SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Ramapuram Semiconductor Physics (8PYB1035 UNIT-1 Introductio. in solids, electrons in outer most orbits of atoms determine its electrical properties. In addition, it explains the electrical, thermal and magnetic properties of solids. The structure and Properties of solids are explained employing their electronic structure by the electron theory of solids. It has been developed in three main stages: 1. Classical free electron theory 2. Quantum Free Electron Theory. 3. Zone Theory. Classical free electron theory * The first theory was developed by Drude & Lorentz in 1900. According to this theory, metal contains free electrons which are responsible for the electrical conductivity and metals ‘obey the laws of classical mechanics. Quantum Free Electron Theory: In 1928 Sommerficld developed the quantum free electron theory. According to ‘Sommerfeld, the free electrons move with a constant potential. This theory obeys quantum laws. Zone Theor Bloch introduced the band theory in 1928. According to this theory, free electrons‘move in a periodic potential provided by the lattice. This theory is also called “Band Theory of Solids”. Postulates of Classical free electron theory: The metal consists of positive ion core with valence electron moving randomly with constant potential in all directions. * The force between the valence electrons and the positive Ion core negligible. The valence electrons are freely moving about the whole volume of the metals ‘© The movements of free electrons is similar like the molecules of perfect gas in a container and obey the laws of classical kinetic theory of gases © The free electrons collide with each other positive ions are the other free electrons the valence electrons in a metal. * When the electric field is applied all the valence electrons a drifted in the direction ‘opposite to that of the electric field.Failure of Classical free electron theory: sane of Classical free electron theory: © Itfails to explain the electric specific heat and the specific heat capacity of metals. * It fails to explain ferromagnetism, superconducting properties of metals etc. + Itfails to explain new phenomena like photoelectric effect, Compton effect, black body radiation, etc. © It fails to explain electrical conductivity of semiconductors or insulators. Important terms: Drift velocity va: The average velocity acquired by the free electrons of a metal in a particular direction by the application of an electrical field. Mean free path 2: Average distance travelled by a free electron between any two successive collisions in the presence of an applied electrical field. Collision time 1, : Average time taken by a free electron between any two successive collisions. Relaxation time t: Average time taken by a free electron to reach its equilibrium position from its disturbed Position due to the application of an external electrical field. Postulates of Quantum free electron theory * The energy levels of the electrons moving inside the metal are discrete. * The allowed energy levels of the electrons are quantized. * The electrons are free to move inside the metal with uniform potential and obey Pauli's exclusion principle. * The wave nature of the electron is described by Schrédinger’s wave equation. * Electrons are free to move within the crystal and cannot escape from the crystal due to potential barrier at the surface. * The number of free electrons in various states is obtained by Fermi — Dirac distribution formula.Merits of Quantum free electron theory: + Itexplained electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity, and specific heat capacity of metals. * Itexplained photoelectric effect and Compton effect. Failures of Quantum free electron theory: * Fails to explain “why some crystals have metallic properties and other do not”. * Fails to differentiate metals, semiconductors and insulators. . * Fails to explain the positive value of Hall coefficient. Fermi level and Fermi energy: The distribution of energy states in a metal is explained by Fermi Dirac statistics since it deals with the particles having half integral spin like electrons. Consider that the assembly of electrons as electron gas which behaves like a system of Fermi particles or fermions. The Fermions obeying Fermi —Dirac statistics and Pauli’s exclusion principle. Fermi energy: It is the energy of state at which the probability of electron occupation is 4 at any temperature above OK. It separates filled energy states and unfilled energy states. Fermi level: The highest energy level that can be occupied by an electron at 0 K is called Fermi energy level Itis a level at which the electron probability is ¥ at any temperature above OK. Fermi The Fermi distribution function F(E) represents the probability of an electron occupying ina given energy state. 