Lecture-8

Electron and Hole Concentrations at

Dr. M. M. Khan
Department of Applied Physics, ZHCET, AMU., Aligarh
 The electron and hole concentrations in a semiconductor can can be calculated using the
Fermi distribution function if the densities of available states in the valence and conduction
bands are known.
 If N(E)dE is the density of states (no. of states per unit volume) in the energy range E->E+dE,
then the concentration of electrons in the conduction band calculated as
∞
𝑛0 = 𝐸𝑐
𝑓 𝐸 𝑁 𝐸 𝑑𝐸 −−−−−−−−−−−−− −(1) dE
Ec

Eg=Ec-Ev
Similarly, the hole concentration in valance band can be given by
Ev
dE
𝐸𝑉
𝑝0 = −∞
(1 − 𝑓 𝐸 )𝑁 𝐸 𝑑𝐸 −−−−−−−−−−−−− −(2)

• here n0 and p0 represents the e and h concentrations at equilibrium (at a given temperature)
• and the integration has to be carried out over the entire CB and VB. -∞ and ∞ may also be replaced by
Ebottom and Etop in these integration (the result will be the same)
• The function N(E) can be calculated using quantum mechanics and the implication of Pauli exclusion
principle. The result of this calculation implies that
1
𝑁(𝐸) ∝ 𝐸 2
It shows that the density of states at energy E is proportional to the square root of energy of that level, that is the density
of states in CB increases with electron energy. On the other hand, the Fermi function becomes extremely small for
large energies. The result is that the product f(E)N(E) decreases rapidly above Ec, and very few electrons
occupy energy states far above the conduction band edge.
Similarly, the probability of finding an empty state (hole) in the valence band [1 - f(E)] decreases
rapidly below Ev, and most holes occupy states near the top of the valence band.
The conduction band electron concentration is simply the effective density of states at Ec
times the probability of occupancy at Ec:
(3)
n0  N c f ( Ec )
In this expression we assume the Fermi level EF lies at least several kT below the
conduction band. Then the exponential term is large compared with unity, and the Fermi
function f(Ec) can be simplified as
 exp ( Ec  EF ) / kT 
1
f ( Ec )  (4)
1  exp( Ec  EF ) / kT 
Since kT at room temperature is only 0.026 eV, this is generally a good approximation.
For this condition the concentration of electrons in the conduction band is
n0  Nc exp ( Ec  EF ) / kT  (5)
It can be shown that the effective density of states Nc is
2mn* kT 3 / 2 (6)
N c  2( 2
)
h
Values of Nc can be tabulated as a function of temperature. As Eq. (5) indicates, the
electron concentration increases as EF moves closer to the conduction band.
By similar arguments, the concentration of holes in the valence band is
p0  N v [1  f ( Ev )] (7)
where Nv is the effective density of states in the valence band.
The probability of finding an empty state at Ev, is

 exp ( E F  Ev ) / kT 
1
1  f ( Ev )  1  (8)
1  exp( Ev  E F ) / kT 
for EF larger than Ev by several kT. From these equations, the concentration of holes
in the valence band is

p0  N v exp  ( EF  Ev ) / kT  (9)

The effective density of states in the valence band reduced to the band edge is
2m *p kT
N v  2( 2
)3/ 2 (10)
h
Eq. (9) predicts that the hole concentration increases as EF moves closer to the
valence band.
The electron and hole concentrations predicted by Eqs. (5) and (9) are valid whether
the material is intrinsic or doped, provided thermal equilibrium is maintained. Thus for
intrinsic material, EF lies at some intrinsic level Ei near the middle of the band gap, and
the intrinsic electron and hole concentrations are

ni  Nc exp ( Ec  Ei ) / kT  , pi  Nv exp ( Ei  Ev ) / kT  (11)

n0 p0  ( N c exp ( Ec  EF ) / kT )(N v exp ( EF  Ev ) / kT )  (12)


 N c N v exp ( Ec  Ev ) / kT   N c N v exp  E g / kT 
ni pi  ( N c exp ( Ec  Ei ) / kT )( N v exp ( Ei  Ev ) / kT )  (13)


 N c N v exp  Eg / kT 
In Eqns. (12) and (13) Eg = Ec – Ev. The intrinsic electron and hole concentrations are
equal (since the carriers are created in pairs), ni = pi ; thus the intrinsic concentration is

ni  N c N v exp(  Eg / 2kT ) (14)

The constant product of electron and hole concentrations in Eq. (12) can be written
conveniently as
n 0 p0  ni2 (15)
This is an important relation, and we shall use it extensively in later calculations. The
intrinsic concentration for Si at room temperature is approximately ni = 1.5 x 1010 cm-3.
 Comparing Eqs. (11) and (14), we note that the intrinsic level Ei is the middle of the band
gap (Ec - Ei= Eg/2), if the effective densities of states Nc and Nv are equal.
There is usually some difference in effective mass for electrons and holes (e.g. for Si –
mn*=0.26m0, mn*=0.39m0), however, and, therefore, Nc and Nν are slightly different as Eqs. (6)
and (10) indicate.
Another convenient and useful way of writing Eqs. (5) and (9) is

n0  ni exp( EF  Ei ) / kT  (15)

p0  ni exp( Ei  EF ) / kT  (16)

obtained by the application of Eq. (11). This form of the equations indicates directly
that the electron concentration is ni, when EF is at the intrinsic level Ei, and that n0
increases exponentially as the Fermi level moves away from Ei toward the
conduction band. Similarly, the hole concentration p0 varies from ni, to larger values
as EF moves from Ei toward the valence band. Since these equations reveal the
qualitative features of carrier concentration so directly, they are particularly
convenient to remember.
Problem