Unit-3

Topic 2: Intrinsic Semiconductor

 Objective

To Learn ....

 Density of States

 Fermi- Dirac Statistics

 Instrinsic Concentration: density of electrons and holes in intrinsic semiconductor

 Fermi Energy level in intrinsic semiconductor

 Carrier concentration in semiconductors

The carrier concentration in an energy band is obtained by multiplying the density

of available states, g(E), and the probability of occupation, f(E).

n( E )  g ( E ) f ( E ) dE
band

g(E) : The density of states in a band (the number of states/dE)

f(E) : The probability of filling a state at a given temperature
 Density of states

The density of states in a semiconductor equals the density per unit volume and
energy of the number of solutions to Schrödinger's equation.

 Density of state describes the distribution of the energy states over the band

The density of states can be used to calculate the total number of electron in a band. If
g(E) is the DOS, then the total number of electrons in a band, S(E) is given by

❑
𝑆 ( 𝐸)= ∫ 𝑔( 𝐸) 𝑑𝐸 and
𝑔 ( 𝐸)=
𝑑𝑆( 𝐸)
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑑𝐸
Density of states

(a) In the solid there are N atoms and N

extended electron wavefunctions
from ψ1 all the way to ψN. There are
many wavefunctions, states, that have
energies that fall in the central regions
of the energy band.
(b) The distribution of states in the
energy band; darker regions have a
higher number of states.
(c) Schematic representation of the
density of states g(E) versus energy E.
 Density of states

To calculate a 2D density of states

Crystal of size L2 and a 2D Quantum well

which means two quantum numbers n1 and n2

Each state has an energy of

2
h
2 (
𝐸= 𝑛1 +𝑛 2)
2 2

8 𝑚𝑒 𝐿

Each state, or electron wavefunctions in the crystal, can be represented by a box at n1, n2 as
shown in the figure
We can derive a formula for the number of states in ring of
thickness dE and that is the density of states.
 Density of states

To calculate a 3D density of states.

Assume parabolic E(k)

A 3D potential well means three
quantum numbers n1, n2 and n3 and
now the spatial dimension L of the
well refers to the size of the entire
solid.

Each state has

2 an energy of
h
2 (
𝐸= 𝑛1 +𝑛 2+𝑛 3 )
2 2 2

8 𝑚𝑒 𝐿
 Density of states
To calculate a 3D density of states.

Assume parabolic E(k)

A 3D potential well means three
quantum numbers n1, n2 and n3 and
now the spatial dimension L of the
well refers to the size of the entire
solid.

2 an energy of
Each state has In three dimensions, the volume defined by a
h
𝐸= 2 ( 𝑛1 +𝑛 2+𝑛 )
2 2 2
3
sphere of radius n' and the positive axes n1, n2,
8 𝑚𝑒 𝐿 and n3, contains all the possible combinations
of positive n1, n2, and n3 values that satisfy
2 2
h 𝑛
𝐸= 2
2 2
𝑛1 +𝑛 2+ 𝑛3 ≤ 𝑛
2 2

8 𝑚𝑒 𝐿
 Density of states
n3

 Each dot here represent the energy state

n2

n1
 Density of states
n3

 Each dot here represent the energy state

 To quantify, Let us draw a sphere of radius n

n  The total number of states within the sphere
n2 is given by its volume .

n1
 Density of states
n3

 Each dot here represent the energy state

 To quantify, Let us draw a sphere of radius n

n  The total number of states within the sphere
n2 is given by its volume.

 Since the quantum numbers can only be

positive, we can only take the first
quadrant of the sphere

n1
 Density of states

 Total number of `orbitals' (energy states),

Sorb(n), is given by the volume of the sphere
in the first quadrant

𝑆 𝑜𝑟𝑏 ( 𝑛)=
1 4
8 3( 1
)
𝜋 𝑛 = 𝜋 𝑛3
3
6

 Since each orbital can take two electrons of opposite spin ( Pauli’s exclusion),
the total number of energy states (including spin), S(n), is given by

1 3 1 3
𝑆 (𝑛)=2 𝑆𝑜𝑟𝑏 (𝑛)=2 × 𝜋 𝑛 = 𝜋 𝑛
6 3
 Density of states

1 3
𝑆 ( 𝑛 )= 𝜋 𝑛
3

 Now, we can relate the quantum number (n) to the energy (E) i.e.
to write the total number of states in terms of energy, S(E)

( )
2 3/2 3 3/2
1 8 𝑚𝑒 𝐸𝐿 𝜋 𝐿 ( 8 𝑚𝑒 𝐸 )
𝑆 (𝐸)= 𝜋 2
= 3
3 h 3h
 Density of states

Total number of states, S(E)

( )
2 3/2 3/2
1 8 𝑚𝑒 𝐸𝐿 𝜋 𝐿3 ( 8 𝑚𝑒 𝐸 )
𝑆 (𝐸)= 𝜋 2
= 3
3 h 3h

Since L3 is the physical volume of the solid, the number of states per unit volume

3/ 2
𝜋 ( 8 𝑚𝑒 𝐸 )
𝑆 ( 𝐸 )= 3
3h
 Density of states

3/ 2
𝜋 ( 8 𝑚𝑒 𝐸 )
𝑆 ( 𝐸 )= 3
3h

The density of states is the diferential of the total number of states, so that g(E) is given by

