MODULE THREE

PROBLEM SOLVING AND REASONING 2. Write a conjecture that describe the

pattern
Lesson 3.1
2, 4, 12, 48, 240. Then use the
INDUCTIVE AND DEDUCTIVE REASONING conjecture to find the next item in the
sequence.
A. INDUCTIVE REASONING 2, 4, 12, 48, 240, ?
 type of reasoning that forms a  The numbers are multiplied by 2, then
conclusion based on the examination 3, then 4, then 5. The next number will
of specific examples be the product of 240 times 6 or 1,440.
 uses a set of specific observations to  Conjecture: Now, the answer is 1,440.
reach an overarching conclusion or it
is the process of recognizing or 3. Write a conjecture that describes the
observing patterns and drawing a pattern shown below. How many
conclusion segments could be formed on the fifth
 the process of reaching a general figure?
conclusion by examining specific
examples
 does not guarantee a true result, it
only provides a means of making a
conjecture
Conjecture - the conclusion formed by using
inductive reasoning
DIAGRAM
Observe and look for a pattern -> Analyze
what is really happening in the pattern ->
Make a conjecture
“Then” and “now” Approach CONJECTURE: Hence, the fifth figure will
have 45 segments.
 Then” idea - to use the data to find
pattern and make a prediction APPLICATION OF INDUCTIVE
 “Now” idea - to make a conjecture REASONING (USING INDUCTIVE
based on the inductive reasoning or REASONING TO SOLVE A PROBLEM)
find a counterexample Example 1
EXAMPLES: Use the data below and with the use of
1. Use inductive reasoning to predict the inductive reasoning, answer each of the
next number in each of the following following questions:
list: 1. If a pendulum has a length of 49 units,
3, 6, 9, 12, 15, ? what is its period?
 Each successive number is three (3)
larger than the preceding number. 2. If the length of a pendulum is quadrupled,
what happens to its period?
If the first number is increased by 3 the result
is 6. Now, when this 6 is increased by 3 the
next number would be 9. If we are going to
continue the process, if 15 is increased by 3
then the next number would be 18. Hence the
required number is 18.
Note: The period of a pendulum is the time it so, what it is? For sure you could say that
takes for the pendulum to swing from left to from the first figure, each subsequent square
right and back to its original position. increases by four (4) tiles. How?
Let us take a look at this

