Humanities: An Overview

The term humanities come from the Latin word humanus which means cultured, refined and
human. To the philosopher Pythagoras “man is the measure of all things” – it recognizes the dignity
of man and its creative expressions. Humanism believes that man should be humanized, socialized,
and educated to respond positively to the rapid changes. It is the strengthening of art appreciation
because it is the way thoughts, beliefs, values and feelings are conveyed thru visual arts, literary,
arts, dance and music.

It is sum of the best that has been thought, felt, and has been artistically rendered.

ART – came from the Latin “ARS” meaning ability or skill. It is the attempt to create
something pleasant. It covers the area of artistic skill that seeks to communicate beauty thru the
senses. Beauty is not an integral part of art because it is in the eye of the beholder.

Measurements or standards of beauty:

Male: has the height of at least 5’ 8” Female: long hair

hair in chest small waist with bigger hips
slim and wide shoulders long and slim fingers
rough hands small feet
masculine sloe eyes
aquiline nose long high cheekbones

Types
1. Visual – painting, sculpture, architecture / what is seen
2. Performing – theatre, dance, T.V., radio / what is heard
3. art of sounds – literature and music / what is seen and heard

MASTERPIECE – a work of art that is known to 27 countries for 15 years.

Work of Art – it is a record of a particular artist view that shows how one sees, feel, hear and
recorded as an arrangement of designs, colors, lines, tones or words which satisfies aesthetic
purpose. It creates aesthetic feelings and desire or experiences which delights and satisfy our desire
for beauty and uplifts us and stays vividly in our mind. It is also a product of an artist personality
influence consciously and unconsciously by:
Environment economic condition
Tradition ideals
National traits geography
Religious belief climate

Assumptions in Art

1. not nature but an enhancement / created by various people

2. universal and timeless / does not grow old
3. an experience seen and heard
4. not an imitation but an interpretation

Values and Reason for Art

1. pleasing to our senses

2. commemorate certain occasions with songs, paintings and architectural monuments (heroes).
3. sources of inspiration and satisfaction
4. beautifies our humanity
5. religiosity
6. transforms us into highly cultured dignified and respectable human beings
7. go back into historical times in search of our realities
8. plan and construct when architecturally stimulated

1
Similarities and Differences in Art

1. words are use in verbal arts

2. musical notes in music
3. visual arts like paintings, sculptor and architecture uses lines, colors, tones and canvass
4. operas and novel tell stories as music and dances
5. poetry are arrange in words
6. concerns with the audience/ readers feelings and emotions

Artist Credo “art for art’s sake” beauty is the reason for the art

2
 CHAPTER I

THE HUMANITIES

1. DEFINITION OF TERMS

The term humanities come from the Latin word humanus which means cultured, refined
and human. The term mainly applies to the arts since these reflect man’s experiences, values, cultural
background, ingenuity, beliefs, custom and religion.

To be cultured means to have knowledge of one’s own history, customs, beliefs, values,
music, literature since these make up the culture of a nation.

To be refined means a polished exhibition of manners and conduct. The arts (which will be
discussed later) show the artist’s refinement in the way he expresses his thoughts and feelings. It
also refers to refinement in speech, etiquette and way of life.

Human because the arts reflect humanity. It shows the ingenuity, creativity and limitless
imagination of man. It also shows the love for the human race since the arts reflect man himself: his
environment; his society; and his culture

2. SCOPE AND IMPORTANCE OF THE COURSE

The course will focus on the following art areas namely:

1. painting 5. drama
2. sculpture 6. music
3. architecture 7. dance
4. literature

The term humanities generally refers to painting, literature, music, architecture, dance and
theater-areas in which human subjectivity is emphasized and individual expressiveness is dramatized.
The importance of the human being and his feelings is the main concern of the humanities. One
learns what it is to be human by studying humanity and this depends, to a large extent, on vicarious
and direct experiences and the way he reaches out to people of different culture and different places.

The humanities are, therefore, the records of man’s experiences, his values, his sentiments,
his ideals, and his goals. The humanities are ultimately the expression of man’s feelings and thoughts.
They provide enjoyment and stimulation, particularly when one tries to understand and appreciate
them.

3. DEFINITION OF ART

The word Art originally comes from the Artyan root ar meaning “join”, “put together”. From
this ancient etymon, two Greek verb are derived artizein, meaning “to prepare”, and arkiskein, “to
put together”. The Latin term ars, artis, mean everything that is artificially made or composed by
man.

The arts constitute one of the earliest and oldest forms of human expression. Even during the
prehistoric times, man already used art to show or predict the things around him like animals, plants,
as well as his daily activities like hunting and cooking.

Art during the prehistoric times includes those before the birth of Christ. Notable to mention
are the Greek vases with painting of various objects, the Greek temples found all over Greece and the
pyramids of Egypt.

3
 Concept of
the earth
as flat an
as a map.

In the field of literature, early art forms include the epics, myths, legends that are transmitted
from one generation to another orally. These early literary forms are products of man’s love for
chivalry, romance, the deities, the supernatural and the unbelievable. An epic is a long, narrative
poem that tells a story lasting for days, weeks, or even a month. Myths are stories involving gods
and goddesses, the supernatural creatures and the struggle between a good and evil. Legends
explain the origin of things and places.

Art is found all over the world. From the smallest island to the biggest states, art is
everywhere. It is a result of man’s experiences with the invisible, with the supernatural, his dreams
and fantasies, as well as his daily activities. Art is not only found in painting, music or dance. Cooking,
dressmaking, photography, interior design, crafts are products of art. They are products of man’s
needs, emotions, philosophies, interest, desires, and talents.

Art has been created by people at all times; it lives because it is liked and enjoyed. Art
involves the personal experience of an individual accompanied by some intensity or emotion. Art is
made by man, no matter how close it to nature. Although each art work is evident the expression of
an artists personal thoughts and feelings, it may be inferred that, like any other individuals he
belongs to a milieu, and he cannot free himself from the influence of his social, economic, political,
geographical, scientific and technological environment. These factors undoubtedly affect his creative
sense. Some artists become social critics or moralists by analyzing and commenting on the virtues
and views of their particular society and pointing out some causes of action for its renovation.

Appreciating a work of art implies an intellectual involvement with what is to be appreciated,

be it a painting a musical composition, a piece of sculpture, a drama or a novel. To appreciate anyone
of the arts does not mean responding emotionally, but one has to understand what it is all about-its
elements and how these are put together in a harmonious pattern of relationships.

Art is a product of man’s need to express himself and is not limited to the revelation of
emotions alone. The personal and social values of the artist are endowed with a high degree of
sensitivity towards his environment. The discovery of the realities around him becomes the focal point
of interest that the artist expresses in his art.

A work of art is an activity that involves both imagination and skill in accomplishing it. It
creates aesthetic feelings or experiences which delight and satisfy our desire for beautiful things. It is
great when the aesthetic experience it creates uplifts us and stays vividly in our minds. Much more, a
work of art is presented in beautiful language, interesting to read, arouse emotional responses, and
has rich imagery. Examples of these are Rizal’s Noli Me Tangere and El Filibusterismo. These are
great literary works because they deal with human situations and the experiences learned from them
stay long vividly in our memory.

4. DIFFERENT VIEWS OF ART

According to Tolstoy (greatest novelist) – Art is a means of union among all men. Art is
not always a means of pleasure. In many cases it does not give pleasure to the producer, and its

4
unpleasant art is a means of communication. A man through language transmits his thoughts to
another, though art he communicates his feelings. A man who receives another man’s expression of
feelings,
experience feeling which moved the man who expressed it. A woman weeps and another who sees
and hears feels sorry. It is on this ability of man to receive and experience another man’s feelings
that art is based. When a boy witnesses a game and upon reaching home relates what he has seen in
such a way that he transmits to others the feelings he has experienced, it is the activity of art.

According to Benedetto Croce (Italian philosopher and profound thinker in the fields of
aesthetics) – Art is vision. The artist creates a picture of phantasm. This is not a fact. Physical facts
as perceived as a construction of our intellect for the purpose of practical science. We cannot enjoy
the poem if we start scanning the lines, nor the aesthetic effect of a statue, if we weighing and
measuring it. This is not necessary to lovers of art who do not want to be distracted from the proper
object.

According to St. Thomas – Art is direct apposite of the practical. The merits of a word
of art do not depend on the taste or wish of the artist. It is the outcome of the work itself. Thus an
artist may be immoral, and yet his work may be good.

According to Aristotle – Art has no other end except itself. All the arts are patterned on
nature but the artist should take nature as it should ideally be, not as it actually is.

According to Fr. Marin (Dominican Professor) – Art is the manifestation of ideal beauty
thru adequate physical forms. Art is the idealization of the real as well as the idealization of the
ideal. The end of the art is aesthetic culture which is a source of solace for the spirit. The goal of art
is the realization of divine beauty thru artistic works which in some ways can superior to the beauty
of actual nature. Art is a formative and perfective institution of humanity.

According to Bogart, a work of art is a record of a particular artist view . It shows

something that he has seen, felt and thought of and recorded it as an arrangement of design, colors,
lines, and tones or words which satisfy his aesthetics purpose. A work of art is the product of the
artist unique personality influenced consciously or unconsciously by factors such as his environment,
traditions, national traits, religious beliefs, economic conditions, his ideals, or even the climate and
geography. A work of art represents or reflects the individual, the character of the period and the
place where it was produced.

Art, in strict sense, is the expression of the beautiful in man’s works. The beauty
that art expresses is known as artistic beauty. There is another kind of beauty, which is known as
natural or sensitive beauty. The human form is one of the most perfect expressions of sensitive
beauty. Natural beauty is the beauty possessed by the objects of nature.

Beauty, goodness and truth are basic elements which the soul of man craves. Art which is the
expression beauty is man-made objects is therefore a necessity for healthy and happy living. The
artist, through his chosen art or medium of expression, quenches the fire in his soul which urges him
to release his emotions. Thus, he is relieved. Ordinary men who behold the beauty in the work of the
artist satisfy their desire for the beautiful. Thus, this world of ours becomes a saner and happier place
because of the existence of the arts.

Art is also used as a means of communication. A work of art expresses certain feelings that
emit meaning. Viewing a painting of a flower would let us know that the painter is communicating to
his viewers his own concept of a flower. Music is a form of emotional expression as well as a form of
communication. In certain cultures, especially those in the Kalinga region, found in the highlands of
Northern Luzon, there are music’s that are only played during festivities, rituals, funerals or peace
pacts. Since they are tribes, one tribe will know that the other tribe is celebrating or mourning the
dead on the kind of music that is being played. In Southern Philippines, the Muslim use music as a
means of communication. Certain tunes denote happiness or lamentation.

5
 Prehistoric drawings of animals found in the walls and ceilings of a cave in Lascaux, France

Lascaux
“For the French commune in the Correze departement, see Lascaux, Correze.” Lascaux is a complex of
caves in southwestern France famous for its cave paintings. The original caves are located near the village of
Montignac, in the Dordogne “departement”. They contain some of the earliest known art, dating back to
somewhere between 13,000 and 15,000 BC.
Description
The Upper Paleolithic cave paintings consist mostly of realistic images of large animals, including
aurochs, most of which are known from fossil evidence to have lived in the area at the time. The other common
theme of the paintings is human handprints.
History
The cave was discovered on 12 September, 1940 by four teenagers and a dog named Robot. Public
access was made easier after World War II. By 1955, the carbon dioxide produced by 1,200 visitors per day had
visibly damaged the paintings. The cave was closed to the public in 1963, in order to preserved the art. After
the cave was closed, the paintings were restored to their original state, and are now monitored on a daily basis.
Replica
Lascaux II, a replica of two of the cave halls – the Great Hall of the Hulls and the Painted Gallery – was
opened in 1983. Reproductions of other Lascaux artwork can be seen at the Centre of Prehistoric Art at Le Thot,
France. The construction of the replica was a chance for scientists, to proved their knowledge how the paintings
were made. Inside a shell in reinforced concrete, with the contours of the cave inside, the paintings were
executed in the same manner, using the same types of materials believed to have been used 19,000 years ago.
These were natural pigments like ochre, charcoal, and iron oxides.

6
 It is the one and only wonder which does not require a description by early historians and
poets. It is the one and only Wonder that does not need speculations concerning its appearance, size,
and shape. It is the oldest, yet it is the only surviving of the Seven Ancient Wonders. It is the Great
Pyramid of Giza.

Location
At the City of Giza, a necropolis of ancient Memphis, and today part of Greater Cairo, Egypt.

History
Contrary to the common belief, only the Great Pyramid of Khufu (Cheops), not all three
Great Pyramids, is on top of the list of Wonders. The monument was built by the Egyptian pharaoh
Khufu of the Fourth Dynasty around the year 2560 BC to serve as a tomb when he dies. The tradition
of pyramid building started in Ancient Egypt as a sophistication of the idea of a mastaba or “platform”
covering the royal tomb. Later, several stacked mastabas were used. Early pyramids, such as the
Step Pyramid of King Zoser (Djoser) at Saggara by the famous Egyptian architect, Imhotep,
illustrate this connection.

The great pyramid is believed to have been built over a 20 year period. The site was first
prepared, and blocks of stone were transported and placed. An outercasing (which disappeared over
the years) was then used to smooth the surface. Although it is not known how the blocks were put in
place, several theories have been proposed. One theory involves the construction of a straight or
spiral ramp that was raised as the construction proceeded. This ramp, coated with mud and water,
eased the displacement of the blocks which were pushed (or pulled) into place. A second theory
suggests that the blocks were placed using long levers with a short angled foot throughout their
history, the pyramids of Giza have stimulated human imagination. They were referred to as “The
Granaries of Joseph” and “The Mountains of Pharaoh”. When Napoleon invaded Egypt in 1798, his
pride was expressed through his famous quote: “Soldats! Du haut de ces Pyramides, 40 siecles nous
contemplent”. (Soldiers! From the top of these Pyramids, 40 centuries are looking at us).

Today, the Great Pyramid is enclosed, together with the other pyramids and the Sphinx, in
the tourist region of the Giza Plateau. Also in the area is the museum housing the mysterious Sun
Boat, only discovered in 1954 near the south side of the pyramid. The boat is believed to have been
used to carry the body of Khufu in his last journey on earth before being buried inside the pyramid. It
may also serve him as a means of transportation in his afterlife journey according to Ancient
Egyptian beliefs.

Description
When it was built, the Great Pyramid was 145.75m (481ft.) high. Over the years, it lost 10m
(30ft) off its top. It ranked as the tallest structure on Earth for more than 43 centuries, only to be
surpassed in height in the nineteenth century AD. It was covered with a casing of stones to smooth
its surface (some of the casing can still be seen near the top of Khefre’s pyramid). The sloping
angle of its sides is 51 degrees and 51 minutes. Each side is carefully oriented with one of the
cardinal points of the compass, that is, north, south, east, and west. The horizontal cross section of
the pyramid is square at any level, with each side measuring 229m (751ft) in length. The maximum
error between side lengths is astonishingly less than 0.1%.
The structure consists of approximately 2 million blocks of stone, each weighing more than
two tons. It has been suggested that there are enough blocks in the three pyramids to build a 3m
(10ft) high, 0.3m (1ft) thick wall around France. The area covered by the Great pyramid can
accommodate St. Peter’s in Rome, the cathedral’s of Florence and Milan, and Westminster and
St. Paul’s in London combined.

On the north face, is the pyramid’s entrance. A number of corridors, galleries, and escape
shafts either lead to the King’s burial chamber, or were intended to serve other functions. The King’s
chamber is located at the heart of the pyramid, only accessible through the Great Gallery and an
ascending corridor. The King’s sarcophagus is made of red granite, as are the interior walls of the
King’s Chamber. Most impressive is the sharp-edged stone over the doorway which is over 3m (10ft)
long, 2.4m (8ft) high and 1.3m (4ft) thick. All of the interior stones fit so well, a card won’t fit

7
between them. The sarcophagus is oriented in accordance with the compass directions, and is only
about 1cm smaller in dimensions than the chamber entrance. It might have been introduced as the
structure was progressing.

