to determine the atmospheric pressure.
 Mercury level falls in the tube until the
pressure of mercury column (h) in the tube
equal to the atmospheric pressure.

 If we use less dense liquid than mercury, we

will need a longer tube as (h) will be greater.

Manometer
 An instrument used measures difference
between gas pressure and atmospheric
pressure. Patm = pgh
 Difference in height indicates which pressure is
greater.

Pgas = Patm ± pgh

 If we used a less dense liquid, (h) will be
greater, as (h) inversely proportional to the
density.

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 Unit one: Mechanics PHYSICS IGCSE

Chapter 6:Energy, Work & Power

Work done
It is product of force and distance moved by
the force.
.
 Work done is scalar quantity measured in Joules.
- W: work done …… J 𝑊 = 𝐹 × 𝑑 moved
- F: force exerted on a body (N).
- d: distance moved by the body along direction of force (m).

Types of Energy
Potential energy: Energy stored inside a body in many forms

1. Gravitational potential energy: It is the work done to raise a body to

height(h).
- g.p.e: gravitational potential energy (J).
- m: mass of the body (Kg).
- g: gravitational strength (10m/s2).
- h: height above the ground (m).
Joule

𝑔. 𝑝. 𝑒 = 𝑚 × 𝑔 × ℎ
2. Chemical energy: any chemical reaction involves conversion of
chemical energy to some other from of energy.
3. Strain energy: energy gained by a body when experience elastic
deformation due to stretching, compression, bending or twisting.

Heat energy: Form of energy that is transferred by difference in

temperature

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 Unit one: Mechanics PHYSICS IGCSE
.

Kinetic energy: Energy due to motion. Joule

- K.E: kinetic energy (J).
1
- m: mass of moving body (Kg) 𝐾. 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑣 2
2
- v: speed of the body (m/s).

Electrical energy: Energy gained by a change when passes through

conductors or appliances.
Internal energy: Energy of molecules in a body (increased when
temperature increase).
 There are many forms of energies like sound energy, light energy..
Principle of conservation of energy
Energy can be neither created nor destroyed, but can change from one form to another.

Source of energy
Nuclear Fusion: This is the main source of energy in the sun, light nuclei of
hydrogen are combined together to produce a heavier nucleus of helium
and great amount of energy is released.
Nuclear fission: When a neutron hits nucleus, it splits into two lighter nuclei
(Barium & krypton), few neutrons are emitted and large amount of thermal
energy released used to vaporize large amount of water into steam which
drives turbines of electric generators to generate electricity.
Fossil fuel energy: Fossil fuel is burned;
chemical energy converted to heat energy, this
heat energy used to increase internal energy of
water so that it change to high pressure steam
makes the turbines rotate so that the internal
energy of steam converted to kinetic energy
which drives generators.

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 Unit one: Mechanics PHYSICS IGCSE

Hydroelectric power station: When water rushes from high level to low level it is
gravitational potential energy is converted to kinetic energy which rotate the
turbines which drives generators.

Geothermal power stations: geothermal energy

is the heat energy obtained from hot rock close
to earth’s surface; the heat energy increases the
internal energy of water so it changes steams
which rotate the turbines which drives
generators.

Wind energy: Wind energy generators are

driven by giant wind mills to produce electric
energy.

Solar energy: It is main source of energy on earth, heat energy from the sun
can be used to heat water in solar heaters, light energy is converted to
electrical energy is solar cells.

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 Unit one: Mechanics PHYSICS IGCSE

ENERGY TRANSFORMATION
Input energy Output energy
Motor Electric Kinetic
Generator Kinetic Electric
Engine Chemical Kinetic
Battery Chemical Electric
Microphone Sound Electric
Loud speaker Electric Sound
Matches Chemical Heat
Thermopile Heat Electrical
Running man Chemical Kinetic

Relation between potential energy and kinetic energy

 When a body is released to have free fall acceleration, all gravitational
potential energy is converted to kinetic energy and vice versa.

g.P.Elost = K.Egained

Power
It is the rate of transferring energy.

 It is scalar quantity measured in W =J/s

Watt

- P: Power (W).
- W: word done or energy transferred (J).
- t: time (s).

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 Unit one: Mechanics PHYSICS IGCSE

Efficiency (ƞ)
It is ratio between useful output to the total input.

 We use to calculate efficiency to know how we make benefits of our

source of energy and to know energy losses.
 Efficiency has no unit.

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 Unit two
Thermal Physics

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 Unit 2: Thermal Physics PHYSICS IGCSE

Chapter 1: Kinetic molecular theory of matter

Kinetic theory
1- All matter is built up of small particles (molecules).
2- Molecules are in continuous motion as they have kinetic energy.
3- There are intermolecular attraction forces between molecules.
4- There are intermolecular spaces separating molecules.

States of matter
Shape Arrangement
State of
and Movement Representation
matter Order Spaces
volume Packing

Definite
Well Very Well Vibrate in
Solid shape
order close packed position
volume

Indefinite Limited
shape but Not Fairly random
Liquid order Close packed
Definite free
volume motion

Indefinite Total
shape and Not Widely Not random
Gas order spaced packed free
volume
motion

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 Unit 2: Thermal Physics PHYSICS IGCSE
Brownian motion
 Smoke particles are very light enough to be floating in air.
 Smoke particles reflect the light falling on it and seen as bright specks
against a dark background moving in random direction.
 Smoke particles are surrounding by thousands of air molecules are small
& fast, they collide with smoke particles randomly in all directions
causing to move randomly.
 If the cell is heated air molecules will move at higher speeds, which
make smoke particles move faster as air molecules hitting them are
faster.

Behavior of gases
 Molecules have kinetic energy because they are moving & potential
energy because the attraction force between them.
 Temperature: Is the average measure of kinetic energy of molecules.
 Pressure of a gas: particles move randomly in all directions, they exert
forces on the walls when they make collisions with it; these forces cause
pressure on the walls.
 Volume of a gas: depends on the spacing between molecules.

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 Unit 2: Thermal Physics PHYSICS IGCSE
1- Relation between temperature & pressure (constant volume)

 When temperature increase, kinetic energy of molecules increase

molecules move faster so rate of collisions with the wall of the
container increase; pressure increase and vice versa.
 Pressure & absolute temperature of a fixed mass of a gas are directly
proportional as long as volume is kept constant.
 Absolute temperature=temperature in kelvin scale
 Kelvin scale=Celsius scale+273
𝑃1 𝑃2
 PαT =
𝑇1 𝑇2

2-Relation between pressure & volume (constant temperature)

 When volume of a fixed mass gas decrease or compressed, molecules
will move in smaller space so rate of collisions with wall of the
container increase.
 Pressure & volume of a fixed mass of a gas are inversely proportional
as long as temperature is kept constant (Boyle sˈ law).