Solution:
1. In the table, each pendulum has a period
that is the square root of its length. Thus, we
B. DEDUCTIVE REASONING
conjecture that a pendulum with a length of
 a basic form of valid reasoning starts
49 units will have a period of 7 heartbeats.
out with a general statement, or
2. In the table, a pendulum with a length of 4 hypothesis, and examines the
units has a period that is twice that of possibilities to reach a specific, logical
pendulum with a length of 1 unit. A pendulum conclusion
with a length of 16 units has a period that is  works from the more general to the
twice that of pendulum with a length of 4 more specific
units. It appears that quadrupling the length  the process of reaching specific
of a pendulum doubles its period. conclusion by applying general ideas
Example 2 or assumptions, procedure or principle
 a process of reasoning logically from
The diagram below shows a series of given statement to a conclusion
squares formed by small square tiles.
Complete the table below. Example 1
First Premise: All positive counting numbers
whose unit digit is divisible by two are even
numbers.
Second Premise: A positive counting number
1,236 has a unit digit of 6 which is divisible by
two.
Conclusion: Therefore, 1,236 is an even
number.
Example 2
SOLUTIONS: First Premise: If the Department of Education
strictly observed health conditions of the
1. Based on the given figures from the first up
students due to Covid 19, then there is no
to fourth, we need to observe and analyse
face-to-face teaching and learning activity in
what is really happening in the said figures.
a classroom.
2. Next, take a look if there is a pattern. Is
Second Premise: The Philippines is currently
there any pattern that you may observe? If
experiencing Covid 19 pandemic.
Conclusion: Therefore, there will be no face-
to-face teaching and learning style in a
classroom.
Lesson 3.2
METHODS OF PROOF
INTUITION, PROOF AND CERTAINTY
TWO WAYS ON HOW TO PRESENT THE
INTUITION
PROOF
 an immediate understanding or
1. Outline Form
knowing something without reasoning
 does not require a big picture or full 2. Paragraph Form
understanding of the problem, as it
KINDS OF PROOF
uses a lot of small pieces of abstract
information that you have in your 1. Direct proof - a mathematical argument
memory to create a reasoning leading that uses rules of inference to derive the
to your decision just from the limited conclusion from the premises.
information you have about the
2. Indirect proof (Contrapositive proof) - a
problem in hand
type of proof in which a statement to be
 comes from noticing, thinking and
proved is assumed false and if the
questioning
assumption leads to an impossibility, then the
 the ability to know something without
statement assumed false has been proved to
having proof
be true.
Things to be Done to Build and Improve
p →q Read: If p, then q. Conditional
the Intuition of the Students
statement
a. Be observant and see things visually
Logically equivalent to ~q →~p =
towards with your critical thinking.
contrapositive form of the statement p →q.
b. Make your own manipulation on the things
LESSON 3.3
that you have noticed and observed.
Polya’s Four Steps in Problem Solving
c. Do the right thinking and make a
connection with it before doing the solution. GEORGE POLYA
PROOF AND CERTAINTY  one of the foremost recent
mathematicians to make a study of
A proof is an inferential argument for a
problem solving
mathematical statement while proofs are an
 born in Hungary and moved to the
example of mathematical logical certainty.
United States in 1940
Mathematical proof is an inferential argument  known as “The Father of Problem
for a mathematical statement, showing that Solving”.
the stated assumptions logically guarantee  made fundamental contributions to
the conclusion. combinatorics, number theory,
A mathematical proof is a list of statements in numerical analysis and probability
which every statement is one of the following: theory
 noted for his work in heuristics and
(1) an axiom mathematics education.
(2) derived from previous statements by a Heuristic, a Greek word means that "find" or
rule of inference "discover" refers to experience-based
techniques for problem solving, learning, and
(3) a previously derived theorem
discovery that gives a solution which is not Q6: What is the entire group people, things,
guaranteed to be optimal. or events having at least one trait in
common?
Answer: Population
Q7: What is the small number of observations
taken from the total number making up a
POLYA’S FOUR STEPS IN SOLVING population?
PROBLEM
Answer: Sample
1. Understand the Problem
Q8: What is any measure obtained in gauging
2. Devise a Plan the entire population?

3. Carry out the plan Answer: Parameter

4. Look back or Review the Solution Q9: What is any measure obtained in gauging
the sample?
MODULE FIVE
Answer: Statistic
DATA MANAGEMENT
Q10: What are the different measures of
LESSON 5.1- THE DATA central tendency?
QUESTION & ANSWER PORTION Answers: Mean, median and mode
Q1: What is the science dealing with the Q11: What is the arithmetic average of all the
collection, presentation, analysis and scores?
interpretation of a given data?
Answer: Mean
Answer: Statistics
Q12: What is the point that separates the
Q2: What are the two branches or categories upper half from the lower half of the
of Statistics? distribution and the middle point or midpoint
Answers: Descriptive and inferential statistics of any distribution?

Q3: What is the branch of statistics which has Answer: Median

the ability to “infer” and to generalize and it Q13: What is the most frequently occurring
offers the right tool to predict values that are score in a distribution?
not really known?
Answer: Mode
Answers: Inferential statistics
Q14: What is the formula for finding the
Q4: What is the totality of methods and sample mean of ungrouped data?
treatments employed in the collection,
description, and analysis of numerical data, Answer:
wherein purpose is to describe or tell
something about the particular group or
observation?
Answer: Descriptive Statistics
Q5: What are the different scales of
measurement?
Answers: - Nominal Scale, Ordinal Scale,
Interval/Ratio Scale
 2. Median
3. Mode
Arithmetic Mean - simply the mean - the most
commonly used measure of central tendency
To find the mean for a set of data, find the
sum of the data values and divide by the
number of data values.
In statistics it is often necessary to find the
sum of a set of numbers. The traditional
symbol used to indicate a summation is the
Greek letter sigma, . Thus, the notation x,
called summation notation, denotes the
sum of all the numbers in a given set.
The Arithmetic Mean
Mean
The mean of n numbers is the sum of the
numbers divided by n.

