Mathematics and Natural Sciences Department

Mr. Christian Paul S. Estrella

Course Instructor
 Where We’re Going
❑ Inductive and Deductive Reasoning
❑ Problem Solving with Patterns
❑ Problem Solving Strategies
 Inductive Reasoning
• Type of reasoning that forms a conclusion
based on the examination of specific examples

• These conclusions is called conjecture, since it

may or may not be correct
 Inductive Reasoning to Predict a Number

Use inductive reasoning to predict the next number in

each of the lists:
a. 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, ?

b. 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, ?
 Inductive Reasoning to Solve an Application

Use the table below and inductive reasoning to

answer the following:
a. If a pendulum has a length of 49 units, what is its
period?

b. If the length of a pendulum is quadrupled, what

happens to the period?
Inductive Reasoning to Make a Conjecture

Consider the following procedure: Pick a number. Multiply the number by 8, add 6 to the product,
divide the sum by 2, and subtract 3.

Original number:
Multiply by 8:
Add 6:
Divide by 2:
Subtract 3:

Conjecture: Following the given procedure produces a number that is four times the original number.
 Counterexample
• A statement is a true statement provided that it
is true in all cases.
• If you can find one case for which a statement is
not true, then the statement is a false statement
• This one case is called a counterexample
 Find the Counterexample
Verify that each of the following statement is a false
statement by finding a counterexample:
For all number x:
a. 𝑥 >0

b. 𝑥 2 > 𝑥
 Deductive Reasoning
• Type of reasoning which is the process of reaching a
conclusion by applying general principles,
assumptions, procedures or techniques.
 Deductive Reasoning to Establish a Conjecture

Use deductive reasoning to show that the following procedure produces a number that is four
times the original number.
Procedure: Pick a number. Multiply the number by 8, add 6 to the product, divide the sum by 2, and
subtract 3.

Multiply by 8:
Add 6 to the product:
Divide the sum by 2:
Subtract 3

Conclusion: The procedure produce a number that is four times the original number
 Deductive Reasoning to Solve Logic Puzzles

Each of four neighbors, Sean, Maria, Sarah, and Brian, has a

different occupation (editor, banker, chef, or dentist). From the
following clues, determine the occupation of each neighbor.

1. Maria gets home from work after the banker but before the
dentist.
2. Sarah, who is the last to get home from work, is not the editor.
3. The dentist and Sarah leave for work at the same time.
4. The banker lives next door to Brian.
 Deductive Reasoning to Solve Logic Puzzles
1. Maria gets home from work after the banker but before the dentist.
2. Sarah, who is the last to get home from work, is not the editor.
3. The dentist and Sarah leave for work at the same time.
4. The banker lives next door to Brian.
 Deductive Reasoning to Solve Logic Puzzles
1. Maria gets home from work after the banker but before the dentist.
2. Sarah, who is the last to get home from work, is not the editor.
3. The dentist and Sarah leave for work at the same time.
4. The banker lives next door to Brian.
 DEDUCTIVE INDUCTIVE

Based on observations of specific

PREMISES Stated as facts or general principle
cases

More special than the information More general than the information
the premises provide. It is reached the premises provide. It is reached
CONCLUSION directly by applying logical rules to by generalizing the premises’
the premises information

If the premises are true, then the If the premises are true, then the
VALIDITY conclusion must be true conclusion is probably true

More difficult to use use(mainly in Used often in everyday life (fast and
USAGE logical problems). One needs facts easy). Evidence is used instead of
which are definitely true proved facts
 Example
Determine whether each of the following arguments is an example of inductive reasoning
or deductive reasoning.

a) During the past 10 years, a tree has produced plums every other year. Last year the
tree did not produce plums, so this year the tree will produce plums.

b) All home improvements cost more than the estimate. The contractor estimated
that my home improvement will cost Php 35,000. Thus, my home improvement
will cost more than Php 35,000.
 Terms of a Sequence
• An ordered list of numbers such as 5, 14, 27, 44, 65, …
is called a sequence.
• The numbers in a sequence that are separated by commas
are the terms of the sequence
• The three dots “...” indicate that the sequence continues
beyond the last written term
 Terms of a Sequence
When examining a sequence, it is natural to ask:

• What is the next term?