1 1

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 Unit 2: Thermal Physics PHYSICS IGCSE

3- Relation between volume & temperature (constant pressure)

 when temperature increase , kinetic energy of
molecules increase making molecules to be pushed
further apart and spacing between them increase ,
so volume increase and vice versa.
 Volume & absolute temperature of a fixed mass of
a gas are directly proportional as long as pressure is
kept constant (Charles ˈlaw).
 VαT ,

4- General gas law

Thermal expansion
 When the temperature of any material is increased , the speed and
kinetic energy of it is molecules is increased , this cause the
molecules to be pushed further apart and he material expands ,
when the material is cooled the reverse happens.
 It depends on attraction force between molecules.
1. Solids have the smallest expansion rate.
2. Liquids have slightly more expansion rate.
3. Gases have much more expansion rate.
 We put in consideration expansion of metals to avoid some
problems. 1

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 Unit 2: Thermal Physics PHYSICS IGCSE

Evaporation
 It’s the escape of the most energetic molecules from the surface
of a liquid, these molecules having the highest kinetic energy
that is sufficient energy to break bonds with other surrounding
molecules.
 Factors increasing evaporation rate
1. Increasing it is temperature.
2. Increase it is surface area.
3. Pass air across its surface.
Cooling effect of evaporation
 The faster molecules escape from the liquid which have the
highest kinetic energy , as a result the average kinetic energy
of the remaining molecules reduced, so the temperature
decrease ( ex: after shaving, drying wet clothes).

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 Unit 2: Thermal Physics PHYSICS IGCSE

Chapter 2: Thermometers
Liquid in glass thermometer
This thermometer relies on the change in volume of a liquid to
measure temperature as the liquid expands it moves along the
capillary tube and the temperature is read off on the steam.
Temperature scales

 Lower fixed point: this is the temperature of pure

melting ice and it is 0 co.
 Upper fixed point: this is the temperature of steam
above pure boiling water under slandered atmospheric
pressure, it is 100 co.
 The scale: rest of scale it made by
dividing the space between the
points into 100 equal divisions
( calibration of scale).

Properties of a thermometer
 Sensitivity: amount of liquid expansion corresponding to very small
change in temperature, it can be improved by:-
1. Larger bulb
2. Thinner capillary
 Range: minimum and maximum temperature that a thermometer can
measure, it can improved by:-
1. Smaller bulb.
2. Wider capillary.
 Response time: time taken by thermometer to reach thermal
equilibrium with its surrounding.
 Linearity: the liquid expand uniformly with temperature.

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 Unit 2: Thermal Physics PHYSICS IGCSE

Mercury Alcohol
Has a lower expansion than Expansion is six times that of
alcohol mercury
Boiling point much higher Boiling point much lower than
o
than that of alcohol (357 c ) that of mercury (78 co)
Freezing point higher than Freezing point lower than that
o
that of alcohol (-39 c ) of mercury (-115 co)
Does not wet the inside of the Wets the inside of the capillary
capillary tube tube

Thermocouple
 It consists of 2 junctions (iron, copper).
 When one junction is placed at
reference (0 co) and other at medium
whose temperature needs to be
measured, a voltage is produced and is
proportional to the difference in
temperature.
 Galvanometer is used to measure the
voltage and is calibrated to read the
temperature directly.
Hot Cold
junction junction

Advantage of thermocouple
 Wide temperature range.
 It can measure very high and low temperatures.
 Fast response to rapid temperature changes.
 Measure temperature of very small object.

N.B: One junction is put in reference cold medium (0 co) and the other in
the medium wanted to measure its temperature.

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 Unit 2: Thermal Physics PHYSICS IGCSE

Other thermometers
One type of resistance thermometer uses the fact that the electrical
resistance of a platinum wire increases with temperature,
A thermistor can also be used but over a small range, its resistance
decreases with temperature.
The constant- volume gas thermometer uses the change in pressure of a
gas to measure temperatures over a wide range.
Thermo chromic liquids which change color with temperature have a limited
range around room temperatures.

Heat and temperature

It is important not to confuse the temperature of a body with the heat
energy that can be obtained from it.
Heat passes from a body at a higher temperature to one at a lower
temperature.
When the average K.E. of the molecules is the same in both bodies, they are
at the same temperature.
Heat is also called thermal or internal energy: it is the energy a body has
because of the kinetic energy and the potential energy of its molecules.
Increasing the temperature of a body increases its heat energy due to the
K.E. of its molecules increasing.

Precautions when reading a

thermometer

1- The eye should be perpendicular to the scale to avoid parallax.

2- Mercury thread must be close to the scale.
3- Read from the top of the mercury meniscus.

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 Unit 2: Thermal Physics PHYSICS IGCSE

Chapter 3: Heat transmission

Conduction
 When temperature of a solid is increased
the kinetic energy of particles in the hot
part increases, each particle transfers its
vibrational energy to neighboring
particles.
 Conduction in metal: all metal are good
conductors as they have free electrons,
are much greater due to the higher
velocities ( ex: copper, iron aluminum)
 Conduction in non-metal : they are poor conductors or insulators ( ex:
glass, plastics, wood & rubber )
 Liquid and gases are very poor conductor of heat.
 Vacuum does not conduct heat at all.

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 Unit 2: Thermal Physics PHYSICS IGCSE
Convection
 When a mass of liquid ( or gas ) is heated the spacing between it is
molecules increase so that it expand and therefore becomes less
dense and is pushed upwards while the cooler, more dense liquid
around sinks to take it is place and vice versa.
 This process repeated several times making convection current.
 This cannot be happened in solids cannot move around and exchange
places.

Radiation
 The only way that heat energy can
transfer through a vacuum is by
radiation, this is because radiation
involves transfer of heat energy by a
group of electromagnetic waves
called infra-red waves.
 All hot objects emits heat radiation
inform of electrons waves.
 Can be detected by thermocouple,
thermopile & blackened-bulb
thermometer.