Statisticians often collect data from small

portions of a large group in order to
determine information about the group.
Section 4.1 Population - the entire group under
Measures of Central Tendency consideration

STATISTICS Sample - any subset of the population

Statistics involves the collection, It is traditional to denote the mean of a

organization, summarization, presentation, sample by (which is read as “x bar”) and
and interpretation of data. to denote the mean of a population by the
Greek letter (lowercase mu).
BRANCHES OF STATISTICS
Example 1 – Find a Mean
1. Descriptive statistics - branch of statistics
that involves the collection, organization, Six friends in a biology class of 20 students
summarization, and presentation of data received test grades of 92, 84, 65, 76, 88,
and 90
2. Inferential statistics - branch that interprets
and draws conclusions from the data Find the mean of these test scores.

The Arithmetic Mean Solution:

One of the most basic statistical concepts Sample of the population = n = 6 friends
involves finding measures of central tendency
of a set of numerical data.
Measures of Central Tendency
1. Arithmetic mean
 Median = 83
The Median The Mode
Median is the middle number or the mean of A third type of average is the mode.
the two middle numbers in a list of numbers
The mode of a list of numbers is the number
that have been arranged in numerical order
that occurs most frequently
from smallest to largest or largest to smallest.
Example 3 – Find a Mode
Any list of numbers that is arranged in
numerical order from smallest to largest or Find the mode of the data in the following
largest to smallest is a ranked list. lists.
Median a. 18, 15, 21, 16, 15, 14, 15, 21 b. 2, 5, 8, 9,
11, 4, 7, 23
The median of a ranked list of n numbers is:
Solution:
 The middle number if n is odd
 The mean of the two middle numbers if 14 , 15, 15 15, 16, 18, 21, 21
n is even
Mode = 15
Example 2 – Find a Median
b. 2, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 11, 23
Find the median of the data in the following
Because no number occurs more often than
lists.
the others, there is no mode.
a. 4, 8, 1, 14, 9, 21, 12 b. 46, 23, 92, 89,
The Weighted Mean
77, 108
Solution:
a. The list contains 7 numbers. The median of
a list with an odd number of entries is found
by ranking the numbers and finding the
middle number. Ranking the numbers from
smallest to largest gives
1, 4, 8, 9, 12, 14, 21
The middle number is 9. Example 4 – Find a Weighted Mean
Median = 9 Table 4.1 shows Dillon’s fall semester course
grades. Use the weighted mean formula to
Example 2 – Solution
find Dillon’s GPA for the fall semester. Use
b. The list 46, 23, 92, 89, 77, 108 contains 6 the 4- point grading system:
numbers. The median of a list of data with an
A = 4, B = 3, C = 2, D = 1, F = 0
even number of entries is found by ranking
the numbers and computing the mean of the Table 4.1
two middle numbers. Ranking the numbers
from smallest to largest gives Dillon’s Grades, Fall Semester

23, 46, 77, 89, 92, 108

The two middle numbers are 77 and 89.
Find the mean of 77 and 89.
Mean= 77 + 89 = 166 = 83 Example 4 – Solution

2 2
The B is worth 3 points, with a weight of 4; The mean number of laptop computers per
the A is worth 4 points with a weight of 3; the household for the homes in the subdivision is
D is worth 1 point, with a weight of 3; and the 1.975.
C is worth 2 points, with a weight of 4. The
sum of all the weights is 4 + 3 + 3 + 4, or 14.

Dillon’s GPA for the fall semester is 2.5.