New theories concerning the origin and purpose of the Pyramids of Giza have been
proposed… Astronomic observatories… Places of cult workshop… Geometric structures constructed by
a long-gone civilization… Even extraterrestrial-related theories have been proposed with little
evidence in support… The overwhelming scientific and historic evidence still supports the conclusion
that, like many smaller pyramids in the region, the Great Pyramids were built by the great Ancient
Egyptian civilization off the West bank of the Nile as tombs for their magnificent Kings… Tombs where
Khufu, Khefre, and Menkaure could start their mystic journey to the afterlife.

medium of expression, quenches the fire in his soul which urges him to release his emotions. Thus,
he is relieved. Ordinary men who behold the beauty in the work of the artist satisfy their desire for
the beautiful. Thus, this world of ours become a saner and happier place because of the existence of
arts.

Art is also means of communication. A work of art expresses a certain feelings that can emit
meaning. Viewing a painting of a flower would let us know that a painter is communicating to his
viewers his own concept of a flower. Music is a form of emotional expression as well as a form of
communication. In certain cultures, especially

5. CLASSIFICATION OF ART

Art is commonly classified into fine arts and practical arts.

1. Fine Arts have for their primary purpose the satisfaction for or sense or feeling for beauty.
Because of this, fine arts are also called aesthetics, a word of Greek origin having to do with
feeling. The fine arts are:

a. Painting is made up of lines, forms, colors and tones. Since painting appeals to the
eyes, it is called visual art. Essentially, the line and forms of painting must be visual,
and not perceptible by touch.
b. Music is expressed in harmonious sounds. Of all the arts, music plucks with the surest
fingers at the chords of the human heart. Music’s spell is so universal that even birds
and other irrational animal appear to find pleasure in beautiful sounds. However, music
is considered the “algebra” of the arts because of its abstract quality. The same quality
makes the formulas for music composition quite difficult. Also the same abstract quality
makes music’s appeal quite to the soul.
c. Dancing, through graceful movements, causes aesthetics pleasure. Dancing mainly
depends on rhythm and rhythmical sounds.
d. Literature uses words as its medium of expression. By means of words, literature
paints, builds, sings or dance. By some it is called the “Queen of Arts”, it is the most
direct of all expressions, and it’s often lack of subtle suggestion makes is suffer under a
handicap in the creation of artistic appeal. Drama, a form of poetry, is considered the
noblest expression of literary art. Literature is a picture of emotion not sensations.

2. Practical Arts given artistic beauty to objects whose primary functions is human comfort and
convenience.

a. Architecture has, among the fine arts, the most utilitarian form. Formerly listed under
fine arts, architecture’s great material utility has put in modern classification under
practical arts. Architecture is also known as “frozen music” because of the rhythmic
aspects of its lines.

8
 b. Sculpture is plastic art. It is expressed in tangible lines, mass, proportion and moulding.
Works of sculpture are especially employed to perpetuate the memories of events or
persons.
c. Industrial Art employs beauty to transform and improved materials which are
manufacture for human use, such as machinery, shoes, automobiles, and ceramics, etc.
d. Applied Art is that aspect of art which has to do with the beautiful as in dressmaking,
decorating ornaments, handicrafts, homemaking, landscaping, etc.
e. Civic Art deals with community objects and affairs of political, religious or educational
value. Its expressions are found in making parks, plaza, bridges, and streets artistic
and beautiful.
f. Commercial Art is often made to be reproduced and is used as a means of selling
commodities or goods. Examples of commercial art are designing and announcements
for advertisement in newspapers, magazines, billboards and posters.

6. DIFFERENCE OF AN ART WORK FROM A NATURAL WONDER

Sometimes we connect art as a product of nature since all materials used in art come from
nature. We see the beauty of natural wonders as well as the works of renowned painters like
Fernando Amorsolo or Michelangelo, or hear the music of Nicanor Abelardo or Ludwig van Beethoven.

How then can we distinguish a work of art from a natural wonder?

A work of art is always man-made. This would include paintings, novels, movies, music,
dance, etc. the paintings of the great painters did not appear by means of natural forces. They were
products of their genius and God-given talents. A natural wonder, on the other hand, is a product of
nature and natural forces. Nobody made Mt. Mayon or the Maria Cristina Falls. They already existed
before the advent of man’s early civilization.

7. FUNCTIONS OF ART

Function would mean the “practical usefulness” of a thing. An art work can either be
functional or non-functional. A functional art work has specific purposes to satisfy the needs of man.
Examples are arts like architecture (shelter), cooking (food and nutrition) and weaving (clothing). On
the other hand, a non-functional art work arouses feelings of amusement and relaxes man from
fatigue and daily life problems. These include painting, music, literature, dance, sculpture and
theater.

9
 CHAPTER II

AESTHETICS OR THE PHILOSOPHY OF BEAUTY OF ART

1. DEFINITION AND PURPOSE OF AESTHETICS / BEAUTY

The word aesthetics comes from the Greek word aesthanesthai, meaning “to fill”. It implies
a theory of sensibility or perception in general. In 1735, Alexander Baungarten used the term in the
present meaning. He described Aesthetics as the science of the sensuous knowledge of the beautiful
in art and nature contrasted with Logic, whose aim is study of the truth, and Morality, whose purpose
is the moral good.
Aesthetics is the theory of the perceptibility, appreciation, responsiveness and enjoyment of
the beautiful in art and mixture.

2. BEAUTY OF THINGS HAVE BEEN UNIVERSALLY ADMIRED AND LOVED

Primitive people spend their lives dancing, chanting rituals, or decorating their bodies with
tattoos, beads, necklaces, bracelets, etc. They wear clothes as part of their decorative attire for
exhibiting colors and symmetrical designs. With an incredible sense of vanity and ornamentation, they
make in their bodies terrible scarification, pierce their lips, ears, and nostrils, carry rings and brass
collars weighing several pounds, file and blacken their teeth, flatten their forehead or elongate the
heads of their children to almost conelike forms. They employ wood, stone, bone, and shells in
making beads, bracelets, collars, together with colored seeds, pieces of fur, feather’s and the teeth of
animals.

Pre-historic men were also interested in the arts and modeled nature according to their
cultural surroundings. Cavemen decorated the flat surfaces of their rocky homes of polychrome
designs of animals of unsurpassed beauty and expression; so do the Bushmen of Africa and the
aborigines of Australia. The ancient civilizations of Sumeria, Babylon, Egypt, Mexico, Polynesia, India
are associated with great artistic creations. The Greek vases, jars and shields and the Renaissance
churches, castles, and palaces bear signs of profuse decorations.

2. THE IMPORTANCE OF BEAUTY IN HUMAN LIFE

Man strives for perfection. He has a natural tendency to contemplate and enjoy perfect and
beautiful things. Our minds are attuned to beautiful objects and dislike disorder and ugliness.
Beautiful things are things in order, things combined in a harmonious way, things with precision,
purpose and proportion. There are no mistakes in beautiful things everything is appropriate,
interesting, relevant, perfect. Anything that is beautiful is also meaningful, that is, easy to
understand. It impresses our imagination and affects our lives. In art, things which do not make
sense are eliminated.

The aesthetic enjoyments derived from the contemplation of beautiful things produce in man,
astonishing effects, such as sublimation of our lower drives, relaxation from our boredom, spiritual
inspiration, etc. Men need the experience of the beautiful to free themselves from their anxieties,
worries, tensions, fatigue, passions and sorrows. Human existence takes on a significant dimension
when it is cleansed of sordid experiences by the influence of the arts.

Beauty also increases the love for natural and artificial objects and the knowledge of our
cultural heritage. Countries are filled with museums, galleries and libraries. From them we learn the
evolution of human culture. Through beauty, finally, we get a better understanding of God, the world,
and man. God is One, in Him all things are put together. He is Infinite Beauty.

10
3. THE AESTHETIC PLEASURE OR ENJOYMENTS

Etymologically speaking, the word “Aesthetics” means “an experience”. If one is to know
beauty in art and in nature, he must know it not as a mere information but as a joyful experience.
The world of art and beauty is for our contemplation, enjoyment, and aesthetic refinement.

Pleasures in general are the result of a normal and harmonious reaction of the faculties when
enjoying the good that perfects them. The intellect “enjoys itself” when being perfected by truth, and
other senses and faculties are pleased when enjoying their objects on one good that perfects them.
Aesthetic pleasures, in particular, are the result of the harmonious massing of pleasing stimuli derived
from the vision of color, or from sounds and tones, or from the perception of forms and lines.
Through sight and hearing, we perceive objects at a distance and increase the aesthetic stimuli. A
simple turning of our eyes or listening for a moment to an orchestra enables us to undergo a great
stimulation. Our lower senses – touch, taste and smell – cannot have more than one sensation at the
same time.

It is obvious, therefore, that aesthetic pleasures have a spiritual character different from
other kinds of pleasures. Because of this immaterial character, beautiful objects can be enjoyed
without actually being possessed or consumed. The Greek statues of Apollo and Venus were already
contemplated and enjoyed by the people of Athens two thousand years ago, as they are now millions
of tourists visiting the Vatican or the Louvre museums. We derive our aesthetic enjoyments not from
the pleasures of the body or from real life, but from the illusions of reality, from objects at a distance
separated from our bodies, detached from ourselves.

Aristotle used the word “Katharsis” to describe the effects of aesthetic pleasures. What this
word meant to Aristotle, we can only guess. He might have applied it to the temporary elimination of
the emotions of pity and fear in the course of dramatic performance. In the language of
contemporary psychoanalysis, it could mean the “purgation” of passions, soul therapy, a “tranquilizer”
of emotions. The emotional commotion afforded by the medium of art is intended not to disturb the
soul but to purge, heal and delight. As Ed Willock put it, The artist with his medium seems to say to
us, “See how easy it is to do the right thing. See how very possible beauty can be.”

St. Thomas Aquinas found no better definition of beauty that the one derived from our fondness and
liking of it: Beautiful things are those the perception of which is pleasing. “The beautiful is that which is a source
of pleasure by its very apprehension.”

5. ON THE BEAUTIFUL

A. THE THEORY OF THE BEAUTIFUL

Beauty is hard to define and explain because of its perfection and because of the subjective
tastes, opinion, and criteria involved in its appreciation. Discussions of the beautiful properly belong
to Metaphysics, a branch of philosophy dealing with as being as being; that is, with pure and absolute
realities such as goodness, truth, unity, and beauty. These abstract elements are found in all created
and uncreated realities. They are called transcendentals. Consequently, in order to have a
metaphysical understanding of the beautiful, it is necessary to associate it with the good and the true.

B. THE GOOD AND THE BEAUTIFUL

Aristotle defines the good as that which is desired by all. In a general sense, we call the objects of our
liking, desire and approval, good things; and those which provoke dislike, aversion and disapproval, bad things.
No one can like the bad precisely as bad or dislike the good as good.

St. Thomas Aquinas established the relation between the goodness and beauty in these words: “The
beautiful adds to the notion of good a peculiar relation to the cognitive faculties, so that while good is that which
simply gratifies the appetite, the beautiful is that which gratifies by its apprehension.” In other words, in order
for a thing to be called good, it is required to actually satisfy our desire, to be possessed and enjoyed. In
order to call a thing beautiful, it is required that subject may find delight and enjoyment in its contemplation.
Kant says: “The beautiful pleases immediately apart from all interest.” According to this philosopher, “The

11
beautiful pleases immediately apart from all interest.” According to this philosopher, “disinterestedness” is one of
the main characteristics of beauty. Before Kant, Plato remarked: “Love is of the beautiful? True love is essentially
disinterested, deprived of desire, non-acquisition, non-possessive.”

For instance, the famous Rice Terraces of Banawe are an object of admiration and aesthetic delight to
visiting tourists. To the native Ifugaos, who year after year plant these rice paddies, the terraces are not
beautiful but something good and useful since they desire their livelihood from them. A famous painting is an art
of gallery may call the attention of visitors who find in it aesthetic enjoyment. The same painting, however, is an
object of marketable value for a thief or a dealer of art who intends to sell it for a million dollars.

C. THE TRUE AND THE BEAUTIFUL

Truth is broadly defined as an adequation of the mind and the thing. Truth is a transcendental
property of reality. Truth is generally classified into logic, ontological and moral, in as much as it is the human
mind that adequate to the thing (logical truth) or the thing adequates to the idea in the divine mind (ontological
truth) or the verbal statement adequates to the human mind (moral truth). We distinguish the object as “known”
and the intellect to grasp the truth of things; to know the objects confronting it, whether they are concrete or
abstract realities.

The beautiful is transcendental but in a special manner. The beautiful share of the transcendence of goodness
and also of the transcendence of truth. The beautiful is related to the appetitive faculty or the will, whose formal
object is the good, and to the cognitive faculty or intellect, whose formal object is the truth. The beautiful is a
special good attracting the intellect and the will toward its contemplation and enjoyment.

All beautiful things are true in as much as they are adequate to the intellect. They are also good in as much as
they are adequate to the will. Not all good or true things, however, are beautiful. The true and the good have
greater extensions than the beautiful. Only delightful truths are beautiful truths. Intricate mathematical formulas,
although true, are not enjoyed by the majority of people. However, truths describing in a dramatic way the inner
troubles of a person or the squalor of the poor are generally beautiful because of the aesthetic enjoyment
derived from the contemplation of the drama. As Fr. McNabb, O.P., put it: “Beauty is the radiance of truth, the
fragrance of goodness.”

D. IS EVERYTHING IN NATURE AND ART BEAUTIFUL? WHY ARE CERTAIN THINGS

CALLED “UGLY”?

St. Thomas does not hesitate to write: “There is nothing that does not participate of the
beautiful and the good, for everything is beautiful and good according to its form.” The reason for
this is that every being stands in a particular category, essence, or species as perfect and beautiful as
any other being. Therefore, it appears that everything in nature and art is beautiful, for everything is
created perfect according to its nature and form.

Psychologically speaking, however, not everything in nature can produce in us aesthetic

enjoyments; consequently, not everything is beautiful. All things are beautiful and perfect in
themselves, but not in relation to us. Our sense of beauty is relative and imperfect for several
reasons:

a. Objects which we see everyday lose their significance to us; they belong to the commonplace
and the vulgar.

b. Certain things are dangerous or obnoxious to our lives. They evoke feeling of repugnance,
terror or dislike. Salamanders, snakes, toads, wild animals, although anatomically beautiful
in their movements, proportions, and colorful designs, are not called beautiful because of
their poisonous nature or cruel instincts.

c. Certain conditions in human life, such as poverty, disease, squalor, the shanties of the
squatters, the dirt of the poor, etc. are referred to as ugly although when human misery
and suffering, deformities, and immoralities are painted on canvas or described in a novel,
they become meaningful and beautiful.

12
d. To appreciate beauty, we must free our intellect from other activities so that it can concentrate
on the object of its contemplation. Our feeling should likewise be detached from other practical
interests. Fisherman and farmers see every day the beauty of the sea and the fields, but the fail to
appreciate the natural beauty of these elements because they are too busy making a livelihood or
because they are just used to them.

To the question: “Is everything in nature beautiful?”, objectively speaking we answer “Yes”.
Beauty is spread and diversified everywhere. No object is totally devoid of being and of beauty.
Absolute ugliness would be nothing. Subjectively speaking, we answer “No” on account of personal
experiences, individual reactions, and aesthetic tastes.

To the question: “Why are certain artificial objects called “ugly?” We say: Because they lack
the perfection due to them, such as proportion, symmetry, clarity, harmony, etc. The contemplation
of such objects divides our attention and, instead of producing pleasant feelings and delight brings
pain, discomfort, confusion, and disorder into our soul.

13
 CHAPTER III

THE ARTIST AND THE PROCESS OF CREATION

1. THE ARTIST

Although it is true that the poet and for that matter is born and not made, yet the knowledge of the
elements of design helps the artist in his expressions of the beautiful. It is also a known fact that appreciation
and desire for the beautiful are a common endowment of physical portions of beauty will have a cultured and a
truer enjoyment of the arts.

We do not claim that beauty or art itself can be subjected to a complete analysis, and all its elements
completely identified the way we reduce compounds into their parts in a laboratory. The true essence of
beauty eludes the material grasp of the sense. True art by its very nature requires that it has an
element of mystery and that it be not fully comprehended by sense or science. The scientist with the
mastery of the elements and principles of art structure cannot be a true creative artist just for that capacity,
although he may indeed be a master craftsman. Macaulay, a great English prose writer and critic said that the
thing which escapes analysis in art is what constitutes art’s very essence, and that a critic cannot be an artist at
the same time.