1 FE) = —g a ltem Where, k is Boltz-Mann constant, Er is the Fermi energy and T is temperature.Probability of occupation of electron (i) At temperature T= 0K and E < Ep, the equation (1) becomes, cS 4 1 PO" Tee" tse 7 F(E) =1 F(E) = I, for T= OK, the energy level below the Fermi energy level Ep is fully occupied by electrons leaving the upper levels vacant. Therefore, there is 100% probability that the electrons to occupy energy level below Fermi level. (ii) At temperature T= OK and E > Ep, the equation (1) becomes, 1 1 \O- eS F(E) =0 F(E) = 0, for T= OK, the energy levels above the Fermi energy level Ep are completely empty. (iii) At temperature T = OK and E = Er, the equation (1) becomes, 1 1 F@) = —a “WwW 1+e nme 141 F(E)= F(E) = 0.5, for T = OK, The above condition states that there is a 50% probability for the electrons to occupy Fermi energy. At T > 0 K, some levels above Fermi level are partially filled and some levels below Fermi level are partially empty.Density q Stems: 2CE) dE Tha derathy of Haka 16 dapinnel de hamber of Gvostebls elactren dfady por unit Volume In On energy Marves £ Oh £44 Lek we Gdn a mabe pre YY fide “U, Fe faut tre danehy ub stats, Gorabrck oO Sphwe Go wed Nn’ tn Te tpete 0s hewn In Angee. Ty Aphsne ts Poorthare Agvided fro Many shells tevvaiferding fe ronhon rambo ba hy od bz- We Goredar bwo energy bes bowing volun EL ont Ere, Graprd be ba Guenter Mambers 1 Go httn. Zz z tan => (D Tre hos Fale wihnin ton} 3 He vediws h we inke ody ¥ te Voleme 4 tphiwe. became Ae Gnd tam howe Gore potibve Whats -Di fferenbohry “yh CD TIE m L Ene s™ ae =n(Ene ent ue - Swhatitake eg (6) amt cr) In ge (4) J (1D we gZet, eh sas onl) de | Poe vr —_ e ie E de = ai &) i. pony a =zCe) Acc: te Pants exclusion precip aS iy x =ZCED AE = | 2Ce) de = = (ey aaa ae : roEdacbons in pertodic pobnhal: Zone thaoy/Rand theory : Tr Yrantom free electron Theory the electrons Gre Assumrol fo ave In Oonelent po fevibved: Bap it failed erpouin why dome Fohids hobhoves a Gnductors, Jone a ihdnbuders owl domo as dew waded Therefor Insforr of Cohwicluring, ar elechren fo mmole th a Gonsdenk fpofenhed, TA barol troy of solids the electors Ave AbiuIned fo move th a Prell of Pentodic poren Hou. Tn a mek he pesihve Tonk Ave Orirangecl Mh Yegnla Manner, co Me potent diel Varies pperted TRO pohential Ma fatnimum hear Me Centre t du Peart, | tons mb marimnm between fre Confres th BAS bohd- vie) WAAAY face FIGURE11.4 Representation of potential experienced by an electron in a perfectly ; |Krenig - Penny Moclot: Keremy— Penny imedat (Lbnsbeara thar tre Sleckrons hoo ve In A periedte pohentral produced by tre posihve fon Cored. th far metal. Th pobendtof of fre eee bron Vootes pertedi cally Wi pertoditihy q fen &%e and the pokenttot chorgy ob fr Cheehrwn % Zev hear Me positive fon Core Omk Mmanimum when Mh MS pretenr between tre Ads acenb fae Ston Gove which ewe Pepineted bp tr Mburodendte Spacing ‘a , | | fees Patented | Py ken trod Regren Tr Regton T | Regron | | Well VEVo VeVo | | V=o0 Veo | | fo] —e aes | tye ton =~ O Haton & z eames the Schré dingor 's time Inclepemdont Wewe Yrohor Is dren by ty. gttn + E- = — Fe ee OW = reTegton T, 0< x dat BT hy Who eo = oe ae Th Yegroh i ~b alte 4 SH he mae (E-Ve) Yro dy _ 87” (y-e) Y =0 dx he AY pty = >) ae Whine P= ecm Wo-E) > Gs)Aceordiry bo Bhoch' thesrew, The golubeon of =n (1) owk 2g (0) in Given by tka Yop = 2 OOD i) whee k &% By Aiflevenbating 7" ts) Werte ad Wove veto kk. 2m x ay - akx a — au , le tke ae On tL ake ‘ gkx aye e aay a AU anaes tek ZUpe COA” An Axe a an Ck aty a tus Pets att buy due ye Xa, OW es = na ax an cube Gre agus (3) Ont eget) in oy ioe Ne a ile tka clea = Pra nike Aduy pe Ute eo 4@=e an on th ti F u uv yt eS aye , aik OE +e—* a anThe Jenenal Solutions of CJ 7 -[S] 22=6 Rr? Ege HE MAE) & = (-EkD cE HER) Fwy [rex bound tnt 2 [Uy oO) - [wo], TRA eet ba -(p-iWb ; he +B. ce . wee Fey bound, ord | (1 -(22 Csa) drdasg an | 2=-b 4-He mracrs BY _(p-ek)b Mebane - i (a+b B | See Cb rek)b Hp rope q (4) +2)oom dhe eyo ne OY Cte, cu) amy (2), dr weyterents of A, B,C al DP one Katen Wo he form of dalerminent arwrol 1 r ‘% aapoted to Zev. The Solwhen Y fre daberminont B gen by fe + WS Ka = tus ke —s (13) An Whe P= mvp ab ig Collect the Scatberini 4 Powe Of ae potenhet bawrier- @ When P= O07 Gace > wska Pan (13) > aka = ka az k et = wo gttin v — ak Rh - 2m 2u This Yepremts drome Ts he bomd gap. do the elrehors Gon moving freely.i) Wien P=, Eps) 3 uae KA Sina = © ka anr ee te a wheh te i can note Mmovd ef dh decysaus fasly bod - 3" appa the value of P == (Arbitrary)Brillown Zens: Ro Mtovin Zones One Mae boundartes tro ked by Ire Valu y Fo im whtch electrons 660m have lowest energy Vous wi Mods A fivacton- E-k Asevgnsm \ The velatton between To wows Veer k” ome tre energy ~E~ of fa clutren moving Pn fotenrial Bor of hamsty aia ae Es rho -s¢p gmt Wave Veclor k = hE L +2 when hetl os ke 7D he troy ket 7 t m2 ts, kp t 2m0 Wave vector r— Ek diagram for electron moving in constant PotentialoO - Tn tre fegwre, Me he Sean Troe dre erargy : Pneveares Continnous dy from Zero ¢o 12. So te elichron f5 moving within fra regfon amt fs MP veflactead- do this renga In Callnol as Fick Rrillionn Zone - The Second allowed erovgiy Valuer Contate o two [parts - T te Le fod T toe aT 4 L a L Thay 15 Caled a Second Brillionn Zone Tr ta fp, ie te hotest rot eoch Botliioun Zon "6 enahed by Forbidden Zone - do Me elichon can Jo From eho Ryilliomn Zone bo Othay Orly ip TE fe Supplied wim sr ererg Sra bo forbidden 5Ap So The gerbidden vb hy Cha Which Fectdes Whole dre Sid Bw aA Conductes /trpedorer/ Send bo hductot--» Ke (C7) |s ZONt ESS 2nd ZONE Me rd ZONE Brillouin Zone for 2 ~ dimensional square lattice —p LATTICE POI 15Gree + Rai tltoun Zone for A 2 cumenstonenl Spore lokftce * of hor Conddat ar elechyen TH mw fread ’ 2p sarone Rottice - Pro ce dave © ‘ 7 Ros . x Take 0 a Me ontyih amt join it to hoot folfice porn E, FG wd. 2 bee 4, B,C ot D ONE fra porpereuieulng bijectora of =O, OF, OF ow ov verpectiveh. s Doin fre Pelnhs AacD Desultiny an Bgure he Ptvat Rotllbuln Zor: & Sivtlandy Jon eh hot (pein t, Sk wl. cs hb Ww PPR N ave by baectors & ot, O35, ok owt of Yerpe Kively end Both 2 Th Omen bekween ERG owl daco grw Ah Second BrUsuin Zor od Yow In he dpuw By tra Fema nog 2% YN. ele, Rrillonin Zora Con be Cohshuched + =iConcept of Phonon: Any solid crystal consists of atoms bound into a specific repeating three-dimensional spatial pattern called a lattice. Here the atoms behave as if they are connected by tiny springs, their own thermal energy or outside forces make the lattice vibrate. This generates mechanical waves that carry heat and sound through the material. A packet of these waves can travel throughout the crystal with a definite energy and momentum, so in quantum mechanical terms the waves can be treated as a particle, called a phonon. A phonon is a definite discrete unit or quantum of vibrational mechanical energy, just as a photon is a quantum of electromagnetic or light energy. Properties of Phonon: Energy of phonons is exhibited as thermal energy of solids. The energy of elastic waves of the individual vibrations is hv. At any temperature, the crystal is filled with the gas of phonons. When temperature increases, more phonons are produced. ‘* Like as light photons, phonons also exhibit wave-particle duality. Like sound waves, phonons require a medium to propagate. The medium is the regular arrangement of atoms. * Vibrational spectrum of the phonon waves has frequency range of 10° Hz to 10" Hz. Here the low frequency part is in the acoustic spectrum and the high frequency part is in the infra-red spectrum. Origin of energy band formation in Solids: The band theory of solids explains the formation of energy bands and determines whether a solid is a conductor, semiconductor or insulator. The existence of continuous bands of allowed energies can be understood starting with the atomic scale. The electrons of a single isolated atom ‘occupy atomic orbitals, which form a discrete set of energy levels. When two identical atoms are brought closer, the outermost orbits of these atoms overlap and interact. When the wave functions of the electrons of different atoms begin to overlap considerably, the energy levels corresponding to those wave functions split, If more atoms are brought together more levels are formed and for a solid of N atoms, each of the energy levels of an atom splits into N energy levels. These energy levels are so close that they form an almost continuous band. 35,‘The width of the band depends upon the degree of overlap of electrons of adjacent atoms and is largest for the outermost atomic electrons. In solids, the energy band corresponding to the outermost shells are called valence band and the energy formed by conduction levels of various atoms are called conduction band. | a x peccoccccs In the energy band