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 Unit 2: Thermal Physics PHYSICS IGCSE

Experiment to determine the rate of infra-red emission from

different types of surface
 Hot water is poured in the metal
container, so that each of the four faces
becomes hot. So it emits radiations.
 Thermometers are placed at equal
distance from the four faces to ensure
a fair comparison.
 We observe that dull surface emits and absorbs heat more than shiny
one & black surface emits and absorbs heat more than white one

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 Unit 2: Thermal Physics PHYSICS IGCSE

N.B: Hot bodies loses heat energy to the surroundings until it became
cool this depends on:
1. The difference in temperature between the body and surroundings
2. Exposed surface area.
3. Nature of radiating surface (black, white silver).

N.B: To reduce heat loss by convection use lid or cover (evaporation also).

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 Unit 2: Thermal Physics PHYSICS IGCSE

Chapter 4: Heat Energy

When a piece of matter is heated to rise it is temperature than the amount of
heat energy (Q) that should be given to this piece of matter depends on:

 The mass of this piece of matter (m).

 The required rise in temperature (∆T)
 Type of the material (the specific heat capacity (c) of the substance)

Specific heat capacity (c)

This is the amount of heat energy needed to change the temperature of

one kg of substance by 1K OR (1℃)

-Q :energy supplied or gained ( Q = Pt ) (J)

- m: mass of the body .

- c: specific heat capacity of the material =
- ∆T: difference in temperature (Tfinal – Tinitial)

Determination of specific heat capacity

 Electric heater to be immersed inside the
material whose specific heat is to be
measured with electric power (P).
 Mass of water measured using top pan
balance (m).
 Initial temperature using thermometer
before heating (Ti).
 Final temperature after heating (Tf).
 Time taken to get final temperature (t) using
stop watch.

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 Unit 2: Thermal Physics PHYSICS IGCSE
 Heat is lost to surrounding, so the rise in temperature is smaller than
it should, and value obtained for c is greater than true value, so the
apparatus should be covered by thermal insulator (aluminum foil,
plastic sheets) to reduce heat loss due to surroundings.

Thermal capacity
It is amount of heat energy needed to change the temperature of the whole
body by 1co or 1 K
 Thermal capacity
 When a material has a high thermal capacity, changing temperature
of this material will be difficult and need long time. As it needs lot of
energy to change only 1 co

The specific latent heat (L)

It’s the amount of heat energy needed to change a substance of 1 kg from
a state to another state at constant temperature

Determination of specific latent heat of fusion (melting)

 Heater immersed inside ice whose
specific latent heat to be determined
with power (p).
 Record time (t) at start of ice melt and
dropping water at constant rate by stop
watch and it for a while.
 Measure mass (m) of molten ice.

 Heat is lost to surrounding, and value obtained for L is greater than

true value, so the funnel should by coved by thermal insulator to
reduce heat loss due surroundings.
 Ice must be crushed very small pieces to reduce air gaps and heat
loss to that air

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 Unit 2: Thermal Physics PHYSICS IGCSE

Determination of specific latent of vaporization

 Electric heater is immersed inside the liquid
whose specific latent heat of vaporization is to
be determined with power (p).
 Record (m¹) before heating.
 Start stop watch when water starts to be boil
for certain of time (t)
 Record (m²) after heating

 Heat is lost to surrounding, and value obtained

for L is greater than true value, so the apparatus
should be wrapped by thermal insulator to
reduce heat loss due to surroundings.

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 Unit 2: Thermal Physics PHYSICS IGCSE

Heating properties
For change in temperature (1,3,5 curves)

 Heat energy supplied increase

average measures of kinetic
energy of molecules so the
temperature increases.
 Heat energy calculated using
formula ( Q=mc Δ T).
 Gradient of these curves depends
on specific heat capacity.
For change in state (2, 4 curves)

 Heat energy supplied is being used in breaking bonds between

molecules and increasing potential energy of molecules (separate
them) and change from state to state.
 As kinetic energy of molecules doesn’t change, Temperature will
be constant.
 Heat energy calculated using formula (Q=ml).
 Time taken depends on latent capacity.
 If there is heat loss in a process, energy will be conserved in this
system.
 If we put ice cube in hot water, thermal energy gained by ice cube
will be equal to thermal energy lost by hot water unit they reach
thermal equilibrium ( not change in temperature will be equal ).
 Any to bodies with different temperatures contact with each
other, they must reach thermal equilibrium (their temperatures
will be equal).

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 Unit 2: Thermal Physics PHYSICS IGCSE

Evaporation Vaporization ( boiling)

Occurs at any temperature Occurs at certain temperature
(boiling point) only.
Molecules at surface only Molecules of all the liquid
Doesn’t contain bubbles Contains bubbles
Has cooling effect Process occurs at constant temperature

Heat experimental precautions

 When using electrical heater, must be completely immersed the
material.
 Keep thermometers away from heaters.
 Use insulators and covers to reduce heat loss to surroundings.

Constant( controlled) variables:

 Room temperature.
 Initial material temperature.
 Amount of material.
 Amount of stirring.
 Material & size of beakers.
 Intervals of time.

Constant conditions:
 Room temperature.
 Humidity.
 Draughts (air currents).

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Unit Three
waves

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 Unit three: waves PHYSICS IGCSE

Chapter 1: General Properties of Waves

Waves are a way to transfer energy through propagation of particle’s
vibration.

Nature of waves
 Mechanical waves: waves which need a medium to travel through
it Ex: ripple waves, sound waves
 Electromagnetic waves: waves which don’t need a medium to
travel Ex: light waves, Gama rays and so on.

Types of waves
 Transverse wave: particles of the
medium vibrate in a direction
perpendicular to the direction of
wave’s motion.
 Longitudinal wave: particles of the
medium vibrate in a direction parallel
to the direction of wave motion.

Properties of waves
 Amplitude (a): maximum displacement for particle can reach from mean
position.
 Wavelength (ƛ): distance between 2 successive crests or 2 successive
troughs OR distance between 2 successive compressions or 2 successive
rarefaction.
 Frequency ( f ): number of cycles (vibration)
per second, measured in Hertz (Hz).
 Periodic time (t): time needed to complete
one cycle. (second) T=1/f

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 Unit three: waves PHYSICS IGCSE

 Wave speed (v): is the speed at which energy is transferred (not

particles).
- v: speed (m/s )
- ƛ: wavelength: (m)
- ƒ : frequency ( Hz)
 Frequency of the wave is equal to source producing it.
 Speed of the wave depends only on the medium travelling through.
 Wavelength depends on type of medium and frequency of the source.
 In same medium, when frequency of wave decreases, the wavelength
increases and vice versa
 Particles of the medium only vibrate in their position. They do not move
with the wave

Drawing waves
 Rays: arrows which show the direction of wave motion.
 Wave fronts: imaginary lines which are drawn perpendicular to the
ray, distance between 2 successive wave front equal to wave length.