An artist is a person who exhibits exceptional skills in design, drawing, painting, or one who works in
one of the performing arts like theater, music or dance. He is more creative and sensitive than others. He has a
different outlook and perception of things around him. He sees beauty and artistry in common and simple things.
He possesses to an unusual degree, the knack for interpreting ideas into artistic forms through the use of words,
pigments, tones, stone or wood. When he sees or learns something that impresses him, he expresses himself in
one medium or another so that others may know and understand it too. He thus learns to project his creative
impulse through the symbols of his art – a picture, a poem, or piece of music.

The essential capacity of an artist is something that does not belong to conscious reason. He has a soul
that is as sensitive to the changes or vicissitudes of life around and inside himself, almost like a naked wound to
heal and wind. And he is endowed with a technique or art of expressing his feelings or emotions or giving a form
to them in such a way that his fellowmen cannot fail to sympathize with him or feel the same way as he, sad or
happy as the case may be.

An artist is, therefore, one who can also express what other men only feel. The artist stamps his
personality on his work. The artist is the very soul, the essence and true beauty of a real art piece, and such a
beauty like the human soul cannot be captured and tagged in any scientific laboratory. An expert craftsman may
copy or reproduce all the physical elements of a masterpiece but he can n ever make his work live with the same
beauty as that which identifies the work of the creative genius or genuine artist.

The artists’ credo “art for arts sakes” implies that beauty is the reason for the art work.
Thus, the artists concerns are the minds of the viewers or readers. The artists communicate his thoughts,
fantasies, observations and self-revelation through his art. He seeks to open our eyes and ears that we may be
see the world more clearly and find the meaning of the arts in our lives. Thus, our role is to sense what the artist
is trying to tell us through his art work.

2. KINDS OF ARTISTS

There are two kinds of artists: the creators and the performers

A creator is someone who makes something for other people to execute or do. Under this would fall
the composer who writes music, the choreographer who gives the steps of a dance, the dramatist or
playwright one who writes the text of dramas and plays. These people make the materials to be performed by
professional artists called the performers. They are people who execute or do what the creators have done.
This would include the singer, actors and dancers.

14
 The relation between the creator and the performer is very important. Especially in the performing arts
like music, a song is not complete until it has been sung by a singer. This is for the reason that the singer is the
one representing the composer on stage. He communicates the emotions and feelings of the composer that are
embodied in the song to the audience.

In the visual arts like painting or sculpture, the painter or sculptor is the creator and the performer at
the same time.

The process of creativity is threefold with the artist as the prime mover, communicating his ideas
through the performer, as his interpreter to the audience.

Artists, as to categories of specialization, are of three classifications, namely:

1. Visual Artists

These include the painter, sculpture and architect. These artists say, “I think, I see.” Through their works we
see what they think because what they see and feel is seen in their works. The painter paints scenes,
objects by means of pigments or colors. The sculptor draws and carves from original designs and sketches
scale models of human beings, monuments, etc. the architect plans, designs and constructs buildings,
theaters, schools, etc.

2. Artists in Music and Dance

In music, the artists are the musicians, singers and composers. The composer puts tones together and creates
melodies. He says “I think, I hear.” Through his musical compositions, the composer conveys his thoughts
and feelings which he wishes to share with others.

The musicians can be labeled as composer, pianist, singer, organist, guitarist, etc. He can also be a
bandleader, conductor, choirmaster or song leader.

In dance, the choreographer is an artist who composes or teaches choreography, or the art of representing
stage dancing by signs or music. He composes and arranges dance movements or patterns to accompany a
piece of music or develop a theme.

The dancer is an artist who moves his body artistically and gracefully. He makes gestures beautifully with the
music accompanying his movements. In ballet, the female ballet dancer is known as danseuse, while the
male ballet is called danseur.

3. The Literary Artists

This will include the poet, novelist, dramatist, playwright and writers or authors. The poet is a literary artist
who puts words aesthetically in verse form. It is in this form that he expresses his thoughts and feelings. He
says, “This is the way I can best express my inner thoughts and feelings.” The novelist writes fiction
(stories) with originality. He is also known as the writer of stories. The playwright writes plays and adopts
his materials for the stage, radio, television or motion picture production. The dramatist writes composition
in prose and poetry arranged for excitement to be performed by actors and actresses on stage to portray a
character or to tell a story through action or dialogue of characters.

3. THE PROCESS OF CREATION

There are three major phases in the process of creation.

A. IDEA. Almost everything we are about to do first exists as an idea. It is from this idea that we form
theories to show the validity of our ideas. The artist must first have an idea, a thought or concept
of what he wants to show.
Artists are highly sensitive people with lots of ideas that are almost limitless that they want to
release these so that they can be relieved of their burden.

Painters, sculptors, architects and writers are easily attracted to what they see. Composers are
more attracted to what they hear. A choreographer is attracted to body movements that
communication emotions without the use of words. Each art area has its own artist who is
capable of bringing out various degrees and levels of expression.

15
 B. MATERIAL. This phase concerns with the things used by an artist in portraying or giving
form to his idea. This also refers to the mediums used by artists.

A painter uses pigments (color), canvas (a thick cloth where a painter applies color), and palette (a
thin board where an artists mixes colors); a sculptor uses chisel, wood, stone; an architect will
use construction materials. A composer will use notes; an author will use words, while a
choreographer uses people who can move gracefully and portray emotions through body
movements.

The choice of materials will determine the use and function of an art work. Paintings, statues,
buildings are called art of space since these are placed at specific locations and they occupy
portions of a room or area. They are things that we see, touch or glance at a certain moment. A
musical composition is called an art of time because it takes several minutes or hours for an
entire musical composition to be performed.

C. ORGANIZATION AND FORM. Once the idea is applied on its material or medium, the
next step is to organize this idea to give it meaning and form. The importance of
organization and form is to give meaning into what is being expressed by the artist. The
way the artist organizes his ideas through the medium he is using will help in the way he
will portray his subject.

The arts are remarkable in their diversity. No rules can govern either creation or
appreciation. The artists influenced by the world him, so that his work reflects the time and
place in which he lives.

16
 CHAPTER IV

THE MEDIUMS OF THE VISUAL ARTS

1. DEFINITION

Medium, in art, refers to the means or materials that the artist uses to express his feelings
or thoughts or the means by which an artist communicates his ideas. When an artist chooses his
medium, he believes that this can best express the idea he wants to convey. He normally selects the
materials that can be handled with ease, that would best suit his pan and adequately bring out the
qualities which he wants to show.

The distinctive character of the medium determines the way it can be worked on and turned
into a work of art. The nature of each medium determines how a work of art. The nature of each
medium determines how a work of art may be realized. Stones must be chiseled, metal must be cast,
and wood must be carved. Each medium responds to the kind of art work that must be produced.

Each art form has its own medium or media that an artist uses to convey his message to his
viewers or to his listeners.

2. THE ARTIST AND HIS TECHNIQUE

Technique is the manner in which the artist controls his medium to achieve the desired
effect. It is the artists’ skill or ability with which he fulfills the technical requirements of his particular
work of art. It has to do with the way he manipulates his medium to express his ideas. Artists differ
from one another in technique even if they use the same medium.

In painting, working on oil requires a different technique from that of watercolor. In

sculpture, working with stone has a different technique from that of wood. In music, a pianist has a
different technique from that of violinist.

3. MEDIUMS USED IN PAINTING

Painting is the art of applying colored pigments to a flat surface, usually canvas, paper, wood,
or plaster. Pigment is the part of the paint that supplies color. It’s fine powder in appearance, ground
from some clay, stone or mineral, extracted from vegetable matter, or produced by a chemical
process. It is mixed with a binder (called vehicle), usually a liquid, that allows the powder to spread
over the flat surface until it dries.

Painting uses these most common mediums:

A. OIL. In an oil painting, pigments are mixed in linseed oil. This medium is usually
applied on canvas and has been used since the 15 th century. Oil is one of the most popular
painting mediums and most paintings are done in this medium. One good quality of oil pant as
a medium is its flexibility. The artist may use brush or bare hands in applying paint on canvas.
One distinctive characteristic of oil paints, compared with other mediums, is that it dries slowly
and the painting may be changed and worked over a long period of time. A finished oil painting
appears glossy and lasts long.

17
 Fig. 4-1: Fisherman’s Family on oil painting by Tam Austria

B.TEMPERA. This was one of the mediums used before oil came into use. This medium was
popular among the ancient Egyptians as well as with Medieval and Renaissance painters.

In this medium, pigments are mixed with colloidal substance like glue, egg yolk, or egg white. One
disadvantage of this medium is that it dries up very quickly and corrections are difficult to make.
Tempera painting is usually done in wooden panel that has been made very smooth with a
plaster called “gesso”. This is for the reason that tempera is an emulsion. An emulsion is a
watery, milk-like mixture of oil and water. The pigments dry up with the evaporation of water
hence corrections are difficult to make. Painting using tempera requires carefully planned details
and skills to minimize mistakes. One distinguishing advantage of tempera is its luminous tone –
the colors being clear and beautiful.

Last Supper by Leonardo Da Vinci (Oil Painting)

18
 Lorenzo Monaco’s The Coronation of the Virgin, tempera on panel

C. WATERCOLOR. This medium is commonly used in paper. Pigments are mixed with water and
applied to fine, white paper. Watercolor painting requires skill and dexterity because the
pigments dry up very quickly with evaporation of water.

“Windy
Forecast”

artist: Jose
"Kimsoy"
  Y ap, Jr

medium:
watercolor

19
D. PASTEL. The pigments are bound to form crayon or chalk, and are the one used
in drawing and painting. Surfaces/grounds commonly used are paper and canvass. This medium
is more flexible since the pigments are in dry, solid form that the artist can use it freely on the
surface. Mistakes can be erased or minimized. The only shortcoming in this medium is its
preservation. Since the medium is in chalk or crayon form, it tends to peel off or rub off and the
picture becomes dull and unattractive.

Paradise Island
(Camiguin)

artists: Jorge B. Lao

medium: oil

Mother and Child

artists: Jorge B. Lao
medium: pastel

20
E. FRESCO. The medium is used in painting walls and ceilings. Fresco painting is the application
of earth pigment mixed with water on a plastered wall while the plaster is damp. The plaster
dries up and becomes a part of the wall or ceiling and stays there as long as it exists. Fresco
painting must be done quickly. Once the plaster dries, no changes can be done anymore. Painters
using this medium carefully palm their subjects to prevent mistakes. Fresco is the Italian word
meaning “fresh”, thus, it is the application of the pigment on wet, fresh plaster. Fresco painting
has two disadvantages: first, it is immovable, and second, the painting will exist as long as the
wall or ceiling exists. They are prone to natural disasters like earthquakes, typhoons, etc. since
fresco paintings are part of the wall or ceiling, they tend to crack and the colors gradually lose
their brilliance, hence they will become dull.

Michaelangelo.

The Creation of Adam (1508-1512).

Fresco, Sistine Chapel, Vatican

F. MOSAIC. Mosaic are made by fitting or putting together bits of irregularly cut colored stones or
glass called tesserae on walls and walls floors using glue or cement.

Mosaic art is mainly found in Byzantine Churches in Europe while in the Philippines, religious mosaics
are found at the Sta. Cruz Church in Manila and at Victorias Church in Negros Occidental.

21
 Theodora and Attendants (Mosaic 574 A.D) Byzantine Empire San Vitale, Ravenna, Italy

The church of San Vitale was built in 574 A.D by emperor Justinian, after he had killed the
Pope, and become Holy Roman Emperor. The church is highly decorated on the inside, with many
beautiful mosaics. One of these mosaics is Theodora and her Attendants.

Theodora and her Attendants is a mosaic made for the emperor Justinian, of the
Byzantine Empire. This mosaic was made for the church of San Vitale in Ravenna, along with its
companion piece Justinian and Attendants. It was to show the power Justinian and his empress had
over the church and the empire. The power of the church is shown by the halo over Theodora’s head,
to show that God has given her the right to rule.

The mosaic is made of small pieces of glass and different jewels placed into wet plaster. The
mosaic is very brightly colored and placed in the apse of the church on the left side. In the mosaic,
Theodora is in the center holding the Eucharistic wine in a bowl, surrounded by her attendants. Her
attendants are wearing silk dresses. The silk dresses were used to show how wealthy the emperor
and empress were. Theodora is wearing a purple (the royal color) dress. This beautiful dress at the
bottom is embroidered with three men kneeling, offering gifts. This is a symbol that Theodora was
the “Virgin Mary” of her time. The embroidery was supposed to remind the people of when the three
kings brought gifts to Mary after Jesus was born. At the right of the mosaic, you can see a fountain
spurting out water, and a dove coming from the water. The dove is a symbol of the Holy Spirit.
Theodora was not Christian when she married Justinian. This fountain is to show that she was
baptized into the Christian religion, and that she was anointed with the Holy Spirit.

G. BRONZE. This is the most popular medium in sculpture when it comes to

metals. Bronze is light, can stand atmospheric corrosion, and can be made into any shape that is
impossible with stone. It is best used for sculptural works that are to be placed in outdoor places
like parks and plazas.

BRONZE STATUE OF

BENIGNO “ninoy” AQUINO

at a major street in Makati.

22
 Fig. 4-7: A mosaic of the
BLESSED VIRGIN MARY

A MOSAIC OF THE TAJ MAHAL

23
4. MEDIUMS USED IN SCULPTURE

Sculpture is the design and construction of three – dimensional forms representing natural
objects or imaginary (sometimes abstract) shapes. Sculpture has more mediums than painting.
Things like chalk, clay, ice, wood, plastic, metals (like bronze), stone are suitable mediums for
sculpture.

A. STONE. Stone is known for its hardiness and its ability to endure the tests of
time. Much sculptural works have been done on stone like the statues of saints, mythological
figures and many others. The drawbacks of stone are:
(a) it is heavy and sometimes immovable; and (b) it tends to crack and break off easily

B. MARBLE. Of all stones, marble is considered to be the most beautiful. It is known for its high
gloss and very fine texture when polished. This stone is very abundant in Greece and Italy and
many statues, as well as temples, have been done on this medium.

C. WOOD. Wood is lighter and softer to work on than stone but it ages quiet
rapidly and is subject to pests like termites and ants, as well as to moisture and fire. It is easier
to find and when well-crafter figures made on wood produce striking results. Wood is very
attractive when it’s polished, in addition to the appearance of grains on the surface. In the
Philippines, woods of narra, mahogany, santol and others are good mediums for sculpture.

THE BLESSED VIRGIN MARY

at THE SHRINE in EDSA

24
 “Holy Mary”
Sculpture In
Massive Marble

Two Tahiti wooden figure

SCULPTURE IN WOOD

25
D. IVORY. This medium comes from the tusks of elephants and wild boars and
has been used since the early times in making combs for women or horns to sound signals. Its
small size makes it a very delicate medium to work on. Sculptural works done on ivory are
characterized by intricate designs especially those found in combs.

Fig. 4-11: A medieval hunting horn made of ivory. Notice the carvings known as bas relief

THE U.P OBLATION

26
 The Spanish Colonial Santos of Baclayon
Parish, Bohol
A Digitization Initiative

SANTO NINO
Height: 45cm without crown/53.5cm with
crown; Head length: 10cm; foot length: 8cm;
Base height: 18.5cm
Wood

E. TERRA COTTA. This is a medium wherein figures molded from clay are fire over a relatively low
temperature. Terra Cotta literally means “cooked earth” or “baked earth”. The reason for
heating the molded clay figure over fire is to prevent it from breaking off easily once the clay
dries up. Despite this, a terra cotta figure will chip off if handled carelessly and if it is exposed to
natural forces. (Fig. 4-12)
In sculpture, there are two sculptural processes. They are the subtractive and the
additive. In the subtractive process, the unwanted parts are cut away to get the desired object.
This process is applied to stone, wood, ivory and ice. In the additive process, bits of materials are
put together to achieve the desired subject. This is used in clay, plastic, bronze or glass.