LESSON 5.3
Raw data - data that have not been
organized or manipulated in any manner MEASURES OF DISPERSION
A large collection of raw data may not provide MEASURES OF DISPERSION/
much readily observable information. VARIABILITY
Frequency distribution- table that lists Variability refers to how spread apart the
observed events and the frequency of scores of the distribution are or how much the
occurrence of each observed event, is often scores vary from each other.
used to organize raw data.
Measures
Table 4.4
1. Range
FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION
2. Standard Deviation
3. Variance
The Range
The range of a set of data values is the
difference between the greatest data value
and the least data value.
ROBERT PERSHING WADLOW
 Alton Giant and the Giant of Illinois
 tallest person in recorded history for
whom there is irrefutable evidence
 Born: 22 February 1918, Alton, Illinois,
United States
 Died: 15 July 1940, Manistee,
EXAMPLE Michigan, United States
Find the mean of the data displayed in a  Height: 2.72 m = 8 ft 11.1 in.
Frequency  Shoe size: 37AA
 Weight: 439 lb (199 kg)
Distribution
CHANDRA BAHADUR DANGI
Formula: Mean = (x.f )
 Nepalese weaver -74 yrs. old,
f
 21½ inches tall
Mean = (0 x 5) + (1x12) + (2 x14) + (3 x 3) +  a weaver who also helps look after
(4 x 2) + (5 x 3 ) + (6 x 0) + (7 x 1) buffaloes and cows in his remote
mountain village of Reemkholi
= 79 = 1.975
 weight - 32 pounds
40
SULTAN KÖSEN A measure of dispersion that is less sensitive
to extreme values is the standard deviation.
Born: 10 December 1982
The standard deviation of a set of numerical
Weight: 137 kg (302 lb; 21.6 st)
data makes use of the amount by which each
Height: 2.51 m (8 ft 2 7⁄8 in) individual data value deviates from the mean.
These deviations, represented by ,
Nationality: Turkish are positive when the data value x is greater
TALLEST LIVING MAN than the mean and are negative when x is
less than the mean .
In 2009, Sultan Kösen became the
first man over 8 ft to be measured by The sum of all the deviations is 0 for
Guinness World Records for more than 20 all sets of data.
years.
In fact, Guinness World Records only knows
of ten confirmed or reliable cases in history
reaching 8 ft or more.
RANGE OF HEIGHTS OF THE TALLEST
AND SHORTEST MAN
RANGE = 107.1 INCHES - 21.5 INCHES =
85.6 INCHES
Because the sum of all the deviations of the
Example 1 – Find a Range
data values from the mean is always 0, we
Find the range of the numbers of ounces cannot use the sum of the deviations as a
dispensed by Machine 1 in Table 4.5. measure of dispersion for a set of data.
Instead, the standard deviation uses the sum
Table 4.5 of the squares of the deviations.
Soda Dispensed (ounces)

Sample standard deviation = lowercase letter

s

Solution: Standard deviation of the population =

The greatest number of ounces dispensed is = lowercase Greek letter sigma

10.07 and the least is 5.85. Procedure for Computing a Standard
Range = R = 10.07 – 5.85 = 4.22 oz. Deviation

THE STANDARD DEVIATION 1. Determine the mean of the n numbers

2. For each number, calculate the
The range of a set of data is easy to deviation (difference) between the
compute, but it can be deceiving. number and the mean of the numbers
The range is a measure that depends only on 3. Calculate the square of each of the
the two most extreme values, and as such it deviations and find the sum by n. if the
is very sensitive.
 data is a sample, then divide the sum
by n-1.
Step 5: The standard deviation of the sample
4. If the data is a population, then divide
is . To the nearest hundredth, the
the sum by n. if the data is a sample.
standard deviation is s = 5.43.
Then divide the sum by n-1.
5. Find the square root of the quotient in THE VARIANCE
Step 4.
Variance for a given set of data is the square
of the standard deviation of the data.
Example 2 – Find the Standard Deviation
The following numbers were obtained by
sampling a population.
2, 4, 7, 12, 15
Find the standard deviation of the sample.
Solution:
Example 5 – Find the Variance
Step 1: The mean of the numbers is
Find the variance for the sample given earlier
in Example 2.
Solution:
The standard deviation which we found in
Example 2 is
The variance is the square of the standard
Step 2: For each number, calculate the
deviation. Thus, the variance is
deviation between the number and the mean.

Example 6
a. If the standard deviation of the sample
is 10, then what is its variance?
Given: s = 10
Find: Variance = s² = 10² = 100
Step 3: Calculate the square of each of the
b. If the variance of the sample is 100, then
deviations in Step 2, and find the sum of
what is its standard deviation?
these squared deviations.
Given: s² = 100
Find: s = Square root of 100= 10
LESSON 5.4 - MEASURES OF RELATIVE
POSITION