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 Unit three: waves PHYSICS IGCSE

Behavior of waves
1- Reflection
 When waves are reflected their frequency, wave length & speed do
not change, change in direction only.

2- Refraction
 Refraction is the change in speed of
a wave when it moves from one
medium to another.
 Medium which wave travel faster
called less dense deep water) &
slower in dense (shallow water).

 V & λ depends on medium.

i. Increase in less dense medium (ray bends away from normal).
ii. Decrease in more dense medium (ray bends towards the normal).
 Frequency does not change.

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 Unit three: waves PHYSICS IGCSE

3- Diffraction
 This is the spreading of waves when they travel through a gap or
round a corner.
 Diffraction depends on the size of the gap.

i. If (gap > λ ) they will experience small diffraction.

ii. If (gap = λ ) they will experience greater diffraction.

 Frequency, wavelength & speed co not change, only shape does.

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 Unit three: waves PHYSICS IGCSE

Chapter 2:- Sound Waves

 Sound waves are longitudinal and mechanical waves.

 Sound wave propagates as a
series of compressions and
rarefactions.
1. Compression: is a region where
spacing between molecules
decrease, so pressure increase.
2. Rarefaction: is a region where
spacing between molecules
increase, so pressure decrease.

Characteristics of sound
 Loudness: this is determined by the amplitude of the sound
wave, higher amplitude; louder sound.
 Pitch: this is determined by frequency of the sound wave, higher
frequency; higher pitched sound.

 Range of audible frequencies: the human ear only detect wave in

range 20 Hz to KHz ( infra sound < 20 Hz, Ultra sound > 20 KHz )
 Speed of sound

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 Unit three: waves PHYSICS IGCSE
 SPEED OF SOUND:

Substance Solids Water Air

Speed m/s 4000 to 6000 1400 320 to 340
Determination speed of sound
1. Direct method.

1. Measure distance (d) using tape meter.

2. Student (x) fires a gun and student (Y) measures time (t) between
seeing the flash and hearing the sound.
3. The speed of sound in air is calculated as follows: v=d/t
 We assume that the flash of light emitted at the instant of firing
the gun will take negligible time to reach other student: this is
because light travels much faster than sound.
 This procedure must be repeated several times and take
average result.

2. Echo method
1. Measure distance (d) with a
tape meter (should be at least
17 m to distinguish between
the sound and its echo).
2. Measure time (t) between
making a short pulse of sound
and receiving its echo.
3. Speed is calculated as follow:
v=2d/t

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 Unit three: waves PHYSICS IGCSE

Chapter 3: Light Waves

Electromagnetic waves
Properties
1. They are the only waves which can transfer energy through vacuum.
2. They travel with the same speed in a vacuum ( 3x10⁸ m/s).
3. They are transverse waves.
4. They behave same way as mechanical waves: they
experience reflection, refraction& diffraction.

Name of radiation source detector Uses

Cracks in welds,
Gamma- rays Unstable nuclei GM tube photo treatment of
(Max. freq.) film cancer, thickness
(Min.λ) control
High speed
electrons Produces images
x-rays stopped by a Photo film of bones and
target in x-ray internal organs
tube
Ultra violet Mercury vapour Photo film Suntan
lamps, sun
Very hot objects
Visible light and passing Photo film, Vision,
elec. Through eyes, LDR photography
gases
Thermocouple, Heating, remote
Warm and hot
Infra-red blackened control, night
object
thermometers vision
Transmitting Communications,
Micro waves Receiving aerial
aerial cooking
Radio waves Transmitting communications
Receiving aerial
aerial

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 Unit three: waves PHYSICS IGCSE

Reflection of light
 Angle of incidence: angle between
incident ray & normal to the surface.
 Angle of reflection: angle between
reflected ray & normal to the surface.
Experiment for observing reflection
 Place a plane mirror on a sheet of paper
 Draw line along the mirror
 Use ray box to shine a ray of light on the
mirror, draw incident ray & mark
reflected ray with pins
 Remove all the apparatus & draw line
joining pins (reflected ray)
 Measure angle of incident & angle of
reflection
Precautions
 Optical pins should be placed with at least 5 cm separation.
 Each pin should cover preceding one when viewed by one eye.
 Pins must be in vertical position.
 Optical pins are viewed correctly when their bases coincide.

Properties of reflected image

 Virtual (can’t be displayed on a screen).
 Upright.
 Same size of the object.
 Distance between object and mirror=distance between mirror and image.
 Laterally inverted (right – left inverted) (mirrored).
 Smooth surfaces make eye see images while rough cant.

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 Unit three: waves PHYSICS IGCSE

Refraction of light
 Angle of incidence: angle between
incident ray & normal to the surface.
 Angle of refraction: angle between
refracted ray & normal to the
surface.
 Refractive index (n) = ratio between
speed of light in air (or vacuum) to
the speed of light in the medium.
 (n) Depends on:
i) Density of the medium
ii) Color of light
 If light is falling normally from one
medium to another, the speed and
wavelength change, but the
direction does not change.

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 Unit three: waves PHYSICS IGCSE

Experiment to determine refractive index

 Place a rectangular block of glass on a

white sheet of paper & draw the
edges of the block.
 Let light ray fall on the block.
 Draw normal to the upper edge at the
point of intersection with light ray.
 Observe emerging ray from other side
of the block & mark it with pins.
 Remove the apparatus & draw the
refracted ray.
 Measure angle of incidence & angle of
refraction.
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒊
𝒏=
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓

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 Unit three: waves PHYSICS IGCSE
Total internal reflection

 When incidence angle in denser medium is greater than critical

angle, all light rays been reflected.
 Critical angle: angle of incidence in the denser medium for which
angle of refraction is 90o.
 To calculate critical angle we use formula

Application
1.Optical fibers

 Very this glass or plastic tube.

 Depends on total internal reflection idea.
 Used in making communication lines & material endoscopes.
 We often use many number of fibers to produce more detailed
image with greater resolution.

2. Periscope: Reflecting Prism

 Used in submarines so people below

surface can see above surface
 Mirrors or glass prism (45-45-90) could
be used.
 It depends on reflection method or
total internal reflection idea.

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 Unit three: waves PHYSICS IGCSE

Dispersion of light

 Monochromatic light is which has a single wave length.