27
Ice carvings: a subtractive sculptural process

Sculpture, in general, may be divided into two types: relief and free standing. A relief is a
sculptural work that is fixed on the ground. Only on side of the image is seen. This type is found in
works done on walls and columns. Reliefs are generally immovable. (Fig.4-13)
A free standing sculptural work, on the other hand, can be seen at all sides and can be
transferred from one place to another. (Fig. 4-14) (the discuss thrower)
A special kind of relief is found in medals and coins and on surfaces of wood or metal
wherein the subject is slightly elevated or it protrudes from the surface of the medium. This special
type is called bas relief. (Fig. 4-15)

Lapu-Lapu Statue (Mactan, Cebu) Rizal Sculpture in Luneta

The image of the Immaculate Conception,

inventoried in 1859, is carved wood with
ivory hands and feet and the head is a
wood replacement seemingly for an ivory
piece which have been lost. The snake has
brass body and an ivory head biting a fruit,
also of ivory.

28
Supporting the brass globe is an elaborately
carved and gilded wood base. The figure is
surrounded by a body nimbus and a halo made of
brass. Her crown is made of silver. The straps of
her sandals are painted on ivory feet.

OUR LADY OF IMMACULATE CONCEPTION

29
 Huwawa: terra-cotta head
Terra Cotta – Art GINZ ARMY

30
Assyrian Relief of a Courtier:

The relief is a fragment from a wall

from Room B, the throne Room of
the North – West Palace of
Ashurnasirpal II at Nimrud
(Fig. 4-13)

DISCOBOLOS
Discuss Thrower
bronze sculpture by Myron
(Fig. 4-14)

BAS RELIEF OF A PHILIPPINE PESO COIN

(Fig. 4-15)

CHAPTER V

SUBJECTS OF ART
(PAINTING AND SCULPTURE)

31
1. DEFINITION OF SUBJECT

Louise Dudley and Austin Faricy defines subject as “the term used for whatever is
represented in a work of art.” Ortiz et.al. defines it as “any person, object, scene or event described
or represented in a work of art.” The subject in a work of art is answers the question: What it is
about? Subject is not a major requirement in art. Art works having subjects are called objective or
representational arts. This type refers to those art works wherein the subject is represented
visually or aurally irregardless of how the artist uses his medium and skill. Those with no subjects are
called non – representational or non – objective arts.

2. KINDS OF SUBJECTS

As to sources of subjects, everything under the sun is a subject. In the visual arts specifically
in painting and sculpture, subjects can be grouped into.

A. LANDSCAPES, SEASCAPES, AND CITYSCAPES.

These are scenes depicting various landforms, the sea and scenes found in
the metropolis.

Fig. 5-1: Landscape, a painting by Fernando Amorsolo

32
 Seascape

Landscape

33
 Cityscape

B. STILL LIFE. These are groups inanimate (non – moving) objects arranged
artistically in an indoor setting. Inanimate objects like fruits, flowers, musical instruments, etc. are
artistically arranged to show silence and solemnity.

Fig. 5-4: Willem Kalf’s, Still Life with Fruit and China Vase

C. ANIMALS. Since the early times, animals are one of the most common art subjects. Early wall
paintings found in caves depict animals during those times.

In the Philippines, the carabao has become a favorite subject while in Mindanao, the Maranaws have
the sarimanok, (a cock with colorful plumage).

Animals have also been used in religious paintings. Christianity has adopted the dove as the symbol
of the Holy Spirit, the fish and the lamb are the symbols of Christ.

In Greek mythology, they have

the winged horse Pegasus and
the snakes on the head of
Medusa

34
ANIMALS AS PART OF THE SUBJECT MATTER OF ART.

D. PORTRAITS. A portrait is a realistic likeness of a person in a sculpture, painting, drawing, or

print. Artists have been fascinated by the features of man like the face, hands, eyes, etc. that
painters and sculptors have made art works showing these features. Portraits mainly show facial
contours, moods, expressions, as well as movement.

Leonardo Da
Vinci’s

Mona Lisa

E. FIGURES. Commonly found in sculptural works, figures of the human body whether clothed,
nude, half – nude, or reclining has been a favorite subject. It aims to show the grace and ideal
proportion of the human form.

35
 The marble statue of David, one of the most perfect statues showing figure of a man

F. EVERYDAY LIFE. Another common subject used by the artist are scenes depicting daily
activities. These are scenes of people going about their daily chores or usual ways, performing
their day-to-day activities. Examples are scenes in a market place, in a field, students going to
school, etc.

36
 (Fernando Amorsolo’s painting on “harvest” and “in the market”)

G. HISTORY AND LEGEND. Subjects under this type include significant people, structure, events,
etc. that are of historical and legendary importance.

Barasoain Church Historial Landmarks History Museum

Focuses on preserving the fruits of the Philippine Revolution as well as freedom and the Filipinos’
heritage of democracy.

37
Fig. 5-10: A Medieval illustration of The Round Table based upon the legend of King Arthur and the
Knights of the Round Table

H. RELIGION AND MYTHOLOGY. Art has been used to aid worship, to instruct, to inspire feelings
of devotion and to impress and convert non – believers.

Throughout the world, art has been used to represent the gods and other deities. In India, there are
statues of the god Siva or Shiva. He is represented as a deity having four hands and dancing
with balls of fire on his hands.

The Christian Church commissioned craftsmen to tell the stories about Christ and saints in pictures,
usually in mosaics, murals, and stained windows in churches.

Mythological characters from Greek, Norse, and German are represented in paintings and sculptural
works. German mythological characters like Wotan, Siegfried, and Brunnhilde have been
immortalized in the operatic cycle entitled “Der Ring des Nibelungen” (The Ring of the
Nibelung) by the German composer Richard Wagner.

38
The Hindu god Siva or Shiva. He is a
deity with four hands, two of which are
holding the balls of fire. Along with Branma,
the creator, and Vishnu, the protector, Shiva
makes up one third of the trinity of Hindu
gods. Shiva is the destroyer and
regenerator, and is one of the oldest gods of
India. Shiva’s representation is typically in
one of 3 forms. These are: a Nataraj who is
dancing, a lingam, or in an anthropomorphic
form. When Shiva is the Nataraj, he
practices his cosmic dance. The belief is that
the energy from the cosmic dances is what
sustains the cosmos; it is also thought that
once Shiva has finished his dance, this
universe will end and a new one will begin.
When in the latter form, he is depicted as
sitting cross-legged and his eyes half-closed.

Medusa (Gaze of the Gorgom)

Medusa was a terrible monster who had laid
waste to the county. She was once a
beautiful maiden whose hair was her chief
glory, but as she dared to vie in beauty with
Athena, the goddess deprived her of her
charms and changed her beautiful ringlets
into hissing serpents. She became a cruel
monster of so frightening an aspect that no
living thing could behold her without being
turned into stone. All around the cavern
where she dwelt might be seen the stony
figures of men and animals which had
chanced to catch a glimpse of her and had
been petrified with the sight. Perseus,
favored by Athena and Hermes, the former
of whom lent him her shield and the latter
his winged shoes, approached Medusa while
she split, and taking care not to look directly
at her, but guided by her image reflected in
the bright shield which he bore, he cut off
her head and gave it to Athena, who fixed it
in the middle of her Aegis.

39
The Annunciation
(By:Fra Angelico)

I. DREAMS AND FANTASIES. This type is commonly used by surrealist painters to show the
vagueness or unclarity of dreams. The surrealist painters show the content of their own dreams.
Aside from their dreams, they also paint for their hidden desires and fantasies, like desire for sex,
lust and others. Paintings of dreams and their fantasies show the artists’ wide range of
imagination and ability to retain the content of their dreams.

Slow Boat 2003

Morrison describes “Slow Boat” as a “lovers’ painting,” with its two figures wandering aimlessly,
rowing through a river filled with lush, green plant life.

“Rites of Fire” is about a contemporary hell and damnation, involving issues of incarceration,
religion, ritual, bigotry, and would seem to equate the Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse with the Ku
Klux Klan, he said. “Often paintings take on a life and meaning of their own. And this one did.”

40
3. METHODS OF PRESENTING ART SUBJECTS

In several areas of art, certain methods or means are used by artists to present their
subjects. This is to show how creative and effective the artist is in expressing his thoughts and
feelings.

A. REALISM. This is the most common method used by artists. Realism is the attempt to portray
the subject as is. It is a method of showing the subject as clear as senses perceive it. The main
objective of this method is clarity in showing the subject. Realists are objective in their approach.
The artists’ main function is to describe as accurately as possible what is being observed through
the senses.

Fig. 5-16: The Parasol, a realistic painting by the Spanish artist Francisco deGoya

B. ABSTRACTION. In this method, the artist is showing one side or phase of the subject. He does
not show the exact reality as to how the subject is actually perceived by the sense, but he is only
showing his idea or feeling about it. This is a technique of simplifying and reorganizing objects
and elements according to the artists creative expression.

Abstract means “to move away or separate” or “to deviate from reality.” Abstract art moves away
from showing things as they really are. The painter or sculptor paints or sculpts the subject not
as it really looked in reality.

Abstract Art: style and movement in painting and sculpture that originated about 1910 in Europe. The
abstract artist eliminates from this work recognizable subject matter and concentrates upon
relationship of form, color, line, movement and texture for aesthetic impact and emotional
suggestion.

The Russian born artist, Wassilly Kandinsky was credited as the first painter to finish an abstract
painting. Other notable names are Pablo Picasson (Spanish) and George Braque (French), Piet
Mondrian (Dutch) and Kazimir Malevich (Russian). In sculpture, the Rumanian Constantin
Brancusi was the most influential abstract sculpture especially his work entitled “Bird in Space.”

41
 Boom Bird
(On watercolor paper)

Abstract Bronze Figure

Abstraction is a major art movement after WW II. It has two major branches in the field of painting.
One is geometric in shape and is related to the tradition of cubism. The other is abstract
expressionism, related the more emotional style of Kandinksy. Abstraction can be presented in several
forms or type namely:

a.Distortion. A type of abstraction wherein the subject appears in a misshapen or a twisted out
form, deforming the natural form of the object. This is commonly found in sculpture. Distortion is
a technique employed by the artist to dramatize the shape of a figure to create an emotional
effect. When the figure has been drawn so that proportions differ obviously from the natural
appearance and measurements, it is said to be distorted.

Ossip Zadkine: Beatitude Bronze, brown patina (a distorted sculpture)

42
b. Elongation. The subject appears in a stretched – out or elongated manner. It is an abstraction
technique wherein the feature of the subjects appears longer than normal length.

El Greco’s The Burial of the Count of Orgaz

showing elongated human features

c.
d.Mangling. The subject appears in a cut, lacerated, mutilated or hacked with repeated blows.

e.Cubism. The artist uses spheres, cones, cylinders and other geometric shapes in presenting the
subject. Cubism was the creation of Pablo Picassso and Georges Braque. It was an art movement
inspired by African art especially those found in mask used traditional African ceremonies and
rituals.

Its development began with a large picture that Picasso completed in the spring of 1097 entitled
Les Demoiselles d’ Avignon (The Women of Avignon) showing abstract figures of five naked
women done in a manner using abstract shapes.

Later developments of Picasso and Braque include a highly structured kind of painting that made an
emphatic and ubiquitous use of straight lines and flat paces. These attributes provoked hostile
critics to invent the label of “Cubism.”

Picasso and Braque set out to do so by combining into a single image elements chosen from a society
of views of the object represented. They took aspect of a sense that could not be seen at once and
made them visible simultaneously. So cubist paintings are not distorted representations of a scene
but constructions made up of signs or fragments of a scene.

43
 Cubism: Bay – of – Marseilles Cubism: The Basket of Apples

Picasso: Demoiselles d’ Avignon

Picasso: untitled Picasso: D.H. Kahnweiler Picasso: accordionist

44
C. SYMBOLISM. This type is used in all forms of art. A symbol is a visible sign of something
invisible like an idea or a quality. Thus, we symbolize dollars by using the symbol $ or bravery using
the lion. In music certain objects or emotions in a musical composition are represented by the
sound of an instrument or group of instruments.

Most common in literature and painting, symbolism is mostly found in poems. Like in the poem
entitled “Like the Molave” by R. Zulueta Da Costa. The Molave symbolizes the desire and the dream
of the poet that all Filipinos must be brave and unafraid to stand on their feet despite the massive
influences of foreign culture.

LIKE THE MOLAVE, FIRM, RESILIENT, STAUNCH, RISING ON THE HILLSIDE UNAFRAID,
STRONG IN ITS FIBER; YES, LIKE THE MOLAVE!

In painting, Juan Luna’s “Spolarium” represents at scene during the early days of the Roman empire
when gladiatorial lights were a popular form of entertainment and the desire and enjoyment in
seeing blood at such barbaric tournament.

Spolarium: by Juan Luna

Symbolism: PEARL

PEARL DEALERS: symbolizes

CAPITALISM or DECEIT

Character qualities:
        *Business savvy
        *Conniving and tricky
        *Condescending

45
 D. IMPRESSIONISM. This is an important art movement that began in Paris at the beginning of
the 20th century. Paris was the leading center for the arts especially in the field of painting. The
cocept of this movement and school came from the anecdote of Maurice Denis (about 1890).
“Remember that a picture – before being a battlehorse, a nude woman of an anecdote – is
essentially a plane surface covered with colors and assembled in a certain order.” This was the
saying that was followed by the impressionist in presenting their art subjects. The term
impressionism was derived from the painting of Claude Monet entitled Impression:
Sunrise, exhibited in 1874. the impressionists insisted on recording life in an impersonal
scientific way and in restricting themselves to the scenes of contemporary life, thus avoiding all
so – called imaginative art. They all subscribe to the idea that a scene must be painted or look
as if it had been painted without arrangement and exactly as it appeared at the particular
moment the artist was present. The second innovation is that all paintings must be done
outdoors, not finished in the studio from drawing, as had previously been the fashion. The third
idea is on laving in the paint rapidly to capture the “moment”, a procedure that gives
impressionist picture the look of spontaneous sketches.

As a rebel movement against realism, impressionist attempt to show the physical world, the artist
choose to work outdoors to capture the shimmering effects of light on the surface of water as well
as the variations on a single subject according to the time of the dyad or season. Impressionists
have a rich variety of light and shade effects because light is a determinant factor in the changes
affecting color. Notable painters of this school are Monet, Manet, Degas and Toulouse – Lautree.

On the whole, the Impressionists show features of “vagueness”, “fleeting”, and “transitory”. They
attempt to produce with the vividness and immediacy of nature and particularly of life itself, the
impression made by the subject on the artist. Impressionism is more subjective than objective.

Impression – Sunrise: by Claude Monet

This very famous painting now hangs in the Musee Marmottan Paris)

E. FAUVISM. An art movement that began during the 1900s it was led by French painter Henri
Matisse. The impressionists use of bright colors was the principal concern of Fauvism. The
mbmers of this movement use bright colors freely that caused critics to call them Fauves, the
French word for “wild beast”. With color assuming primary importance, they aimed at gay and

46
 startling compositions. The Fauves did not attempt to express ethical, philosophical, or
psychological themes. Most of this artist tried to paint pictures of comfort, joy and pleasure.
Notable names in this movement are Henri Matisse, Paul Gaugin and Andre Derain.

Henri Matisse’s
Decorative Figure, This view of Collioure is one Derain made
showing furnishing while working together with Matisse in the
patterns and a nude summer of 1905. Derain describes the trees
woman. and grass with long strokes of pure color

F. POINTILLISM. This is a branch of impressionism also called divisionism. This is the application
of tiny dots of pure color side by side on the canvas to create a luminous effect. The most famous
painting done on this method is Georges Seurat’s Sunday Afternoon at Grand Jatte. Seurat
did not deal much on effect of light and shade but dealt more on structure and solidity of form.

Georges Seurat’s: A Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte

47
G. DADAISM. This movement in art came as a result of the First World War. People, as well as
artists, experienced the trauma and psychological effects of the war.

In 1916, during the period of war, a group of young intellectuals in Zurich, Switzerland, headed
by Trsitan Tzara, founded the movement which came to be known as Dadaism (from the French
term Dada – “hobby horse”, or from the German term meaning “childish gabble”). It is a
violent reaction against the tyranny of artistic traditions. Dadaists’ subjects in art are namely
nonsensical. As a rebellion against realism and traditional classicism. Dadaists Marcel Duchamp
and Frances Picabia, placed a moustache and a beard to Mona Lisa, Leonardo da Vinci’s revered
painting, known for her enigmatic smile, (as seen in Fig. 7.1). Marcel Duchamp was the most
popular Dadaist.

Marcel Duchamp’s dada inclination shocked the artistic world when he placed a
moustache and a goatee to a reproduction of the Da Vinci’s Mona Lisa

48
 H. EXPRESSIONISM. This is a style that show the artists expression upon the subject.
What dominated is the primacy of feeling, often strong and violent, always intensely
and personal.