• What formula or rule can be used to generate terms?
Difference Table
2 5 8 11 14 …
Difference Table
5 14 27 44 65 …
 Difference Table
2 7 24 59 118 207 ??? …
 Nth Term Formula
Fibonacci Number:
𝐹1 = 1, 𝐹2 = 1, and 𝐹𝑛 = 𝐹𝑛−1 + 𝐹𝑛−2 , 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 ≥ 3

Arithmetic Sequence:
𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎1 + 𝑛 − 1 ∗ 𝑑

Geometric Sequence:
𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎1 𝑟 𝑛−1
 Nth Term Formula
Triangular Number:
𝑛(𝑛 + 1)
𝑇𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑛 =
2

Square Number:
𝑆𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛 = 𝑛2

Pentagonal Number:
𝑛 3𝑛 − 1
𝑃𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑛 =
2
Polya’s Four Step Problem Solving Strategy

Step 01 : Understand the problem

Step 02 : Devise a plan (translate)

Step 03 : Carry out the plan (solve)

Step 04 : Look back (check and interpret)

or Review the solution
 Understand the Problem
(Often overlooked. You must a clear understanding of the problem.)
✓ Can you restate the problem in your own words?
✓ Can you determine what is known about these types of problems?
✓ Is there missing information that, if known, would allow you to
solve the problem?
✓ Is there extraneous information that is not needed to solve the
problem?
✓ What is the goal?
 Devise a Plan
❑ Make a list of the known ❑ Try to solve a similar but simpler
information. problem.
❑ Make a list of information that is ❑ Look for a pattern.
needed. ❑ Write an equation. If necessary,
❑ Draw a diagram. define what each variable
❑ Make an organized list that shows represents.
all the possibilities. ❑ Perform an experiment.
❑ Make a table or a chart. ❑ Guess at a solution and then check
❑ Work backwards. your result.
 Carry Out the Plan

✓ Work carefully.
✓ Keep an accurate and neat record of all your attempts.
✓ Realize that some of your initial plans will not work and
that you may have to devise another plan or modify your
existing plan
 Review the Solution

✓ Ensure that the solution is consistent with the facts of the

problem.
✓ Interpret the solution in the context of the problem.
✓ Ask yourself whether there are generalizations of the
solution that could apply to other problems.
Example:

I purchased a new television at a local electronics store for

Php541.25, which includes VAT. If the tax rate is 8.25%, find the
price of the television before they add the tax.
 Step 01 : Understand the Problem

Make sure that you read the statement carefully several times

We are looking for the price of the tv before they added the tax

We will let
x be the price of the tv before tax was added
 Step 02 : Devise a Plan (Translate)

The original price plus 8.25% tax will give you the purchasing
cost of Php 541.25. This means that

𝒙 + 0.0825𝒙 = 541.25
Step 03 : Carry Out the Plan (Solve)

𝒙 + 0.0825𝒙 = 541.25

1.0825𝒙 = 541.25

1.0825𝒙 541.25
=
1.0825 1.0825

𝒙 = 500
 Step 04 : Review the solution

If you add on 8.25% tax to 500, you would get Php 541.25.

FINAL ANSWER: The original price is Php 500.0

Guess and Check

Magic Square
Fill in the small boxes with digits 1 – 9 such
that each horizontal, vertical, and diagonal line
of numbers must add up to the same sum.
Draw a Picture

In a stock car race, the first five finishers in some order were a Ford, a
Pontiac, a Chevrolet, a Buick and a Dodge.

(a) The Ford finished 7 seconds before the Chevrolet.

(b) The Pontiac finished 6 seconds after the Buick.
(c) The Dodge finished 8 seconds after the Buick.
(d) The Chevrolet finished 2 seconds before the Pontiac.

In what order did the cars finish the race?

Work Backward

Mary is thinking of a number. If you double it and

subtract 7, you will obtain 11. What is the number?
 Make a List

Handshakes Problem
In a party there are 8 people. If everyone at the party shakes
hands with everyone else, how many handshakes would there be?
Look for a Pattern

Numerical Sequences
Fill in the next two blanks in each part.

1, 4, 9, 16, 25, ___, ___

Look for a Pattern

What is the sum of the first ten counting

numbers?

1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 + 8 + 9 + 10 = ?
Mathematics and Natural Sciences Department

Mr. Christian Paul S. Estrella

Course Instructor
 Where We’re Going
❑ Propositional Logic
✓ Basic Logical Connectives
✓ Truth Table
✓ Logical Equivalences
 Proposition

A statement that is, by itself, either true or false

 Some Sample Propositions

• Puppies are cuter than kittens

• Kittens are cuter than puppies
• Usain Bolt can outrun everyone in this class
• This is the last entry on this list
 More Propositions

• I am single
• This place is about to blow
• We can dance if we want to
• We can leave your friends behind
Things That Are Not Propositions

Commands
cannot be true
or false
Things That Are Not Propositions

Questions
cannot be true
or false
Things That Are Not Propositions
The first half is a
proposition I am the walrus,
goo goo g’joob

Gibberish cannot
be true or false
 Propositional Logic
• Mathematical system for reasoning about propositions and how
they relate to one another
• Enables us to
• Formally encode how the truth of various propositions influences the
truth of other propositions.
• Determine if certain combinations of propositions are always,
sometimes, or never true.
• Determine whether certain combinations of propositions logically entail
other combinations.
 Propositional Variables
• Represents each proposition

• Usually represented in lowercase letters, such as p, q, r, ...