 White light consists of a continuous range of wave lengths which
lies approximately between 10-8and 10-6, this includes all wave
lengths of visible light ( spectrum-ROYGBIV) & some wave length in
the non-visible regions of the electromagnetic spectrum (infra-red
& ultra violet )
 Beam of white light will be dispersed; because of the refractive
index of the glass has the slightly difference values for different
colors.
 Red has the highest speed while violet has the lowest.
 Red has the lowest refractive index while violet has the highest
one.

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 Unit three: waves PHYSICS IGCSE

Chapter 4: Lenses
Lens has the action of refracting rays falling on it to collect them at a point.
 Optical center of the lens (p):
point at the center of the lens.
 Principle axis: line passing through
optical center and perpendicular
to the lens.
 Principle focus (f): point at which
refracted rays collected.
 Focal length: distance between
principle focus & optical center.
How we draw rays in lenses

To form real images (image which can be displayed on a screen)

 Real image
 Inverted
 Smaller size
 Uses: camera

 Real
 Inverted
 Same size
 Uses: photocopier

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 Unit three: waves PHYSICS IGCSE
 Real
 Inverted
 Bigger size
 Uses: projector

 No image

 As the object get closer to the lens, the image get bigger and from
the lens

Precautions to from a sharp image

 Used darkened room
 Object, lens and the screen must be lined up in a straight line and
same horizontal level
 All apparatus must be perpendicular to the surface.

To form virtual images (image which can’t be displayed on a screen)

 Virtual
 Upright
 Bigger size
 Uses: Magnifying Glass 0

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Mohammed Allam
Unit four
Electricity

Mohammed Allam
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 Unit four: Electricity PHYSICS IGCSE

Chapter 1: Electrostatics
Properties of charged body
 A body becomes positively charged when it loses electrons and it
becomes negatively charge when it gains electrons.
 Charged bodies attract light objects like dust, small pieces of paper.
 Like charges repel, unlike charges attract.

Conductors
Materials which contain a lot of free electrons that flow through them,
metals are the best conductors as they have free electrons.

Insulators
Materials which contain no free electrons, insulator should be perfectly dry,
moisture can destroy the insulation by conducting electric charges.

Methods of charging a body

1- Charging conduction
 When a charged body touches an uncharged body, the two bodies
share the same type of charge.
2- Charging by rubbing
• Polythene and Perspex are both materials which become charged
when rubbed will a dry wool cloth.
• When a polythene rod is rubbed with a dry cloth, free electrons
transfer from the dry cloth to the polythene making rod negative
charge & the dry cloth become positive charge.
• When Perspex rod is rubbed with a dry cloth, free electrons from the
rod to the dry cloth making rod positive charge & dry cloth negative
charge.

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 Unit four: Electricity PHYSICS IGCSE
3- Charging by induction
i) Bring negative changed rod to a conductor, the
conductor becomes polarized.
ii) Connect the conductor to the earth, negative
charges escapes to earth.
iii) Disconnect the connection to earth.
iv) Remove charged rod, the conductor become
positive charged.

N.B: Amount of electric charge carried by charged body is calculated by

quantity (Q) measured in coulomb (c).
Q = ne
 Q: amount of charge (c).
 n: number of charges (electrons)
 e: charge of each electron

Electric field
It is region in space where an electric charge experiences an electrostatics
force.

• Electric field strength is proportional to the electric

field lines.
• Field lines come out from (+) to (-).
• Field lines never intersect.
• When (+) charged particle enters an electric field, it
attracts to the (-) Plate and repelled by the (+) plate.
• For (-) charged particle, it attracts to the (+) plate and repelled by the
(-) Plate.

Mohammed Allam 60
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Mohammed Allam
 Unit four: Electricity PHYSICS IGCSE

CH2: Electric current & Circuits

Components

The electric current

 Electrons flow from the negative pole of the battery to the positive pole.
 Conventional current is assumed as if (+) charges are moving in the
conductor so it always opposite to the direction of flow of electrons.
Electric current: amount of charge flowing in the
circuit per unit time, measured in amperes.
 I: electric current (A)
 Q: amount of charge (c)
 t: time (s)

E.m.f. (electromotive force) & potential difference

 When charges pass inside the battery the gain electrical energy & store
them.
 When charges pass in the external circuit, they lose their energy in form
of heat & light energies.

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 Unit four: Electricity PHYSICS IGCSE
E.m.f. is: electric energy gained by each coulomb of charge as it is
pushed by the battery through the whole circuit.
Potential difference: electric energy lost by each coulomb of charge as it
passes in certain component & appears as heat or light.

 E.m.f. and potential difference are measured in volts

1 volt=joule/coulomb

Ammeters & voltmeters

Ammeters

 Used to measure electric current (I)

 Connected in series.
 Have very low internal resistance as not to affect the circuit.

Voltmeters

 Used to measure potential difference between two points in a circuit.

 Connected in parallel.
 Voltmeters have very high internal resistance to take a small current
so not affect the circuit.

The resistance of a metal wire

R: resistance of the component, measured in Ohms (Ω)

i) Directly proportional to it is length.
ii) Inversely proportional to it is cross section area.
iii) Increase uniformly with temperature.
iv) Dependent on the material of the wire.

Mohammed Allam 62
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 Unit four: Electricity PHYSICS IGCSE
 Variable resistance (Rheostat) is such an example of using idea of
changing the length of resistance to control the current flowing in the
circuit.

Ohm’s law
At constant temperature the potential difference across any Ohmic resistor
is directly proportional to the current passing through it

V = IR
 V: voltage (E.M.F OR P.d) (V)
 I: electric current (A)
 R: electrical resistance (Ω)
Series connections
• Current is the same in series connections.
• Voltage (P.d) is different across the resistances.
• Connecting more resistances increase total resistances.

Parallel connections:
 Current is different across the resistances.
 Voltage (P.d) is the same in parallel connections
 Connecting more resistances decrease total resistances.

Mohammed Allam 63
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 Unit four: Electricity PHYSICS IGCSE
Advantage of parallel circuit over series circuit

 Make all appliances get same voltage.

 Make each appliances operate independent.

Determination resistances of metal wire

 Connect the circuit as shown

 Adjust variable resistances to the maximum to
avoid large currents.
 Change the value of the variable resistances and
take the readings from the ammeter & voltmeter.
 Plot a graph ( V – I )
 We found that voltage and current of a resistor are
directly proportional of a resistor, slope gives
resistor value.
Precautions:

 Positive pole of ammeter & voltmeter should be connected to

the positive pole of the battery.
 All the apparatus should placed on horizontal bench to make
the pointer move freely.
 The reading should be taken with eye perpendicular to the
scale to avoid parallax error.
 Switched off the circuit immediately after take the readings
 Each reading should be repeated and take the average.
 The ends of the connecting wires should be clean & not rusty
to avoid bad connections due to increased resistance.