Expressionism, a movement in art, literature and music that originated in Germany prior to World War
I. In art, expressionist art elicits a heightened emotional response from the viewer of distortion of fro,
color, drawing, or space. They use violent distortions and exaggerations in the services of heightened
emotional expressiveness. A proneness to this can be ascribed to so many 20 th century artists that it
is a matter of opinions rather than fact whether it is accurate to call an artist…. An Expressionist.

The typical subjects of the pre-WWI German expressionist artists were suffering or emotionally
violated people, mood – working landscapes, and penetrating psychological portraits. Painters who
practice expressionism in Germany are divided into 2 groups. The first is Die Brucke (The Bridge),
compound of Ernst Ludwig Kirchner, Emil Nolde, Max Pechstein and Karl Schimdt – Rottluff, who
emphasize distortion of drawing and dissonant colors. This group is based in Dresden. The second
group is based in Munich who called themselves Der Blaue Reiter (The Blue Rider), composed of
Wassily Kandinsky, Franz Marc, Paul Klee and others. Their pictures tended to be more rhythmic in
composition and lyrical in color.

In expressionism, nature and everyday objects become highly expressive of a mood or an emotional
state. Flowers may become jagged, their petals like violent gashes. Expressionist artists used bright,
screaming colors, disregarding the natural colors of the object, in order to express emotions
powerfully. They also use a lot of distortion, in the unnatural elongation of forms, or in the hideous or
deathly grimaces of their characters. The term that characterizes this type painting are “harsh”,
“brutal”, “instrospective” and “morbid”. The emotional expressions in these paintings could be
described an involving pathos, morbidity, violence or chaos and tragedy. Examples of expressionists
and their works are Edvard Munch’s The Scream, the works of Vincent van Gogh, and Wassily
Kandinsky.

Virgin with the Dead Christ

(Rottgen Pieta) The Scream, by Edvard Munch
C.1300-1325, painted wood, 2’10 ½”

49
 Der Blaue Reiter

Founded in 1911, it succeeded the first Expressionist movement, Die Brucke, which dissolved
in 1913. it had no group style, influences upon its various members included Fauvism, Cubism,
Futurism, and Russian folk art and the art of children and primitive peoples. What they had in
common was an attitude best summarized by Klee’s saying “Art does not render the visible’ it renders
visible. They saw art as an objectification of the forces underlying the cosmos, natural forces,
emotional forces, spiritual forces. Some had a view of the world influenced by Theosophy or by
ancient Oriental metaphysics or by Christian mystics such as Eckehart.

Theosophy is a term derived from the Greek word “Theos” – God and “Sophia”,
“wisdom”. As a religious philosophy, theosophy can be traced back to ancient roots, but it re-
emerged in the late 19th century and influence artists such as Kandinsky and Mondrian. The classic
formulation of theosophical teachings is The Secret Doctrine written by Mme. Blavatsky, an
American theosophist. She urges that the “essence” of an object is more important that the attributes
of the object. The new artists, like Kandinsky, believed their abstract art would lead the people to
spiritual enlightenment.

The most active proponent of this essentially romantic and rather spiritual view of art was
Franz Marc, a young artist who was killed in World War I. Marc saw animals as the betrayed but
uncontaminated guardian of what was left of innocence and unspoilt nature.

The year the Blue Rider was formed, Kandinsky published his “Concerning the Spiritual
in Art”, written in 1910, in which he argued that a painting had no need to refer to external objects
but could convey emotions and feelings through the direct impact of colors and form, working as
visual music. From 1910 on, his painting evolved toward this ideal of non – configuration. Although
some of the other members of the Blue Rider experimented with non – configuration, none of them
felt committed to it. But all of them emphasized the musicality of painting, especially of color. The
were influenced by Munch and van Gogh and very directly by the Fauves, in whose bold forms and
harsh colors they saw a means to convey violent or anguished feelings and emotions.

Among the key influences of the expressionists, apart from their immediate predecessors are
Gothic sculpture like The Rottgen Pieta, about 1370. this work shows Christ in a very anguished
and pitiful state as a product of intense suffering.

The Rottgen Pieta, about 1370, wood

50
 Other notable expressionists include the Norwegian Edward Munch, the Belgian James Elsor,
the Lithuanian Chain Soutine and the Austrian Oskar Kokoschka.

After the WWI, a new expressionist movement rose Germany, called the Neue Sachlickkeit
(New Objectivity), continued certain aspects of the expressionist style. Its members were Otto Dix,
George Grosy, and Max Beckman.

I. FUTURISM. This art movement began in Italy at the same time Cubism started in
France. Futurists wanted to show the speed and force of modern society. Their paintings show the
subjects such as automobiles, buildings or other things that express or symbolize the speed and
vitality of society.
Futurism came into being in 1909, heraleded by an article by the post Marinetti who declared that: a
roaring motorcar, which runs like a machine – gun, is more beautiful thatn the Winged Victory of
Samothrace”. Its main aesthetic preoccupation – a hatred of tradition, a faith in modernity and
science, fervent patriotism, a belief in the power of war to purify, which anticipated Fascism.

Like Cubism, it brings rogehter in the picture a series of separate sensations, but whereas in Cubism
the sensations are different aspect of static object seen by someone moving. In Futurism the
beholder is static, the object moving.

“The Armored Train”

By: Gino Severini

“Dog on the Leash”

By: Giacorno Balla

Man Ray, Cadeau,

1921, Iron

51
J. SURREALISM. The French poet Andre Breton founded this art movement in Paris in
1924. he advocated the exploration of the twilight zones of the mind through artistic means.
Surrealism is an invented word meaning super realism. This movement was greatly influence by
Sigmund Freud, notable his theories on the subconscious states of the mind. He thought that
liberating the subconscious mind.

Fig. 5-40: Meret Oppenheim, Fur – covered Cup, Saucer and Spoon 1936

In manifesto, Breton laid down the guiding principles for the new movement:

1. Surrealism would not offer a new and easier means of expression, nor
was it to be a metaphysical kind of poetry.

2. It would be a means to the liberation of the mind and of everything that

resembled it.

The Surrealists were an electric group without a common style of painting and united only in turning
to their subconscious for inspiration. The new art would express the hidden desires and wishes of all
the people with the innocence of childhood and would therefore be easily accessible to everyone.

Surrealists reveal subjects that are deviations from reality and portray the contents of dreams as well
as hidden desires in life. In surrealist art, images from the realm of the subconscious and from the
dream and memory worlds are utilized. Symbolism is often employed. The paintings, collages, and
others created by surrealist artists emphasized mystery, strangeness and the unexpected. A favorite
device is the placing of familiar objects in new and illogical relationship. The contribution of surrealism
lies in revealing hitherto to the unexplored artistic resources and in affirming as valid subjects of art
those which were formerly regarded suspicious or without value. Surrealism, too, represented the
turning away from rationality, in order to explore the irrational, dark forces in man. Surrealist subjects
are often violent and cruel and they attempt to schock the viewer or reader in what they consider the
deeper and truer part of human nature. Notable names in this movement are Salvador Dali whose
famous surrealist painting is entitled The Persistence of Memory, Giorgio di Clurico, Benjamin
Mendoza and March Chagall. Chagall differs from the usual surrealist because his subjects are less
violent and are mainly concerned with the contents of his dreams or reminiscences of his childhood.
Examples are his paintings entitled I and My Village and The Green Violinist. His paintings are
more relaxed and symbolic in approach though it uses surrealist ideas could generate art and life.

52
Together with his artistic friends, he was able to issue the first Surrealist manifesto, Manifesto of
Surrealism. Artist who joined the movement thought that traditional western culture had no more to
offer the world that they want to explore the contents of the subconscious rather than presenting
common subjects that were repeated over and over again by artist for many century.

Opposing the tendency of modern artist to consider the formal qualities of a work of art as primary,
the surrealistic view re – affirmed the importance of the subject matter. They wanted the picture to
tell a story, only a storey that made no sense – as a dream makes no sense – an irrational story that
would shock the spectator into terror and wonder.

For the Surrealist, fantasy was not an area in art: all human experience was seen to be as fantastic.
They also made tangible images embodying nightmarish juxtaposition by taking common utilitarian
objects and adding to them – spikes to a flat iron, fur in a cup, saucer and spoon.

The Surrealist concern with discovering association between disparate things was manifested, not
only in juxtaposition, but also in forms that are visual puns. By evoking different things at the same
time, they imply the possibility that one of those things might be metamorphosed into another or
others. Primitive art, with its magical purposes, is rich in such forms, and the surrealist drew
inspiration particularly on Oceanic Art.

Salvador Dali, The Persistence of Memory, depicting a dreamlike landscape with melting rocks

53
 Landscape from a Dream, by Paul Nash

Paul Delvaux: The Sleeping Venus, Oil in Canvas

K. NAÏVE PAINTING. The 20th century with its intense on imaginative freedom rather
than educated skills, has placed a high value on products of the innocent eye. It has
regarded the painting of young children as being genuinely artistic, not mere daubs.
It has admitted self-taught amateur artist – most of them men as untainted by
general education as by artistic training – into the pantheon of establishing artist.

54
 Henri Rousseau,
Football Players,
1908
Oil in Canvas

L. SOCIAL REALISM. Especially between the wars, many modern artists have
produced works design to convey the heroic properties of workers and peasants or to commemorate
the class struggle. Some social realism has been in idioms developed from Cubism; some social
realism has emerged from Expressionism; some has contained both Cubist and Expressionist
elements. Early works include Ferdinand Leger’s “The Builders” (1951) and Marcel Gromaire’s “La
Guerre (The War, 1925).

the natural ambition of social realist painters is the murals in a public building rather than he easel –
picture in an art gallery. It is in Mexico, above all that opportunities to do the murals have been
provided. Leading Mexican Social Realist include Diego Rivera and Jose Clemente Orozco who
decorated walls in two halls, museums and so on.

Ferdinand Leger:
The Builders
1951 final version
Oil in Canvas

55
 Jose Clemente Orozco:
Storie di amici e di arte Catharsis (fresco),
By: Renato Guttso Mexico City
Palacio de Belas Artes

Diego Rivera: The Worker’s Revolution (1929 – 35), fresco, Mexico City, Palacio Nacional

56
 CHAPTER VI

ELEMENTS OF THE VISUAL ARTS

Viewing a painting or sculpture does not only know the subject but unconsciously, we are
also viewing other elements like lines, shapes, texture, space, volume and perspective. These are
some of the elements of the visual arts used by the artist to express their ideas and feelings other
than just showing the subject. All art forms have mediums and all art forms have elements. The
medium is the physical means through which we can come in contact with a world of art; the
elements are its quantities or properties.

1. LINES

A line is a prolongation of a point.

Lines are the foremost of all the elements since it shows the form and figure of the subject
being portrayed. We use lines to show the direction of motion, and to define the forms of bounded
spaces. Sculpture and painting make use of lines in their works. The artist can communicate using a
variety of lengths, thickness and shapes of the lines being employed. The effective use of lines is a
means of evoking emotional states and feelings. A series of heavy lines drawn close to each other
creates an impression of roughness, while a few light strokes can give a sensation of softness and
delicacy. Lines make shapes. Lines symbolize emotion and expressions. They describe simple objects,
measure things, and give direction and boundaries.

The thinly drawn lines create a feeling of ease and comfort to the viewer. There is a feeling of
contentment and satisfaction

57
The rough and heavily drawn lines symbolizes fatigue, sorrow, struggle and suffering

A. DIRECTION AND MOVEMENT OF LINES

Lines always indicate direction and movement because they appear to be “moving”, leading to certain
points and creates figures and forms.

1. Straight Lines are those that move in one direction, whether horizontally, vertically, or
diagonally. The straight line, as we know, is the shortest distance between two points. For this
reason, it suggests directness, simplicity, strength, efficiency. It is austere, and lacks softness and
flexibility. It is necessary to the framework and strength of many forms, but in itself a straight line
cannot be said to be beautiful. The reason is by its nature it has a single direction throughout and
therefore is monotonous.

a. Horizontal Lines. A horizontal line moves on a level and point along

the line of the horizon and creates an impression of stability, repose and serenity. The

58
 express ideas of calmness and quiescence. This type is found in reclining persons,
landscapes, calm bodies of water and in the distant meeting of the sky and sea called the
horizon.

Lee Shore by Edward Hopper: The calmness of the horizontal lines are seen in the calm sea and in
the horizon

b. Vertical Lines. Are straight lines rising perpendicularly from a level

surface. They appear poised and stable, uplift, aspiration, exaltation, majesty, dignity,
solemnity, poise. Vertical lines appear poised and stable. They show feelings of stability,
strength, confidence, preparedness and dignity. A person standing tall and well – balanced
gives a feeling of confidence and preparedness, a tree that stands straight symbolizes strength
and stability.

Fig. 6-4: The ruins of a Doric temple in Corinth. The vertical lines are represented by the columns
symbolizing stability and strength to stand the tests of time

c. Diagonal Lines. Diagonal lines suggest action or movement. These

lines run in a slanting direction or crosswise and give animation (movement) to a composition.
A man who is running bends forward and assumes a diagonal position. A tree falls to the
ground diagonally. Diagonal lines show instability, feeling of unrest, certainty and movement.

59
Fig. 6-5: The Gust of Wind by Camille Corot. The diagonal lines are seen in the bending of the trees
due to the sudden blow of the strong winds.

1. Jagged Lines or Broken Lines arouse the sense of violent and

quick motion, conflict, struggle.

2. Curved Lines. A curved line results when there is a change of direction. Its
variety and subtlety are in direct contrast to the monotony and directness of a straight line. It
possesses beauty expressed in its rhythm, harmony, variety and subtlety. A curved line has no
limit to its direction. We find curved lines in the waves of the sea. Curved lines appear to have
neither beginning not end and therefore do not permit the eye to rest, they have some
tendency to be unstable. They suggest grace, movement, flexibility, joyousness. Curved lines
also show fluidity, especially in works showing the curved figures of women, rounded petals of
flowers, the moon, wings of birds. Curved lines can also show feelings of serenity and
meditative, like the curved lines in the arches of churches.

60
 Fig. 6-7: Heart Martisse: The Dance, 1910, oil on canvas

2. FORM

Form is the overall design of a work of art. Forms, like lines, direct the movement of our eyes
since forms or masses are areas of spaces enclosed by lines, straight lines or curved, or a
combination of both. Forms are either natural, those discovered in nature, or artificial, the ones
invented by man’s imagination. Geometric forms, forms which are accomplished by means of ruler
and compass, are often employed in visual and plastic arts.

Forms, besides possessing lines, also have size or volumes. Forms therefore convey the ideas
carried by lines and are also one of the factors that produce the impression of visual weight. Every
kind of form has its peculiar effect and produces its individual suggestion upon our aesthetic sense. It
describes the structure or shape of the object. A statue of a woman shows the form of a woman.
Form is present in the visual arts as well as in music. The appearance of form is the identification of
the subject being shown in the work.

The guiding principle in form is, “form follows function”. A building, in the form of a
church, is a place worship and praise. This is especially applied in the field of architecture where
construction of buildings with certain purposes are done. A house is a place of shelter while a
skyscraper is a place for business.

KINDS OF FORMS

61
1. A square is a figure whose four sides and angles are equal. It consequently lacks variety
and has little appeal to the lover of beauty. Like the straight line, the square is
monotonous. It is used for purposes of ornamentation.

2. The circle is a shape all of whose points are equidistant to a common center. Like the
square the circle appears monotonous as a pictorial boundary, but it can be appealing in
ornamentation. The circle possesses simplicity, harmony, and delicacy. But it has no base
on which to stand and therefore appears unstable.

3. The rectangle, a figure whose two sides are larger than the other two, is more
interesting than the square. It suggests contrast and variety.

4. The ellipse, which is made up of restrained and simple curves, has more variety of
dimensions than the circle. Even as the rectangle is more appealing than the square so is
the ellipse more interesting than the circle. It awakens the feeling of contrast. It has
stability, since it seems to rest on a certain base.

5. The triangle is an area enclosed by three straight lines. It appears to be very stable and
stationary when it stands on one of its sides or bases. It also suggests rest and dignity.