• Each variable can take one of two value: true or false

 Logical Connectives
• Logical NOT (~p) p ~p
T F
F T
• Read as “not p”
• ~p is true if and only if p is false
• Also called logical negation
 Logical Connectives
• Logical AND (p ∧ q) p q p∧q
T T T
T F F
• Read as “p and q” F T F
• Read as “p but q” F F F
• p ∧ q is true if both p and q are true
• Also called logical conjunction
 Logical Connectives
• Logical OR (p ∨ q) p q p∨q
T T T
T F T
• Read as “p or q” F T T
• p ∨ q is true if at least one of p or q are true F F F
(inclusive OR)
• Also called logical disjunction
 Logical Connectives
• Logical IMPLICATION (p → q) p q p→q
T T T
T F F
• Read as “if p then q” F T T
• Read as “p only when q” F F T
• Read as q if p
• p → q is false when p is true and q is false
True Logical Implication
False Logical Implication
 Biconditional
• Biconditional (p ↔ q) p q p→q
T T T
T F F
• Read as “p if and only if q”
F T F
• p ↔ q intuitively, either both p and q are true
F F T
or both p and q are false
• Think of it as equality: p and q must have
same truth values
 Operator Precedence
• How do we parse this statement?
~𝑥 → 𝑦 ∨ 𝑧 → 𝑥 ∨ 𝑦 ∧ 𝑧
• Operator precedence for propositional logic
~ ∧ ∨ → ↔
• All operators are right associative
• We can use parenthesis to disambiguate
Some Sample Proposition
a – There is a velociraptor outside my apartment
b – Velociraptor can open windows
c – I am in my apartment right now
d – My apartment has windows
e – I am going to be eaten by a velociraptor
 a – There is a velociraptor outside my apartment

PROPOSITIONS
b – Velociraptor can open windows
c – I am in my apartment right now
d – My apartment has windows
e – I am going to be eaten by a velociraptor

~a → ~e
I won’t be eaten by a velociraptor if there isn’t a
velociraptor outside my apartment
 a – There is a velociraptor outside my apartment

PROPOSITIONS
b – Velociraptor can open windows
c – I am in my apartment right now
d – My apartment has windows
e – I am going to be eaten by a velociraptor

a ∧ ~b → ~e
If there is a velociraptor outside my apartment,
but (and) it cannot open windows, then I am not
going to be eaten by a velociraptor.
 a – There is a velociraptor outside my apartment

PROPOSITIONS
b – Velociraptor can open windows
c – I am in my apartment right now
d – My apartment has windows
e – I am going to be eaten by a velociraptor

c→ ~a
If I am in my apartment right now, then there is no
velociraptor outside.

I am only in my apartment when there are no

velociraptors outside.
 Reminder
• When translating into or out of propositional logic, be
very careful not to get tripped up by nuances of the
English language
• In fact, this is one of the reason we have a symbolic
notation in the first place
• Many prepositions lead to counterintuitive translations;
make sure to double-check it yourself!
Elaborate Truth Tables

p q p ∧ (p → q)

T T T T

T F F F Gives the final truth

value for the
F T F T expression
F F F T
 Logical Equivalence
• If two propositional logic statements always have the
same truth values as one another, the are called
logically equivalent
• Use the symbol ≡

Note: ≡ is not a connective, it is only used to describe a logic

 Logical Equivalence
p q ~(p ∧ q) p q ~p ∨ ~q

T T F T T T F F F

T F T F T F F T T

F T T F F T T T F

F F T F F F T T T

These two statements

are always the same
 De Morgan’s Law
• Using truth tables, we conclude that
~ 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 ≡ ~𝑝 ∨ ~𝑞

• We can also use truth table to show that

~ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ≡ ~𝑝 ∧ ~𝑞

• These two equivalences are called De Morgan’s Law

 Tautologies
• A tautology is a statement that is ALWAYS TRUE

• Example: 𝑝 ∨ ~𝑝

• Once a tautology has been proven, we can use that

tautology anywhere