Mohammed Allam 64
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 Unit four: Electricity PHYSICS IGCSE

Electric energy
It is work done to move charge Q through potential difference.

Electrical installations

 Live wire: carries electrical energy from the power

station, switches, fuses & circuit breakers must be
connected in that wire ( brown) .
 Neutral wire: completes the circuit to the station
(blue).
 Earth wire: connected to the metal case of an
appliance ( Yellow/ green).

Mohammed Allam 65
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 Unit four: Electricity PHYSICS IGCSE

Fuses
 Small glass tube containing a thin wire
 If large current passes a through the fuse, tin wire melts and move
the appliance safe unit the fault corrected & fuse replaced.
 Connected to the live wire
 Fuse value should be below the maximum current can be carried by
a wire.

N.B.

Circuit breakers : make use of an electromagnet to open switch in the

circuit when the current exceeds a certain value.

Sources of dangers of electricity

 Electric shocks can be produced due to damaged insulation.
 A fire can be produced if extremely high current pass in the wires,
producing over heating of wires.
 Humidity & wet weather reduce resistance of insulators causing to
break its insulation.
 Electrical devices which have metal case (Ex: refrigerators and
washing machines) will cause an electric shock if a bare (not
covered) wire makes contact with its metal case.

Mohammed Allam 66
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 Unit four: Electricity PHYSICS IGCSE

Chapter 3: Magnetism
Properties of a magnet
 It consists of 2 poles (north & south) it attract iron parts or filings from
both poles.
 When a magnet is suspended freely, the north pole of the magnet
points to the north direction of earth (compass idea)
 Like poles repel, unlike poles attract.
Magnetic substances (ferrous): materials which can magnetized or attracted
to magnet (iron-steel-cobalt-nickel).
Non-magnetic materials (non-ferrous): materials which can't be attracted
to magnet, ex (copper, brass, aluminum, wood, plastic, glass…..)
Methods of magnetization

1-Induction
 When a bar of iron or steel is brought near to
strong magnet, it becomes magnetized by
induction.
 End of bar acquires a polarity opposite to that
of the magnet.
 The induced magnetism in iron is greater
than that of steel, but when the magnetizing
poleis is removed, steel only retains it is
magnets.
 Soft iron is used to control it is magnetization.
2-Stroking
 The steel bar is strokes by a strong magnet in
the same direction many times.
 The pole produced at the end of the stroke is
opposite to the magnet pole.

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 Unit four: Electricity PHYSICS IGCSE

3-Electrical method

 Place steel bar inside a long solenoid with direct current

from batteries flowing Ii, the solenoid, steel becomes
magnetized.
 Strength of magnetization increase when:
1. Increase the current.
2. Increase number of turns of the solenoid.

• Polarity produced can be found by right hand grip rule

when the fingers of the right hand turn in the direction
of the current, the thumb will points towards the North
Pole. (Right hand rule)

Some applications in which electromagnet is used

1-Electric bell

 Press on the switch, circuit is closed.

 Current passes and electromagnet magnetized.
 It will attract iron armature making the hammer hits the
gong.
 When you release the switch, no more current will flow
and armature returns to its original position.

2-Relay

It's a switching device which makes use of an electromagnet in

one circuit (with small current) to close a switch in another
circuit (with large current).

 Small current flows in first circuit, electromagnet

magnetized.
 It attracts iron armature. As a result, the second
switch will be closed and current passes in second
circuit.
 This method is used in circuit breakers.

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 Unit four: Electricity PHYSICS IGCSE

Magnetic field

It is the region around a magnet in which a magnetic force is exerted.

 Magnetic field lines (flux lines) represent magnitude & direction of

magnetic field.
 Flux lines are close together where the field strong.
 Flux lines go from north to south.
 Flux lines never cross each other.

To find magnetic field lines

1-Using plotting compass
 Compass needle shows the direction of flux lines if you placed it in
different positions around the magnet.
2-Using iron filings

 Place a strong magnet beneath a

sheet of paper.
 Put some iron filings on the paper.
 Tap the paper, iron filings move and
turn in the direction in the magnetic
field.

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 Unit four: Electricity PHYSICS IGCSE
Demagnetization of a magnet
 Place the magnet inside a solenoid AC current and directed in east-
west direction, then withdraw the magnet slowly from the solenoid to
a far distance.
 Hammer the magnet strongly (in east – west direction).
 Heat the magnet excessively to redness.

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 Unit four: Electricity PHYSICS IGCSE

Chapter 4: Magnetic effects of a current

& Magnetic force
When a current passes in wire it produces a magnetic field in the region
around the wire.

Magnetic field patterns due to

1- Straight wire
 Magnetic field lines take a form of
concentric circles around the wire.
 Direction of magnetic field lines is given by
right grip rule, the thumb point to the
direction of magnetic field lines (flux).
 Magnitude of the field can be increased by:
i. Increase current in the wire.
ii. Getting closer to the wire

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 Unit four: Electricity PHYSICS IGCSE
2- Circular coil

 The field around each section of

the coil appears circular.
 At the center of the coil the field
is straight and is perpendicular to
the plane of the coil.

3-Solenoid
 Magnetic field is similar to a bar magnet
with north and south poles, inside solenoid
field intensity is uniform.
 Direction of magnetic field is given by right
grip rule when the fingers of the right hand
turn in the direction of the current, the
thumb will points towards the North Pole.
 Magnitude of the field can be increased by:
1. Increase the current.
2. Increase number of turns.
3. Close turns of solenoid together.
4. Insert soft iron bar inside the solenoid.

Force acted on charged Particles in a magnetic field

1-Conductor placed in a magnetic field

 The wire moves in a direction always
perpendicular to both current and magnetic
field.
 The wire moves due to interacting two
magnetic fields, one because of the
permanent magnet & the other from the
electric wire, producing magnetic force on the
wire.


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 Unit four: Electricity PHYSICS IGCSE
 Direction of force given by Fleming's left hand rule:
1. First finger points to the direction of magnetic field.
2. Second finger points to the direction of the electric current.
3. Thumb points to the direction of motion ( force).
 Force on the wire increased by:
1. Increase current in the conductor.
2. Increase the length of the wire.
3. Use stronger magnet

2-Charged particles moving in a magnetic field

 When a beam of positive or negative charged

particles enters a magnetic field, a force acts
on the particle perpendicular to both
magnetic field and the conventional current.
 Direction of motion is given by Fleming's left
hand rule.