62
 6. The lunette is formed by the combination of the straight and curved lines. It has the
stability of the horizontal line and the grace of the curve. This form is often used in
arches.

I. Color

Color is the quality of an object or substance with respect to light reflected by it, and usually
determined visually by measurement of hue, saturation and brightness of the reflected light. Color is
a property of light. We see objects in their full colors in the appearance of light, i.e. they are present
in the presence of light and are absent in the absence of light. The brightness or darkness of a color
is dependent upon the moment of light present in the environment

Example, red looks different at sunrise, high noon, or early evening. This makes light a very vital
factor in the occurrence of colors.

Color is the sensation produced by the excitation of the optic nerves which excitation in turn
is caused by the vibration of a wave in the ray of light. A ray of light is composed of waves which
vibrates at different velocities, and which have different lengths. The long waves vibrate with lesser
speed than the short waves. By means of a prism a ray of light can be broken in its component
waves: the short waves are bent or refracted more than the long waves. The colors of the spectrum
show that red has the longest wave and violet the shortest.

The pigment we use has a hue or color in the sense that it produces the sensation of color in
our basin. The difference in the hues of pigments depends upon the difference in the capacities of the
pigments to absorb and reflect the light waves. The pigment that has red blue has the ability to
reflect the longest waves which produce the sensation of red color, and absorb all the other waves. A
pigment has a particular hue because it reflects the waves with the particular length that produces
the sensation of that particular color, absorbing all the waves with other lengths.

That is the scientific side of color. As an element of art structure, color has the most appeal
on our aesthetic sense. The colors of nature that surrounds us add color to our very lives. Gray or
bright colors tend to produce brilliance and gaiety in our soul, white dull or sad colors can fill our
moments with sadness and dullness. Indeed, if this world of our were gray or colorless, we would
ourselves find very little beauty and happiness in living.

Color has three different dimensions namely:

1. hue
2. value
3. intensity

A Hue. Hue is the dimension that gives color its name. when we say that a horse is colored
brown, we are naming its hue. There are three primary hues namely: red, blue, and yellow. They
are also called pure colors parts will create secondary colors or hues namely: orange, green,
and violet. Orange is produced by mixing red and yellow, green by mixing blue and yellow, and
violet by mixing blue and red. Combining primary and secondary colors will result to intermediate
hues. These are yellow – orange, red – orange, blue – green, red – violet, blue – violet, yellow –
green.

Warm colors Cool Colors

63
 Fig. 6-8: The Color Chart showing the primary, secondary, and intermediate colors. It also labels
the warm and cool colors.

Colors can either be warm or cool. Red, orange, and yellow are warm hues because they are
mainly associated with objects like the sun and other sources of heat. They tend to impart warmth to
any composition in which they are used. They are active, restless, joyful, animate, exciting. In a
composition, they suggest movement and activity. They are also called advancing colors because
they have an effect of moving or advancing towards the viewer. The cool colors are those where blue
predominate. They are blue, green, blue-green and blue-violet. They are characterized by being
restful, clam, sober, placid, inactive. They suggest moods of solitude, loneliness, calmness, and rest.
They are called receding colors because they tend to move away from the viewer. They also
suggest distance and solemnity.

Red, the color of blood and fire, is the warmest of the colors. It is also the most vigorous,
exciting and vigilant. Yellow, the color of light, is the most brilliant, cheerful, and exultant. Blue, the
color of the sky and deep, still waters it eh coldest of all colors.

The colors black, gray, and white are neutral colors because they have no color quality.
They are versatile in a way that they can match with any colors.

A. COLOR HARMONIES

Color harmony is the correct combination and arrangement of colors so that they will
appear pleasing to the eyes.

1. Monochromatic harmony employs only one color with its tints and shades. An
example is red. Harmonizing with it are red, medium red, and dark red.

2. Analogous harmony is the use of colors which posses one common color in all
their mixture. These colors are found near each other in the color char. An example
is blue, blue-green, blue-violet.

Contrasting Color Harmonies

Matching colors that are opposite each other in the color wheel/chart will
create a more versatile and varies effect.

The types of contrasting color harmonies are:

1. complementary harmony
2. double-complementary harmony
3. split-complementary harmony
4. double-split-complementary harmony

B. COMPLEMENTARY HARMONY is the combination of any two of the opposite colors in

the color chart. There are six complementary harmonies, namely:

1. blue and orange

2. blue-green and red-violet
3. green and red
4. yellow-green and red-violet
5. red-orange and blue-violet

64
 6. yellow and violet

Complementary colors are colors which are unlike each other, and which are far apart
in the color wheel. The colors that are farthest apart are the colors on opposite sides in
the color wheel.

C. DOUBLE-COMPLEMENTARY HARMONY is made possible by combining any of the

two adjacent (nearest) colors in the color chart with their components. Four colors are
needed to make up the harmony.

1. blue, blue-violet, orange, yellow-orange

2. blue, blue-green, orange, red-orange
3. red, red-orange, green, yellow-green
4. red, red-orange, green, blue-green
5. yellow, yellow-green, violet, red-violet
6. yellow, yellow-orange, violet, blue-violet

D. SPLIT – COMPLEMENTARY HARMONY employs three colors to produce it by starting

with any color in the chart with the exception of the three secondary colors, because the
opposite of a secondary colors is a primary color and therefore, is a basic color.

1. blue, yellow-orange, red-orange

2. red, yellow-green, blue-green
3. yellow, red-violet, blue-violet

E. DOUBLE – SPLIT – COMPLEMENTARY HARMONY is the combination of any two

sets of split-complementary harmony. These two sets should lie opposite each other in
the color chart.

1. blue-violet, yellow, orange and yellow-orange, violet, blue

2. red-violet, yellow, green and yellow-green, red, violet
3. red, yellow-green, blue-green and green, red-orange, red-violet
4. red-orange, green, blue and blue-green, orange, red
5. violet, yellow-orange, yellow-green and yellow, red-violet, blue-violet
6. orange, blue-violet, blue-green and blue, yellow-orange, red-orange

Perfected Harmony is a combination of the colors of an analogous harmony with

the complement. An example is yellow, yellow-green and green with violet.

Triad Harmony is primary, secondary or intermediate depending whether the thru

hues the triad harmony employer belong to primary, secondary or intermediate
colors.

Color symbolism have been formulated to indicate their functions use of meaning

a. Black is the darkest and the dullest of all colors. It is only considered a color when mixed
with other colors. It suggests despair, gloom, death and mourning.
b. Blue is the color of the sky and of the deep seas. It gives the impression of vastness and
infinity. It is a symbol of tranquility, calmness and peace.
c. Gray is the combination of black and white or the three primary colors. It gives the
impression of weight, solidity, neutrality and wisdom.
d. Green is the color of still waters and vegetation. It is a symbol of growth, freshness and
hope.
e. Orange is the combination of red and yellow. This color symbolizes deliciousness and
sweetness.
f. Pink is a combination of red and white and symbolizes love.

65
 g. Red is a basic color. It typifies fire, blood, danger, festivity, bravery, war, passion, energy
and warmth.
h. Violet is a mixture of red and blue. It suggests shadows, mourning, penance, royalty and
power.
i. White, when taken independently is not a color. It is the lightest of all colors. It
symbolizes simplicity, clarity, purity and peace.
j. Yellow is the color of light. This is the color which is often mistaken as a color of jealousy.
It symbolizes life, joy, sunshine, cheerfulness, warmth, splendor and hospitality.
k. Yellow-green is the kind of color which is hurting to the eyes and makes one appear
darker. It is a color appropriate for those with fair complexions. It is brilliant. This
particular color is the symbol of jealousy and hatred.
l. Brown is a mixture of red and a little green. It is said to be the safest color of all. It
suggests humility and confidence.

2. Value

Value refers to the lightness or darkness of a color. It is a quality that depends upon the
amount of light present. Under this quality would fall the tints and shades. Tints are values above
the normal while shades are values below the normal. Pink is a tint of red while maroon is a shade
of red. Sky-blue is a tint while navy blue is a shade.

It is color value that lends mass to forms in painting. In actual life, we know when an object
has a cylindrical, conical, spherical, etc. shape without having to feel it with our hands. Our eyes
observe the light and dark or shade of the object in question: from experience we have learned that
the part of the cup, for example, which is nearest to the source of light is the lightest portion of the
cup, and the opposite will be in shadow. But between the darkest and lightest parts, there is a
gradual transformation of values from light to dark. When painting a cup, we reproduce the same
values, and produce the effect of mass or of tri-dimensional form.

If we observed the value scale we shall see that there are nine steps or degrees of value and
conventionally used. When using a color (and not white and black only), we eliminate the highest and
the lowest steps of the value scale, and we have to add more white, or more water if we are suing
water color. And if we want to darken its value, we add more pigment. But when we reach the
normal value or the full strength of the color or pigment, we will have to make use of black or
pigment, we will have to make use of black or gray in order to make the color darker. The different
color in their normal values or full strength have different color values, and if we use a comparative
value scale, the different colors will be put in different value steps.

3. Intensity

Intensity refers to the brightness and darkness of color. It gives color strength. Intensity
differences can be described as full intensity, two-thirds neutral, two-thirds, and neutral. When a hue
is in its vivid form, it is said to be in its full intensity. When it is dulled, it is partly neutralized. The
more black or white is added, the weaker is the intensity.

Value is different from intensity. Intensity is the measure of the brightness and dullness of a
color. A full strength color has both normal value and full intensity. Color value is the relation of a
color to light and dark and therefore color value can be a measure of all the colors in their relation to
one another. While intensity is the relation of neutralized colors to their neutralizer in full strength, or
the comparison between the “tints” (lighter than normal value) and the “shade” (darker than normal
value) of the same color. We deaden or make dull a brilliant or bright color by mixing with it some
neutralizing agent. The neutralizing agents of any color are black, white, gray or the complements of
the color. Not all neutralizers are neutral colors.

4. Texture

66
 Texture is the element that deals with the sense of touch. It is the surface treatment of an
artistic work in order to give variety and beauty to any work of art. The sense of sight and the sense
of touch are involved. Surfaces may be rough or smooth, fine or coarse depending on the material

used by the artist in making his work. In sculpture, the texture of wood is different form that of
stone. A sculptor can create a very smooth or rough texture on any material depending on his
subject, the nature of the subject and period when the work was done. Sculptural works during the
Baroque period have very smooth textures. The materials are highly polished to achieve the smooth,
brilliant effect. Not all sculptural works have smooth and fine fixtures. An unfinished work in marble,
stone, wood revel rough texture. It shows the effect of incompleteness and the subject seems to look
abstract and unrecognizable. Variation in texture of objects, buildings and structures help avoid a
monotonous effect.

Feel, which in familiar parlance, means texture has to do with the sense of touch. When we
touch or feel the surface of anything, we get tactile sensations. Texture therefore treats of tactile
values.

Tactile values are as important in art as qualities of color and forms. For an artist, it is a
necessary to know the different effects produced by difference of texture as to realize the various
suggestions awakened by various forms and colors. The knowledge of texture or of tactile values is
indispensable to dealers of cloth. Even as cloth consumers have a subconscious urge to touch or feel
the textile which they want to buy, and are not content with merely seeing it, so is very art beholder
seized with the desire to get a feel of the art piece he sees.

Texture in painting is imaginary. Since it is done on a flat surface, texture is determined on

how thick or thin the colors are applied to the surface. Subjects involving murder, massacre, and war
use bright and heavily applied colors to emphasize blood, death and suffering. The texture in this kind
of work appears to be thick and the colors are applied repeatedly to achieve full brilliance. On the
other hand, subjects like the still life, sunset and those showing feelings of rest and reposed have thin
colors textures. Since the subject appear clam and solemn, the painter uses light strokes and pastel
colors most of the time.

Unfinished Pieta by:

MICHAELANGELO

Pieta by: Michelangelo, the smooth texture of highly

Finished marble is exemplified in his work

67
Auguste Renoir, Young Grils at the Paino, a painting with
a very smooth texture. The subjects appear calm and peaceful, the
stokes are light and the colors are from light from to medium
dark.

Unfinished Pieta by: Rondanini. Shows

roughness in texture in the work

68
 Fig. 6-12: The Tempest (The Bride of the Wind) by Oscar Kokoschka. The rough texture is seen in
the very heavy strokes and in the use of very dark colors.

5. Respective

Perspective deals with the effect of distance upon the appearance of objects. It enables us to
perceive or see the position of objects as they move nearer or farther from us and also it enables us
to see the position of objects in space:

Perspective is of four kinds:

1. linear perspective
2. aerial perspective or atmospheric perspective
3. color perspective
4. foreshortening

A. Linear Perspective

Linear perspective is the presentation of an appearance of distance by means of

converging lines. It has to do with the direction of lines and with the size of objects.
Linear perspective can be best seen in subjects like highways, hallways, railroad tracks
where lines converge (meet) in the distance and gradually diminish in size. Objects
appear smaller as they go farther from the reach of the eyes. They also appear shorter as
they go farther.

69
70
 LANDSCAPE INTO DEPTH

Hobbema creates a deep perspective by foreshortening the ground plane so much that all the objects
diminish rapidly in size. There is a clear horizon line, and the bases of the trees, and the dikes, recede
to a distinct vanishing point. By placing this vanishing point – which also corresponds to the
spectator’s imagined viewing point – near the head of the man walking toward us, Hobbema makes
viewers feel as though they are entering the landscape on the same avenue, and might meet the
man. There were originally two extra trees, one on each side of the road, in the foreground. By
deleting them, Hobbema opens up the landscape, giving it unusual airiness and depth.

Fig. 6-13: The Avenue, Middleharnis by Meinder Hobblema (1689)

B. Aerial Perspective or Atmospheric Perspective

This is the elimination of clarity of form and size as the distance between the spectator
and the object increases. Aerial perspective is the representation of relative distance of
objects by gradations of color and tone. Objects become fainter and fainter in the
distance based on the atmospheric effect. A mountain viewed from a distance would look
smaller and fainter in color due to the existence of water vapor in the air, dust, wind,
moisture and the effect of light on the surroundings. Distant objects have vague outlines
as they more farther from the viewer.

71
Fig. 6-14: fluffy clouds floating past. Aerial perspective is seen at the diminishing and vanishing
objects in the distance due to atmospheric factors.

C. Color Perspective

Very much related to aerial perspective, color perspectives is the decrease of intensity of
hue and the tendency of the color to turn gray as objects recede into the distance until
finally all colors become a light atmospheric blue.

72
D. Foreshortening

Foreshortening is a kind of linear perspective wherein the objects appears to be

shortened than in normal size. If you will look at a person from different angles, some
parts of his body are short due to the effect of distance and converging of lines. If a
sleeping person is viewed at the foot of his bed, he would appear shorter than looking at
him from the side or above.

Mantegna’s Pieta. A very good example of a foreshortened work. The painter is showing
how the subject would appear if it is painted at one side or angle. Here he is showing
how the subject would appear if it is painted from the foot of the bed.

Some paintings have perspective while others don’t, a painting without a perspective
does not show the effect of distance in any of its subjects. All object in the work appear

73
 to look near or they are all in front but in reality they are distant from each other. This is
true of all paintings and the mosaics during the Byzantine period. The subject appeared
to be “flattened” with motion, no distance and no life.

Fig. 6-16: Marys at the Sepulchre by Duccio, a Siennese painter. This work has no perspective
because the distance of the human figures from the mountains located at the background cannot be
seen. The mountains seem to be just at the back of the figures but in reality they are several miles
away. In the work, all objects appear to be in front, without any distance from each other.

6. Space

Space is an art element which is concerned with making all parts functional so that all parts
of the work of art will contribute to make the whole a complete work of art. All visual arts need
space. A painter uses space in applying pigments, a sculptor needs space to exhibit or display his
finished work. An architect needs an area of land where he can construct a building.

In music, a composer needs a sheet of music paper in writing his composition. While in
dance, a space, room or stage is needed in order for a dancer to execute body gestures.

7. Volume

Volume refers to the amount space occupied in three dimensions, i.e., it can be viewed at several
directions.

Volume is one of the primary concerns in the arts like sculpture and architecture where the amount of
space to be occupied by the works is very important. A monument to be placed in an open park needs strong
materials of durable qualities to stand various weather conditions. The volume of the materials to be used
depends on the kind of object, the place where it will be placed, and the desired longevity of the object. Since a
monument is to be displayed for a long period of time in an open space, materials like wood cannot stand
weather conditions even if the volume of the wood is of great size. Wood weathers with heat and moisture and
eventually rots. In this case, concrete is preferred because it can stand various weather conditions.