PERCENTILES, QUARTILES AND

DECILES
IMPORTANCE OF MEASURES OF
Step 4: Because we have a sample of n = 5 RELATIVE POSITIONS
values, divide the sum 118 by n – 1, which is
4.
1. give us a way to see where a certain data 5th Decile = D5 = 5/10 = ½ part of the data
point or value falls in a sample or distribution …
2. tell us whether a value is about the 9th Decile = D9 = 9/10 part of the data
average, or whether it's unusually high or low
SUMMARY
3. used for quantitative data that falls on
P25 = Q1
some numerical scale
P50 = Q2 = D5 = Median
PERCENTILES, QUARTILES AND
DECILES P75 = Q3
 partition values
 division of data into equal parts
NOTE:
Data should be arranged in ascending or
descending order of magnitude.
Ascending order- lowest to highest
Descending order - highest to lowest
PERCENTILES
 divide the whole distribution into 100
equal parts
1st Percentile= P1= 1/100 part of the data
2nd Percentile= P2= 2/100 part of the data
P3, P4, … FORMULAS FOR FINDING THE
POSITIONS OF QUARTILES AND
50th Percentile= P50= 50/100 = ½ part of
PERCENTILES OF UNGROUPED DATA
the data
Number of Item
…
Q1 = 0.25 (n+1)
99th percentile =P99= 99/100 part of the data
Q2 = 0.50 (n +1)
QUARTILES
Q3 = 0.75 (n+1)
 divide the whole distribution into four
equal parts. EXAMPLES

1st Quartile = Q1 = ¼ part of the data Solve the following problems completely:

2nd Quartile = Q2 = ½ of part the data 1. Find Quartile 1, Quartile 2 and Quartile 3 of
the following data:
3rd Quartile= Q3 = ¾ part of the data
2, 5, 5, 8, 11, 12, 19, 22, 23, 29, 31, 45, 83,
DECILES 91, 104, 159, 181, 312 , 352
 divide the whole distribution into ten QUARTILE 1
equal parts
Q1 = 0.25 (n+1)
1st Decile = D1= 1/10 part of the data
Q1 = 0.25 (19+1) = 0.25 (20) = 5 = 5th item
2nd Decile = D2 =2/10 part of the data …
Q1 = 11
QUARTILE 2
Q2 = 0.50 (n +1)
= 0.50(19 +1)= 0.50 (20 ) = 10
= 10th item = 29
Q2 = 29
QUARTILE 3
Q3 = 0.75 (n +1)
= 0.75(19 +1) = 0.75 (20) = 15
= 15th item = 104
Q3 = 104
ANSWERS: FORMULAS
𝑧 = 𝑋 −𝜇
𝜎
X= raw scores from the
2. Find the median of the given data in population
number 1.
𝜇 = mean of the population
Median = Quartile 2 = 29
𝜎 = population standard deviation
3. Find 75th percentile of the given data in
number 1. 𝑧 =𝑋−𝑥̅

75th percentile=P75=Q3 =104 𝑠

LESSON 5.4 𝑋 = raw score from the sample

MEASURES OF RELATIVE POSITION x̄ = mean of the sample

Z-score 𝑠 = sample standard deviation

 known as standard score

 a numerical measurement that
describes a value's relationship to the
mean of a group of values
 measured in terms of standard
deviations from the mean
IMPORTANCE OF Z-SCORE
1. allows us to calculate the probability of a
score occurring within our normal distribution 𝜎=1

2. enables us to compare two scores that are EXAMPLE:

from different normal distributions Problem:
In your final examinations, you earned a
grade of 95 in Physics and 85 in Biology. In
which exam did you do better?
Given: X = 95 - a unimodal frequency distribution
curve
X = 85
- the scores are scattered on the X- axis
while the frequency of occurrence is
defined by the Y- axis
Lesson 5.6
THE LINEAR CORRELATION: PEARSON
r
Physics
𝑧 = 𝑋−𝜇 = 95 - 85 = 10 = 1
𝜎 10 10

Biology
𝑧 = 𝑋−𝜇 = 85 - 75 = 10 = 2
𝜎 5 5
z-score values into a z-scale

 Illustration shows the comparison of

the relative position of scores in one
standardized scale.
 Your score of 95 in Physics falls
directly below 1.0 on the z-scale.
 Your score of 85 in Biology falls
directly below 2.0 on the z-scale.
 It is clear that you did much better in
the biology exam (𝑍𝑏 = 2.0) than what
we previously thought that you did
better in Physics.
Lesson 5.5
The normal distributions
Mean and standard deviation - heart and
brain of descriptive statistics
Normal curve - lifeblood
z-scores
- the mean is always zero and the
standard deviation is fixed to 1
Normal curve - a theoretical distribution