The simple D.C. motor

 As the current passes through the
coil, magnetic force experienced
on the wire making the coil to
rotates in a direction directed by
F.L.H.R.
 There is a time where the coil will
not touch the rings (at vertical
position) in this time there in no
current pass through the coil but it
will keep rotating due to its inertia.
 The coil will keep rotating in same direction because the
commutator will be reversed, reversing current direction in the coil
and the forces acted on it.

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 Unit four: Electricity PHYSICS IGCSE

 Components:
1. Cells (battery): source of DC.
2. Rectangular coil: wire which current passes through.
3. Permanent magnet: source of magnetic field.
4. Split-ring commutator: make the coil rotates in one
direction by reversing the current in the coil each half cycle.
 To increase turning effect of the coil:
1. Increase current in the coil.
2. Use stronger magnet (or concave poles).
3. Increase number of turns of the coil.
4. Closing turns together.
5. Insert soft iron core inside the coil.

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 Unit four: Electricity PHYSICS IGCSE

Chapter 5 : Electromagnetic Induction

It is phenomena when a wire cuts perpendicularly a strong magnetic field,

E.m.f. and current induced a cross the wire.

Moving a wire across a magnet

 When the wire is moving in the direction
shown, emf & current induced in the wire
because it is cutting magnetic field
perpendicularly ( there is change in magnetic
flux cutting the wire) .
 Direction of the current is detected by
Fleming's right hand rule.
1. First finger points to the direction of
magnetic field.
2. Second finger points to the direction of the
electric induced current.
3. Thumb points to the direction of motion.

 If the wire is stationary or moving parallel to the direction of

magnetic field , no emf induced , because there is no change in flux
cutting the wire.
 Magnitude of the current can be increased by
1. Using stronger magnet.
2. Move the wire faster
3. Using longer wire

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 Unit four: Electricity PHYSICS IGCSE
Moving a magnet moved near a solenoid
 If a bar magnet moved near a solenoid,
emf induced across the solenoid &
current flows.
 If the magnet motion is reversed,
direction of induced current is also
reversed.

 Direction of the induced current will flow in direction to create a

magnetic field opposes the magnetic field causing it (Lenz’s law).

 Magnitude of the induced current in the coil can be increased by:

1. Use stronger magnet.
2. Move the magnet faster.
3. Increasing number of turns of the solenoid.

Ac generator (alternative current)

 As the coil rotates ( mainly from rotation
of external turbine ) across magnetic
field, e.m.f. induced and current flows
through the coil.
 Current is fed to slip rings fixed to the
end of the coils; it used to feed any
external appliance with induced current.

 When the coil at vertical position, no current flows because the

directions of motion of coils are parallel to flux lines and no change in
flux lines cutting the coil at this moment.
 As the coil return to horizontal, current will flow but in the opposite
direction to that of initial position, because sides of the coil reverse its
direction of motion every half cycle.

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 Unit four: Electricity PHYSICS IGCSE
 Value of current always changes as the coil rotates because the rate of
change in flux lines cutting the coil increases to maximum at horizontal
position and minimum at vertical position.
 To increase the induced emf or current:
1. Use stronger magnet.
2. Use coil of more turns.
3. Rotate the coil faster.
4. Winding the coil on a soft iron core.
Eddy current: they are induced electric
currents within a conductor by changing
magnetic field on the conductor; these
currents tend to slow motion of the
rotation, reduce induced current and
cause heating effect.
Transformers

 Components (how the transformer works).

1. Primary coil: is connected to AC supply, the alternating current passes
through primary coil produces an alternating magnetic field.
2. Iron core: iron core is magnetic substance through which magnetic flux
is transmitted form primary to secondary coil.
3. Secondary coil: an e.m.f. induced across the terminals the of the
secondary coil due to change in magnetic flux cutting the secondary
coil.
 Ratio between primary & secondary voltage equal to ratio between
number of turns of primary & secondary coils

Vp: primary voltage.

V s: secondary voltage.
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 Unit four: Electricity PHYSICS IGCSE
Np: number of turns in primary coil.
Ns: number of turns in secondary coil.
Step up transformer Step down transformer
Vp< Vs Vp > Vs
Np <Ns Np >Ns
It's used to increase voltage. It’s used to decrease voltage.
 As the primary input power = secondary output power (100% efficient)
Pp =Ps
Vp Ip = Vs Is
 Some electric energy is lost as heat energy resistance of copper wire &
induced current in the iron core (eddy currents).

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 Unit four: Electricity PHYSICS IGCSE
Uses of transformers

 Electrical power is transmitted from a power station to consumer

circuits through cables which travel long distance, sum of power is lost
due to the resistance of the cables, the greater current intensity which
transmits or electricity through the cables, the greater amount of
electrical energy lost as heat in cables, so we use step up transformer
to decrease the current intensity, electrical energy transmitted at high
voltages (to reduce energy loss & to use thinner cables).
 High voltage are dangerous to use in our houses, so voltage should be
dropped down to a suitable value so we can use it safely (step down
transformer are used).
 Power lost due to heat = I2R

Mohammed Allam 79
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 Unit four: Electricity PHYSICS IGCSE

Chapter 6 :- Electronic Devices

1-Diode (Rectifier)

 It is device that allows the current flow in one direction only.

 It is made of semiconductors material like germanium or silicon.
 Rectification: changing of alternating current (A.C) to direct current
(D.C) in the circuit by using diode.

 Bridge

3-Potential divider (Potentiometer)

 Its idea based on voltage V is divided among two series resistors.

 The e.m.f. is applied across the XY
 Slider S is moved to different position,
voltage across XS varies.
 If S at X, output= 0 ; if S at Y, output = V(max).

Mohammed Allam 80
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 Unit four: Electricity PHYSICS IGCSE

4-Thermistors & light dependent resistors

Both are sensors ( transducers ) made of semiconductors.

It converts temperature changes

into electrical changes.
Thermistor When temperature increase,
thermistor resistance decrease
and current increase ( vice versa)
LDR It converts changes in light
intensity into electrical changes.
When light intensity increase,
LDR resistance decrease and
current increase. (vice versa)
Connecting LDR or thermistor to a circuit

 When temperature increase.