In painting, volume, like texture, is an illusion. Since painters are working on flat surfaces, the volume
or thickness of the subject depends upon the amount of color applied. In this manner, the painter is showing
what part of the subject is clearly seen in the presence of light and those that are seen in the dark. The part of
the subject that is soon in the presence of light is painted brightly while those showing shadows are painted
dark.

74
 CHAPTER VII

LITERATURE AND DRAMA

Literature is the choice of words, phrases, and sentences that have artistic and emotional appeal. It is
of several types:

A. Drama or Play. This is a story re-created by actors and actresses on stage in front of an
audience.
B. Essay. This is non-fiction, expository (descriptive or explanatory) writing ranging from
informal, personal topics to closely reasoned critical treatments of important subjects.
C. Prose Fiction. This includes narrative (stories) created by the author as distinguished
from true accounts. This type includes the novel, novelette, and short story.
D. Poetry. This is a type of literature that uses highly expressive words that are specially
choiced to arouse emotional appeal. A poem is also narrative like fiction but it is
constructed using selected or choiced words. Narrative poetry includes epics, romances,
and ballads. Lyric poetry forms are the sonnet, ode, elegy, and song.
E. Miscellaneous. This type includes history, biography, letter, journals, diaries, and other
works not formally classed as literature, but have definite literary appeal and status due to
high quality writing. This is also known as “literature of knowledge” because of their highly
informative content.

A. Drama or Play.

A drama is a literary composition, in either verse or prose, that tells a story through action and speech
and is usually intended to be performed by actors and actresses before and audience.

A drama is usually divided into acts, which are often subdivided into scenes. Each act marks a stage in
the development of the story, successively introducing characters and situations, developing the story to its
climax, and resolve the conflicts of the plot. Some plays have only one act, others four, or even more. There
are also plays that don’t use acts but only scenes.

The two principal branches of the drama are the tragedy and the comedy. A tragedy is a play having a
serious plot; its hero/heroine is brought to a tragic end by some flaw in his/her character. A comedy deals
with a light and

75
amusing situation and has a happy ending. The object/aim of the tragedy is to excite deep feelings of pity
and fear; of a comedy, to excite laughter.

1. Philippine Drama. Drama forms are already practiced in early Philippine society before the
advent of Christianization. The early forms of drama were the karagatan and the duplo. The
duplo was a poetical debate done by trained men and women on the ninth night or last night of the
mourning period for the dead. The karagatan is also like the duplo except that it is performed by
amateurs. Both are performed in the homes of the dead. The plot is about the ring that fell on the
sea.

Three drama forms became highly performed during the Spanish era when Christianity changed the
native way of life. They are cenakulo, moro-moro, zarzuela, are mainly stage plays; while the Ati-
Atihan and Moriones are street plays.

a. Cenakulo or (Sinakulo)

This is a play similar to the Passion Play held at Oberramergau, a village in Western
Germany. This is a heavy drama during the Holy Week and re-enacts the passion, death,
and resurrection of Christ. It is performed in an open space where a stage is erected for
the audience to watch. It’s a weeklong drama employing sceneries, actors, actresses,
costumes, director and in the resurrection of Christ, there are fireworks, and a small band
plays to greet the resurrection of Christ.

Fig. 7-1: The Sinakulo. A Lenten season celebration on the passion, death and resurrection of Christ

b. Moro – moro

This type of drama involves the wars between the Muslims and Christians. The Christians
are always the winners. This is very famous during town fiesta. The participants wear
cloaks and carry spears and daggers.

c. Zarzuela

A zarzuela is a melodrama with songs, acting and dancing. This is performed in formal
occasions and are mainly staged inside auditoriums or concert halls. The actors
themselves sing and dance and they are accompanied by a band or small orchestra. The
plots are various but the most famous are comedies, satires, and even political issues. It
should be noted that Iloilo was once a center for zarzuela performances especially during

76
 the early 1900’s until the early years of the American regime. The zarzuela gradually
declined in popularity and practice when the Americans introduced the cinema.

d. Moriones

This is the famous festival of Marinduque. It is performed during Lent where the
participants wear masks made of dapdap wood representing Roman soldiers. They also
wear armors and Roman costumes. The name Moriones is from the term “motion”
meaning mask.

The story of the Moriones dates back to the crucifixion of Christ. A soldier named
Longinus pierced his spear at the side of Christ while he is hanging on the cross.
Longinus was believed to be blind in the left eye. When blood spurted out from the side of
Christ, certain amount of blood feel on his blind eye and he was able to see. Because of
this miracle, he went about the streets and told everyone about what happened. The
Romans were non – believers of Christ and when they heard about this, they killed
Longinus by beheading him.

The highlight of the festival is the pugutan ceremony held on the river bed of Boac.

77
Fig. 7-2: Moriones Festival. The Lenten presentation on the island province of Marinduque wherein the
participants wear masks made of dapdap wood.

e. Ati – atihan

The most famous of all Philippine festivals, the Ati-atihan is a festival that originated in the
province of Aklan. It symbolizes the triumph of the Spaniards against the Muslims when
Aklan was the subject of Muslim invasion. The Spaniards disguised themselves as Ati by
putting soot all over their bodies. During that time, the patron saint of Kalibo was the
Santo Niño. The Muslims lost in the battle and the Spaniards hailed their victory by
dancing and revelry honoring the image of the Santo Niño.

The popularity of the Ati-atihan spread quickly until it reached Iloilo Province where it is
called Dinagyang. It became an annual event held every last Sunday of January. In Iloilo
City, the dinagyang is a contest among participating tribes wherein each tribe shows off
their magnificent and original costumes and creative dance steps.

Fig. 7-3: Ati-Atihan. An annual festival held in Kalibo, Aklan displaying pageantry, revelry and
devotion to the Sto. Niño

B. Essay

An essay is a short literary composition on a particular topic. It expresses the author’s

personal thoughts, feelings, experiences or observations on a phase of life. Subjects of essay are
all topics ranging from history, personal life, nature, criticism, or from anything that is interesting
to the writer.

The essay is classified in two groups: formal and informal. A formal essay is heavy,
informative and intellectually stimulating. Examples are essays done on very serious topics like
region, morality, politics, ethics, etc. An informal essay is light, humorous, and entertaining.

The essay is composed of the following elements:

78
 1. The issue introduced. This is found in the beginning of the essay where the topic of
the essay is presented. This answers the question, “What is it about?”

2. The writer’s viewpoint and thought . In this part, the author presents his own
reaction or view of the topic being discussed. If it is a political or moral essay, he may
state if he is in favor of it or not.

3. The relevance of the issue to the life of the reader . This is going towards the end
of the work wherein the author expresses the significance of the topic to his life.

C. Prose Fiction

This is along narrative story involving several or lots of characters, places, situations. The
best example is the novel and the short story. The setting of the novels covers the time,
place, background of the characters, etc. in novels as well as in short stories, the story is the
backbone of the work. It can also be called the major plot of the work. All the characters,
events, disagreements, conflicts, etc. revolve around the plot which may be the triumph of
good over evil, murder, punishment, etc.

D. Poetry

Poetry is the most creative and challenging of all literary forms due to the following reasons:

1. Choice of proper words or grammar. Poetry uses highly expressive words. The poet
should have a wide range of vocabulary and knowledge in grammatical constructions
in order to be effective.

2. Denotative and symbolical meaning of the chosen grammar. Choice of words or

rhyming syllables is not a major concern in poetry. The words chosen should have a
symbol or meaning since most poems have symbols or are symbolic of an emotion,
thing, person, or situation.

3. Limitation imposed by the structure and rhythm of sounds. Reciting a poem is like
singing a song. There are ascending and descending points, emphasized, and many
more. Poems are the sources of song texts by the composers. The mood of the poem
determines the type and kind of music that will be composed by the composer.

The structure of the poem is different from a drama, novel or essay. It is less space
consuming, it is not voluminous (unless if it’s a cycle of poems) and it requires less words
unlike the novel or essay.

79
 CHAPTER VIII

ARCHITECTURE

1. DEFINITION OF ARCHITECTURE

Architecture is the art and science of building structures that are mainly for shelter
purposes. Architecture is a complex field because in the definition, it is both an art and
science. As an art form, a work of architecture shows aesthetic qualities like beauty,
creativity, or it satisfies the requirements of aesthetics of a building without disregarding the
need for a sound structure with complete utilities. Architecture is also an art that is controlled
by the accurate principles of science. It means that what is scientifically possible will
contribute to a secure structure.

2. THE STYLES OR ARCHITECTURE

A. Egyptian Architecture (3,200 B.C. to First Century A.D.)

Egyptian architecture is characterized by massive pyramidal structures that serve as

tombs of the pharaohs. These pyramids are made from enormous blocks of stones
that were transported from distant places (within Egyptian or outside Egyptian
territory) by human and animal labor. Noteworthy to mention are the salves who
were forced and died in constructing these early wonder of the ancient world.

B. Greek Architecture (1,100-100 B.C.)

The Greeks are known for their temples made of marble that are specially
constructed for their gods and goddesses. For them constructing a temple with
utmost accuracy, finesse and beauty is a way of pleasing the god or goddess for
continued protection and abundance.

The Greeks employ the post-and-lintel in all of their construction. The post-and-lintel
consists of two columns with a horizontal beam placed on top of the two posts.

80
 Fig. 8-1: An ancient Greek temple showing the post-and-lintel style of architectural structure

The Greek also invented the so-called “Three Classic Orders” in architecture. These
orders are found in the columns or posts that support the upper part of a building.
The Three Classic Orders are:

a. Doric. This is the first of Greek orders of architecture. It is distinguished by a

capital having a bulging, cushion-like shape. The capital is the topmost or
crowning member of a column or pilaster.

b. Ionic. The second of the Greek order, characterized by having scrolls or volutes
on its capital.

c. Corinthian. The third of the Greek orders. It’s column is topped by a bell-
shaped capital with rows of acanthus leaves from which scrolls rise.

Corinthian Doric Ionic

81
 Fig. 8-3: The Three Classic Orders of Greek Architecture

C. Roman Architecture (1000 B.C. – 400 A.D.)

Roman architecture is similar to that of the Greek but with some innovations. They
built not only temples but also buildings, baths, law courts, aqueducts, amphitheater
and bridge. One distinct feature in Roman architecture is their extensive use of the
arch. An arch is a semi-circular structure made from pieces of wood or stone called
voussoirs held together by cement and supported only at the sides. They were also
the first to use the dome. A dome is an architectural structure that looks like an
inverted cup that serves as the roof of a building.

Fig. 8-3: The Colosseum, a leading feature of Roman Architecture. This is an amphitheater where
gladiatorial fights were held. Note the extensive use of the arch.

82
 Fig. 8-4: The aqueducts of Spain showing a series of arches

D. Romanesque Architecture (10th – 12th centuries)

This type of architecture feature very heavy walls with small window openings stone
arch or inverted roof window. This type uses a new constructive principle, the
deliberate articulation of structure, in which each construction part played a designed
role in establishing equilibrium. The general character of Romanesque style is sober
and dignified, while formal massing depends on the grouping of towers and the
projection of transepts and choir. A transept is a part of a cross-shaped shaped
church that correspondents to the short arm of the cross, that is, the part that
crosses the main axis of the church at right angles and projects beyond each side.

Fig. 8-5: An example of Romanesque work, the Cathedral of Poitiers in France

83
 Fig. 8-6: A cathedral plan identifying the transept

E. Gothic Architecture (1194 – 1500)

This type is characterized by pointed arches making the building large and taller and
buttresses to support the building. A buttress is a structural device that supports an
arch, vault, or other part of a building by counteracting a pressure that the arch or
vault exerts. Buttresses are mainly constructer outside the main building. The best
example is the Cathedral of Notre Dame, France.

84
Fig. 8-7: The portals of the Cathedral of Charters in France showing pointed arches trademarks of the
Gothic style

Fig. 8-8: A portion of the Cathedral of Notre Dame showing the butress

85
 Fig. 8-8: A portion of the Cathedral of Notre Dame showing the butress

F. Renaissance Architecture (15th to 19th century)

Architecture during the Renaissance brought about the construction of aristocratic

residence palazzos in Italy, as well as churches. Usually three stories high, they were
symmetrical, with flat, rusticated façade and regular ornamentation. The long,
straight line of the roof strengthened the massive, horizontal emphasis of the
structure.

Renaissance architecture observed objectives, mathematical standards of

measurement and proportion, in accordance with the scientific spirit of the age. The
structures not only revived the classical orders, but the ideas of balance, symmetry
and proportion as well.

86
Fig. 8-9: An example of a Renaissance architecture known as “palazzo”, the home of an aristocratic
Italian citizen

G. Baroque Architecture (17th and 18th centuries)

Baroque architecture can be described as “flowery” and “highly ornamented”.

Commonly seen in churches and cathedrals wherein columns are decorated with
angles and statues of saints or religious objects. In non – religious structures the
columns are decorated with garlands of flowers and fruits, shells and water.

87
Fig. 8-10: The high altar of the Mariazell Church (17 th century) in Austria showing examples of
Baroque architecture

H. Philippine Architecture

Since the Philippines is a tropical country, the type of architecture employed evolved
from the traditional nipa hut structure. Materials are light and cool, the window are
wide and big to allow circulation of air, a veranda to pass the cozy and warm
afternoons. Stronger materials like stones, cement, tiles and bricks are found in
houses having Spanish influences. These houses also use Capiz shells in the
windows.

88
When looking at the Philippine International Convention Center you can see a similarity in
architecture with the Folk Arts Center and the Cultural Center of the Philippines. If you guess it was
the same architect, Leandro Locsin, you would be correct.

They took a little more time building this one. Construction was started in 1974 and the Philippine
International Convention Center was opened in 1976. So the Philippines now had three building
catering on a world wide platform.

Inspired by the salakot hat of the farmer, the Coconut Palace majestically stands within the Philippine
Cultural Center Complex. Highlighted as one of the CCP’s most striking structure for its architecture
and interiors, the coconut triumphs as the ultimate “Tree of Life”. From its roots to its trunk, its bark,
fruit, flower and its shell, all have been the source of design forms, elements, and ornaments
throughout the structure.

The Coconut Palace stands as a shining example of the ingenuity of the Filipino. It interprets,
transforms and manipulates indigenous materials into works of arts that best simplifies the unique
craft of the building and design of the Philippines.

89
 Fort Santiago

Manila Cathedral

90
91
San Agustin Church

92
A style featuring pointed arches and vaults in windows or doors, steeply pitched gables, and balanced
thrusts in stone masonry. Stone sinews are visible in the structure. Stone curtain walls achieve great
height. This is achieved with flying buttresses which direct the thrust of the heavy stone walls to
prevent collapse. This style flourished in the 1200s though 1400s. Gothic Revival architecture peaked
from the 1750s to about 1900. It became one of the preferred styles for church architecture in the
United States. The style is elaborate and decorative. Some decorative elements include: tracery,
gargoyles, pinnacles, and stained glass windows.

93
Vocabulary
arch - a curved structure spanning an open space, supporting the weight above it.

boss - a decoration (wood or stone) over the intersection of ribs or in the center of a panel or
coffer.

clerestory - an upward expansion of an interior space created by many vertical windows in a

wall.

crocket - a decorative ornament to a decorative design, usually stylized foliage, and is often
found on spires.

finial - the terminal point of a spire, pinnacle, or gable.

flying buttress - a buttress (a pier that supports a wall) with a rampant arch which supports
the masonry curtain walls of Gothic construction.

parapet - a low retaining wall at the edge of a roof, proch, or terrace.

pier - an upright support.

pinnacle - a terminal ornament found on roofs, buttresses, or other high points.

rib - a transverse or diagonal member of a vault.

tracery - decorative, curving mullions of a window.

triforium - a gallery of arches above the longitudinal arches along the nave of a church.

vault - part of a structure roofed by arched masonry.

94
 CHAPTER IX

MUSIC

1. DEFINITION

Music is the regular flow of sounds that produce pleasant effects. It is easily
differentiated from noise because noise is the irregular flow of sounds that produce
unpleasant effects. Music is relaxing to the senses while noise is deafening, strains the senses
and is detrimental to one’s health and even to the environment.