diagram, conduction band is represented above the valance band. The energy gap between the valance band and the conduction band is known as forbidden energy gap E, [ The E-4 Diagram The Energy Burd £ Degram Valence Bandi VB)Valence ban A band occupied by valence electrons and is responsible for electrical, thermal and optical properties of solids and it is filled with charge carriers only at temperature OK. Conduction ban A band corresponding to outer most orbits is called conduction band and is the highest energy band and it is completely empty at OK. Classification of solids into conductors, semiconductors and insulators: Based on the energy band diagram materials or solids are classified as follows: Conductors: In conductors, there is no forbidden gap between the valence band and conduction band. It is observed that the valence band overlaps with the conduction band in metals. There are sufficient numbers of free clectrons, available for electrical conduction and due to the overlapping of the two bands, there is an easy transition of electrons from one band to another band takes place. Resistivity of conductors is very small and it is in the order of 10° to 10* Q m. Examples: Na, Al, Cu, Ni, Cu, Ag, ete. Semiconductors: In semiconductors, there is a band gap exists between the valence band and conduction band and it is very less 2 eV are known as semiconductors. It will conduct electricity partially at nonmal conditions. The electrical resistivity values are moderately high of the order of 10“ to 10° Q m at room temperature. At higher temperatures, an appreciable number of electrons gain enough energy and are excited across forbidden energy gap. By adding impurities one can increase the electrical conductivity of the semiconductor. Examples: Silicon, Germanium, GaAs. Insulato In insulators, the width of forbidden energy gap between the valence band and conduction band is very large of the order of 3eV to 5.47eV. Due to large energy gap, electrons cannot move from valance band to conduction band. The electrical resistivity of insulators is in the order of 10° to 10'7 Q m. Since the electrons are tightly bound to the nucleus, no valence electrons are available. It is estimated that the electrical field in the order of 10° V/m would be required to make the electron to overcome the forbidden gap. Examples: Wood, rubber, glass. 37A * | Conduction Band] t | = : 4 | ne 3.| Conduction Band a : Band Gap E ee e& E Conduction Band _ 4 Band Gap fo e-e-e- e-e-e-e-e- | Valence Band Valence Band Valence Band e-e- e- e- e- e- ee e- e- e-e- ee e- ee | Insulators Semiconductors Conductors Semiconductot The substances whose conductivity lies in between conductors and insulators are called as semiconductors. The properties of semiconductors are given below: At temperature OK, a semiconductor becomes an insulator. The electrical conductivity of a semiconductor is increased with increase in temperature. The absence of an electron in the valance band of a semiconductor is known as hole. ‘The hole occur only in the valance band. Like electrons, the hole in the valance band also conducts electricity in case of a semiconductor. The electric current in a semiconductor is the sum of the currents due to electron and hole. 38rect and Indirect band gap se nducto: S.No. Indirect band gap semiconductors (Elemental semiconductors) Direct band gap semiconductors (Compound semiconductors) They are made of single element They are made by combining 3 and 5® group | from the 4" column of the periodic —_| elements or 2™ and 5® group elements in the | table. (Ex: Si and Ge) periodic table. (Ex: GaAs and InP) 2 | Band gap energy is small Band gap energy is comparatively large. For Si, Ep= 0.7 eV For GaAs, E, = 1.42 eV For Ge, Eg= 1.12 eV For InP, E, = 1.35 eV Electron — hole recombination takes ws place through traps present in the band gap. So, they are called as Indirect band gap semiconductors. Electron — hole recombination takes place directly. Therefore, they are called as Direct, band gap semiconductors. 4 | During recombination process, Phonons are emitted and heat energy is produced. During recombination process, Photons (light energy) are emitted. 3 | Current amplification is more. ‘Current amplification is less. 6 _| Life time of charge carriers is more due to indirect recombination. Life time of charge carriers is less due to direct recombination. 7 | Due to the longer life time of charge carriers, these are used to amplify the signals as in the case of diodes and transistors. They are used to manufacture LEDs and laser diodes etc.,