 Thermistor resistance decrease.
 Current increase.
 Alarm on.
5- logic circuits

 The analogue signal it's a signal which can

change & can have value between the lowest
& highest values.
Ex: any meter with pointer, dimmer switch
 The digital signal it's the signal which can
change only by certain values. (high1, low 0)
Ex: DVD ˈs discs, mobile phones, calculators

Mohammed Allam 81
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 Unit four: Electricity PHYSICS IGCSE

Logic gates
Integrated circuits which consists of transistors switches & resistors,
works as a decision maker
 Types of logic gates:

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 Unit five

Atomic physics

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 Unit five: Atomic physics PHYSICS IGCSE

ch1: The nuclear atom

Geiger – Marsden ˈs experiment

Alpha particles are small particles with

positive charge, they were fired at a thin
gold foil, we use detector to find path of
alpha particles.
 OBSERVATIONS & RESULTS:
 Most particles could pass straight
with no deflection.
Because atom consists mainly of
empty space, size of nucleus is very
small compared with size of atom

 Some particles deflected with small angles.

Due to repulsion with the positive central nucleus as the particles are
positively charged.
 Very few particles were scattered back to the source.
Because positive central nucleus is heavy body so that it can scatter
back.

Structure of the atom

 Any atom consists of nucleus and orbiting electrons around it with
negative charge. ( mass of proton =1840 electron )
 The nucleus contains:
i) The protons: positive charged & have charge equal of the
electron
ii) The neutron: no charge & have mass equal of the proton

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 Unit five: Atomic physics PHYSICS IGCSE

𝑨
Element: 𝒁𝑿
 X = nuclide (chemical symbol for an element).
 A = mass number (nucleon number): number of protons and neutrons
inside a nucleus.
 Z = atomic number: number of protons (or electrons in its neutral atom)

Isotopes
There is atom of the same element with the same protons number but
different mass number due to different number of neutrons, only physical
𝟑
properties are different Ex: (
𝟏
𝟏𝑯
𝟐
𝟏𝑯 𝟏𝑯 , 𝟔𝟑𝑳𝒊 𝟕
𝟑𝑳𝒊 )

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 Unit five: Atomic physics PHYSICS IGCSE

Chapter 2: Radioactivity
 Most nuclei are stable because they contain the right balance between
protons & neutrons.
 Unstable nuclei have either excess neutron; they emit radiation to
reach proper balance.

Types of radiation
Alpha particles Beta particles Gamma rays
𝟒 𝟎 𝟎
𝟐𝜶 −𝟏𝜷 𝟎𝜸
Nucleus of helium High speed electron,
Consists of 2 protons emitted from nucleus High energy
Nature& & 2 neutrons Emitted when a neutron electromagnetic
structure transform to proton radiation
charge +2 -1 No charge
Mass No. 4 0 No mass
Effect on Atomic No. (dec. 2) Atomic No. (inc. 1)
mass No. & Mass No. (dec. 4) Mass No. the same No change
atomic No. Neutron No.( dec. 2) Neutron No.( dec. 1)

Equation

Ionizing Very strong Weak Very Weak

power
Penetration Stopped by paper Stopped by 4 to5 mm of Never falls to Zero
power Or 5 to 6 cm of air aluminum sheet reduced to half by 25
mm of lead

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 Unit five: Atomic physics PHYSICS IGCSE

 Particles have the largest mass & charge among other radiations so
they have strong ionization power, & for that they lose their energy
quickly so they have the least penetration power.
𝟎
 𝟎𝜸 rays have no charge or mass, so they have the least ionization
power, for that they have the greatest penetration power.
 Radiation are affected by magnetic & electric fields, the path of beta
particles are much deflected as they have lighter mass.


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 Unit five: Atomic physics PHYSICS IGCSE

Radiations Detection
Geiger-Muller counter, (GM) tube

 It is used for detection of radiations.

 When source is placed in front of the tube, the radiation ionize the gas
inside the tube, forming ion pairs which are attracted to the anode &
cathode forming a current pulses received by the counter.
 Counter: counts number of pulses produced by radiation
 Rate meter :records number of counts per second or per minute
 It detects how strength of radiations, but it not detects kind of
radiations.
Background radiations
 If GM counter placed with no source, counter will record low count rate
due to:
1. Radiations from radioactive materials in ground & rocks.
2. Cosmic radiations coming from outer space.
 Background radiations should be record and subtracted from the count
rate obtained from radioactive source.

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 Unit five: Atomic physics PHYSICS IGCSE
Detection experiments
1. First, record count rate of background
radiations.
2. Record count rate of radioactive source.
3. Record count rate of radioactive source
with putting suitable absorber (differ from
which radiation we been testing).

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 Unit five: Atomic physics PHYSICS IGCSE

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 Unit five: Atomic physics PHYSICS IGCSE

Half-life of radioactive source

 Time taken for number of undecayed nuclei in a sample (or activity of a sample) to
decrease to half its value.
 Radioactive decay: it is the spontaneous & random emission of ionizing radiations (alpha
or beta) from unstable nuclei. (random nature decay)
 Some radioactive materials have very short half-lives (which can be small fraction of a
second).while others have very long half-lives (as thousands of years) which can ' t be
measured in a laboratory.
 The Becquerel is the SI unit for radioactivity, One( Bq) is defined as the activity of a
quantity of radioactive material in which one nucleus decays per second.
 1 Bq = 1 s 1-

Radioactive isotopes uses

To check thickness of materials

 If a beta source is placed on one side of a moving sheet of material and

a GM counter on the other side, the count rate increases if the
thickness decreases ( and vice versa ). ( long half life source is used)
-

Tracers

 A small amount of a weak radioactive isotope is injected into any body

and the radiation emitted from the source is detected by detector
outside the body. (gamma rays are used as they can penetrate the body
and has low ionization effect to not harm the body)
 Leaks in pipe lines can also be detected by this way. ( beta particles
with half-life of a few hours are used as alpha will not reach and gamma
rays will penetrate the pipe anywhere.

Sterilization & radiotherapy

 Gamma rays can used to kill bacteria in food, in surgical instruments and
syringes.
 Gamma rays can destroy cancer cells.

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 Unit five: Atomic physics PHYSICS IGCSE
Dangers and safety
 Dangers for humans
1. Leukemia (cancer of blood)
2. Cataract ( causing blindness)
3. Cancer of sterility
4. Causes mutations or handicaps in newly born children.

 For safety handling radioactive materials

1. Keep sources as far as possible by using very long forceps.
2. Sources are always stored in lead boxes to reduce amount exposure to
radiation, with symbol shown for radioactive material on them.
3. The hands should be washed after any handling.
4. Waste radioactive products are either buried deep into ground or in
an ocean bed.

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 Unit five: Atomic physics PHYSICS IGCSE

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