2. MEDIUMS OF MUSIC

In music, the material that is being used is sound. This sound would come from
instruments that produce musical sounds. Mediums of music are of two kinds namely: the
vocal medium and the instrumental medium.

A. The Vocal Medium

The vocal medium is the most natural of all musical instruments because it is
embodied within the system of a person. There are several vocal registers namely:

1. Soprano, the highest female voice

2. Mezzo-Soprano, the middle category of a female voice
3. Contralto or Alto, the lowest female voice
4. Tenor, the highest male voice
5. Baritone, the middle category of a male voice
6. Bass, the lowest male voice

Voices are classified as to quality and temperament. This is because each voice is
unique in its own and can never sound exactly the same with that of another person.

a. Coloratura soprano is the highest and lightest of all women’s voices.

Music suited to this type is vocally ornamented with runs, trills, leaps,
and skips.
b. Lyric soprano is less high and flue-like in quality. This voice is suited
to sweet, melodious music which is less ornamented.
c. Dramatic soprano has a big, powerful voice capable of conveying
intense emotions in dramatic situations.
d. Lyric Mezzo-soprano has a light vocal quality that is similar to that of
the lyric soprano but her vocal range is lower.
e. Dramatic Mezzo-soprano has a big, strong voice suited to dramatic
music.
f. Contralto is the rarest of all female voices. It is the lowest female
voice and comes very seldom among women. It’s sound is almost
that of a male voice. The two greatest contraltos are Kathleen Ferrier
and Marian Anderson.
g. Lyric tenor is a tenor with a light, sweet voice
h. Dramatic tenor is one with a big, powerful voice suited to dramatic
pieces of music.

95
 B. The Instrumental Mediums

1. Stringed Instruments. These are instruments having stretched strings

across the body of the instrument. They are classified as either bowed or
plucked. Bowed string instruments include the violin, viola, violoncello,
and double bass. Plucked stringed instruments are the guitar, banjo, and
harp.

A bow is made of wood with horsehair stretched across it. Meanwhile,

stringed instruments that plucked can be played by plucking the strings
using the fingers of both hands or by the use of a plectrum.

violin
viola

Double bass

cello

Fig. 9-1: The family of bowed string instruments

The violin is the smallest of the stringed instruments and has the highest pitch. The viola is a
slightly bigger violin and has a slightly lower sound than that of the violin. Both instruments are

96
played by tucking them under the chin of the player. The cello is a big violin and is played between
the knees of the player. The doublebass is the biggest of the violins and has the lowest sound.

Fig. 9-2: The Harp. One of the most popular string instruments. Nylon strings of various lengths and
sizes are stretched across a triangular frame. It is played by plucking the strings with fingers of both
hands.

Fig. 9-3: The Guitar. This is the most famous string instrument used in haranas (serenades) as well
as for personal pleasure. It is also known for its delicate and romantic tone. It is played by “plucking”
the strings with the fingers of both hands or with the use of a plectrum. The other instrument is the
Flute also known as the transverse flute.

2. Woodwind Instruments. These are instruments that are blown to

produce sound and they are originally made of wood but then metal
(notably brass) has been used. As to manner of playing, they are classified

97
 as either end-blown or side-blown (transverse). End-blown woodwind
instruments are sounded by blowing through a mouthpiece located at one
end of the instrument. The mouthpiece is the part of the instrument where
the player blows to produce sound. This would include the oboe, English
horn, bassoon, clarinet, and saxophone. Side-blown woodwind
instruments, also known as transverse instruments are played by
positioning them in a horizontal manner from the mouth of the player. The
mouthpiece is located at the side of the instrument, hence the term side-
blown. This includes the flute and piccolo.

English
piccolo bassoon horn
flute

Saxophone

Oboe

Clarinet

Fig. 9-4: The Woodwind Instruments

The flute us a cylindrical tube made of silver alloy o metal. Its sound is liquid or silvery. It
can play fast and brilliant musical passages. Its tone is cool and solemn in the lower register but
bright in the upper registry. Flutes are originally made of wood that is why it’s classed as a woodwind
instrument. The piccolo is a short flute and has a higher range than the flute. Its sound is shrill and

98
piercing. The oboe is made of wood, tube like and gets wider at the end. The double reeds in the
mouthpiece consist of two slips of cane that leaves a very small passage for air. This instrument is
mainly suited to pastoral and nostalgic melodies. The English Horn is a big obo and has a bell-shape
end. The clarinet is in the form of a cylindrical tube a single reed attached to its mouthpiece. The
bassoon is a long and hollow tube with a double reed mouthpiece. This instrument as known as
the :Clown of the Orchestra” because of its suitability in playing funny and joke like musical passages.
The saxophone has a single reed on its mouthpiece, popular in the jazz groups and known for its
romantic tone.

3. Brass Instrument. These are blown instrument whose bodies are made of brass (a kind of
flexible metal white with a very high finish or polish quality and is light in weight). They are
the trumpet, trombone, French horn and the tuba.

Trombone

Tuba

French horn
Trumpet

The Family of Brass Instruments

The trumpet has a powerful, penetrating tone, consisting of a tube curved twice around on
itself and having a cup-shaped mouthpiece at one end and bell at the other. It is best in playing
martial and pomp music because of its highly brilliant and penetrating tone. The trombone consists
of a cylindrical metal tube expanding into a bell and bent twice in a U-shape, equipped with a slide.
The sliding U-shape tube changes the length of the vibrating column of air inside the tube, so the
pitch of its tone are either raised or lowered. The French Horn consists of a series of bent cylindrical
brass tubes and look circular in shape. Among the brass instruments, this instrument is the most

99
romantic and pastoral in tone and is a favorite among composers in depicting pastoral and forest
scenes. The tuba is the biggest of the brass instruments and has the lowest tone. It supplies the
bass parts among the brass instruments.

4. Percussion Instruments “Percussion” means “striking”. These are instruments whose

sounds are produced by means of striking the instrument through the use of beaters,
hammers or the instruments themselves. Instruments under this are kettledrums, bass drum,
snare drum, triangle, chimes or tubular bells, xylophone, castanets, cymbals, tam-tam or
gong and tambourine.

SOME PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS

Bass drum Kettle drum

cymbals

castanets

Snare drum
xylophone

tambourine

Fig. 9-6: Percussion instruments

The kettledrum is a percussion instrument with a big bowl shaped body and stretched
membrane on top or played by striking the membrane with the thunderous effects.

The snare drum is a regular sized drum that is used in providing marching rhythms to
compositions. It is call ed snare because of the “cracking” sound produced when stretched ropes
across its lower membrane vibrate when the upper membrane is struck using wooden beaters.

100
 The bass drum is a big drum with a low tone and has a double membrane. It provides the
rhythm of a march in a military band & in an orchestra, it gives a thunderous effect especially when
played simultaneously with the kettledrums.

The cymbals are two brass discs held by both hands and are played by “clapping” the discs
together. sometimes one disc is only used beaten with a stick. It produces clashing sounds.

The xylophone is a series of graduated metal bars placed in a row and are played by
striking the bars using beaters. The term graduated means of different lengths and sizes.

The tambourine consists of a membrane stretched across a circular frame with small metal
discs placed with in the frame. When the instrument is struck, the metal discs known as jingles strike
each other producing charming jingling sounds. This instrument is commonly used to accompany
dances.

The castanets are of Spanish origin. It is kind of clapper held by the hands to accompany
dancing. Each hand holds a pair of castanets and these are played by striking them together as the
hand opens and closes to the accompaniment of the music. This instrument is common in folk
dances.

The chimes or tubular bells are a series of graduated cylindrical metal tubes that hang from
a metal frame. It’s sound imitates that of the bells and it is played by striking the tubes with a
wooden beater.

3. ENSEMBLE MEDIUMS

When two or more performers are playing or singing together, the medium is called
ensemble, and the music being performed is called ensemble music.

Instrumental ensembles are of several kinds:

A. Orchestra

An orchestra is a group of instrumentalists playing together under the leadership of conductor. The
orchestra is composed of four families of instruments namely: string section (violin, viola, cello,
double bass), woodwind section (piccolo, flute, oboe, bassoon, English horn, clarinet), brass section
(trumpet, French horn, trombone, tuba), and percussion section (kettle drums, bass drum, snare
drum, cymbals, chimes, triangle). It’s a big group and the number of instrumentalists varies with
the demands of the music. These are compositions that require a small number of players, while
there are those that require almost a hundred instrumentalists.

Orchestra Phil Harmonic Orchestra

101
Arrangement of instruments in an Orchestra

B. Band

A band is an instrumental group that looks like the orchestra except that there is no
string section. It is composed of woodwinds, brasses and percussions. The band is
mainly associated with the military and almost every military group has its own band
that serves a vital purpose in almost any occasion in and out of the camp.

Like the orchestra, a band has also a conductor. Musically, the form especially made
for the band is the march. A march is a musical form in duple time and initiates the
movement of the feet when marching. The most famous composer of band music
was John Philip Sousa, who composed marches for the band.

C. Rondalla

The Rondalla is the best known instrumental group in the Philippines. It is a band
made up mostly of stringed instruments that include the banduria, laud, octavina,
piccolo, guitara and banjo. It is very popular among schools and is very effective in
rendering folk songs during programs and recitals.

A unique type of rondalla is the Pangkat Kawayan wherein all the instruments are
made of bamboo and other indigenous materials.

The University of the Philippines, College of Music, has a group known as Musika
Asya. This instrumental group is made up of students of the U.P. College of Music
who play native Mindanao musical instruments like the kulintang, agong, dabakan,
gandigan, saronay and others.

102
 4. THE ENJOYMENT OF MUSIC

A. The aesthetic material of music is tones. Tones differ from one another in many ways
pitch, rate, dynamic, etc., but all elements of an aesthetic experience may be found even in the
simplest, single tone. There is the sensuous medium, the sound. There is life expressed, a feeling
aroused in us, yet so completely objectified in the sound that is seems to belong to the latter on
equal terms with color and pitch or loudness; there s unity and variety and orderly structure in
the dominance of the fundamental among the overtones and the fusion of all in the total clang.
Thus, every not is a complete little aesthetic organism.

B. No less than the philosopher Aristotle said that much of the aesthetic appeal of music
lies in its temporal quality. How is this brought about? In the first place, the arrangement of tones
is in constant motion. Unlike in a painting where the colors are stationary and therefore, the
senses are forced to be stationary. Of course, it may be argued for painting that the canvass may
be viewed from different angles under different lights but, by large, the appeal and the emotions
expressed are more or less the same. In music, the melody forces us to move with it. The tones
are never stationary, they are always developing. Hence, in like manner, the emotions which they
awaken express develop and change.

In the second place, music is the only art that relics solely on the aesthetic material and has no
definite meaning. Part of the significance of both painting and sculpture is derives from the
objects they represent, music, on the other hand, represent no objects. Therefore, the pleasure
which we derived is solely based upon the interaction of the tones and our sense. This fact that
the expression of emotion is not based on the representation of the causes and objects of
emotion, gives music its fleeting, temporal quality.

C. The aesthetic pleasure which we derive from music also resided in its abstractness.
Painting and sculpture present to us images from nature; poetry and the drama present ideas.
Music, on the other hand, makes no such presentation. It moves solely in the world of sound.
Yet, from this very quality of abstractness, music remains the most personal and the most
intimate of the arts. This is the central paradox of music although abstract, it is subjective and
personal. Why?

Sta. Rita de Cascia Rondalla

103
La Libertad Children's Rondalla

104
 CHAPTER X

DANCE

1. DEFINITION

Dance is the rhythmical movement of the body, usually with music to express an idea or
emotion, narrate a story, or simply to enjoy and take pleasure in the movement itself.

Dance consists of a succession or arrangement of steps and rhythmic movements to musical

and/or rhythmic accompaniment. Dances may be associated with paganistic rituals, festivities,
revelry, or just the expression of one’s own inner thoughts and emotions.

Ever since the beginning of man’s early civilizations, dancing is already practiced. It is older
than any of the other fine arts. In connection to music, dance is older because music sprang due to
the need to enrich and accompany it. In fact, it is considered to be the oldest of the arts and the
mother of the arts.

Dancing is not merely for recreational purposes. Many primitive cultures all over the world
dance to celebrate childbirth, bountiful harvest, circumcision, prayer and devotion, and many others.
It is in these movements that innermost emotions are being expressed and thus the meaning or
content is transmitted to the audience. Movements are created to express an emotional or physical
state or condition.

Dancing generally employs music. Musical accompaniments may range from singing, use of
indigenous materials to that provide rhythm, clapping, use of Western instruments like the guitar or
piano, a band or piano, a band or even an orchestra. The importance of music to dancing is that it
provides the rhythmic accompaniment to the movements of the dancer.

2. COMPONENTS OF THE DANCE

a. The Dancer. The dancer is the medium used in a dance. It is through

his body movements and facial expressions that he communicates the ideas and
emotions contained in the dance.

b. The Choreographer. He is the “composer” of dance steps and

movements similar to the composer who writes music. He invents the order and
combination of dance steps, the pattern of group dances,

Our folk dances and our songs have been influenced by other nations such as the Malayan countries,
Spain, France, England and the United States.

The following native folk dances are recognized to have definitely foreign infuences. The
Malayan influence can be found in the Kandingan, the Daling daling and the Mag bangka
dances, .whereas the Spanish influences may be found in the Jotas, the Pandanggos and the
Habaneras. And the American influence in the Lanceros and Birginas. The English influence shows in
the Ba-Inglis of Ilocus Sur. French in the Alcampior from Leyte and the Pasakat from Laguna and the
German Redoba of Mindoro.

Filipino folk dances are very interesting in that many of them reveal traditional Filipino
qualities. For example, the national Filipino concept is that Filipino women must be modest, shy and

105
graceful whereas the movements for the men are more energetic and dynamic. This is clearly shown
in the Pandanggos, the Jotas and the Curachas, which are generally courtship and wedding dances.

The Filipinos are traditionally reserved and sensitive in relationship of men and women in
love, and in social gatherings. Therefore dances like the Hele Hele Bayo Quierre express this
traditional coyness of the typical Filipina whose relative would be shocked if she where to accept a
suitor immediately. Love in the traditional Filipino way, is expressed at arm’s length. Filipino folk
dances are performed with very little or no bodily contact at all. .in dances of former times if the
dance calls for the partners to hold hands, the men had to use handkerchiefs so that their fair
partners would not be exposed to direct skin – to -- skin contact. In some dances the women held
fans which they could extend to their partners as substitute for their hands.

Fig. 10-2: A Benguet Festival Dance showing women dancing to the accompaniment of bamboo
buzzers called bungkaka

106
Fig. 10-3: Pagdiwata: A dance – ritual of the Tagbanua tribe of Palawan. It’s a dance of thanksgiving
and appeal for continued protection

Fig. 10-4: Itik-itik. This native dance initiates the playfulness of ducklings wading in the river

107
 Fig. 10-5: Pandanggo sa Ilaw: Originating from Mindoro, this dance shows the exquisite skill in
dancing while balancing lighted candles on the head and on the hands.

Fig. 10-6: Tinikling: This dance imitates the “tikling, a long-legged bird, while hopping from one pole
to another.

108
Fig. 10-7: Polka sa Plaza. A dance showing the superb terno of the Spanish women with matching
parasols

Bilaan: A dance from Cotabato portraying the lively simple movement of bird in flight.

109
B. SOCIAL OR BALLROOM DANCES

These are formal/social dances generally performed by pairs. These include the
boogie, rumba, tango, cha-cha, waltz, etc. The dance steps are improvisatory that
the dancers can modify or create their own dance steps to show creativity, agility and
dexterity in movements.

Beauty and the Beast

Ballroom Dance

C. BALLET

This ballet is very formalized type of dance performed by trained dancers. This type
of dancing was developed during the Middle Ages at the royal courts where it was a
spectacle in addition to the lavish costumes, sceneries, musical accompaniments and
superb movements. Ballet experiences exceptional skill and training. Most ballet
dancers start while still young to allow flexibility in muscle development.

110
Fig. 10-10: Members of the Covent Garden Ballet in London dancing Tchaikovslv’s Swan Lake

D. MODERN / CONTEMPORARY DANCES

These are violent reactions to the elite and strict rules of the ballet and other formal
dances. Modern dances follow no specific rules but are dances that are solely for fun
and fashion. This includes break dance, rap dancing, disco dancing.

111