3 /2 3
𝑑𝑆( 𝐸 ) 3 𝜋 ( 8𝑚 𝑒 )
1 3
𝑔 ( 𝐸 )= = 𝐸 2 8 =( 2 √ 2 ) = 8 ×2 √ 2
2

𝑑𝐸 2 3h
3

3 𝜋 ×8 × 2 √ 2 ( 𝑚 𝑒 )
3 /2 1
2
𝑔 ( 𝐸 )= 𝐸
2 3h
3
 Density of states

3/ 2
𝜋 ( 8 𝑚𝑒 𝐸 )
𝑆 ( 𝐸 )= 3
3h

The density of states is the diferential of the total number of states, so that g(E) is given by

3 /2 3
𝑑𝑆( 𝐸 ) 3 𝜋 ( 8𝑚 𝑒 )
1 3
𝑔 ( 𝐸 )= = 𝐸 2 8 =( 2 √ 2 ) = 8 ×2 √ 2
2

𝑑𝐸 2 3h
3

√
( )
3 /2
3 𝜋 ×8 × 2 2 ( 𝑚 ) 1
𝑚𝑒 3 1
𝐸 =8 𝜋 √2
𝑒 2 2 2
𝑔 ( 𝐸 )= 𝐸
2 3h 3
h2
 Density of states

g(E) = Density of states

g(E) dE is the number of states (i.e., wavefunctions) in the energy interval E to (E +

dE) per unit volume of the sample.

3/ 2

g ( E )  8 2 1/ 2

 me 
 2 E1 / 2
h 
We have derived the Density of states i.e. the number of states in the
energy band

What next???

We have to know how the electrons will occupy the energy levels
 Fermi-Dirac Statistics

The Fermi-Dirac function

1
f (E) 
 E  EF 
1  exp 
 kT 

where EF is a constant called the Fermi energy.

f(E) = the probability of finding an electron in a state with energy E is given
Fermi-Dirac Statistics

The fermi-Dirac f(E) describes the statistics

of electrons in a solid. The electrons interact with each
other and the environment, obeying the Pauli exclusion
principle.

Above absolute zero, at E = EF, f (EF) = 1/2. We define

the Fermi energy as that energy for which the
probability of occupancy f (EF) equals 1/2
 Carrier concentration in Intrinsic semiconductors

We know that, the carrier concentration in an energy band

n( E )  g ( E ) f ( E ) dE
band

In Intrinsic semiconductor,

we have to find the electron concentration in the conduction band and then the
hole concentration in the valence band....
 Electron concentration in Conduction Band


n  g CB ( E ) f ( E )dE
Ec

Integrating has to be performed from the bottom (Ec) to the top of the CB gives the
electron concentration
 Electron concentration in Conduction Band


n  g CB ( E ) f ( E )dE
Ec

For electrons in CB, E > EC  (Ec − EF) ≫ kT i.e., EF is atleast a few kT below Ec

1  E  EF  Fermi-Dirac function  Boltzmann

f (E)  exp  
 E  EF   kT  function
1  exp 
 kT 
 Electron concentration in Conduction Band


n  g CB ( E ) f ( E )dE
Ec

Density of states in the conduction band

3/ 2

 
*
 me 
g ( E )  8 2  2  E1 / 2
 h 
 

Since the density of states function is with respect to the bottom of the CB
E is replaced by (E -Ec)

* 3/ 2
 me 

gCB ( E )  8 2  2
 h
 

E  EC 
1/ 2

 
 Electron concentration in Conduction Band


n  g CB ( E ) f ( E )dE
Ec

3/ 2
 m*e   E  EF 
 
gCB ( E )  8 2  2
 h


E  EC 
1/ 2
f ( E ) exp  
   kT 
 Electron concentration in Conduction Band


n  g CB ( E ) f ( E )dE
Ec

3/ 2
*
 me   E  EF 
 
gCB ( E )  8 2  2
 h


E  EC 
1/ 2
f ( E ) exp  
   kT 

*3 / 2 
 8 2m e 12  ( E  EF ) 
n 3  ( E  EC ) exp    dE
h E
c  kT 
 Electron concentration in Conduction Band

 8 2me*3 / 2 
12  ( E  EF ) 
n  ( E  EC ) exp   dE
h 3
E
c  kT 

E  Ec  xkT
E  Ec
To solve this , let us assume x So, E Ec  xkT
kT dE kTdx
 Electron concentration in Conduction Band

 8 2me*3 / 2 
12  ( E  EF ) 
n 3  ( E  EC ) exp    dE
h E
c  kT 
E  Ec  xkT
E Ec  xkT
E  Ec
To solve this , let us assume x So, dE kTdx
kT
Limits
E  Ec  xkT
8 2me*3 / 2  12  ( EC  xkT  EF ) 
n 3 ( xkT ) exp    kTdx E Ec  x 0
h 0  kT  E   x 
 Electron concentration in Conduction Band

 8 2me*3 / 2  12  ( EC  xkT  E F ) 
n 3 ( xkT ) exp    kTdx
h 0  kT 

 8 2me*3 / 2  ( EC  E F )   12 x
n kT exp     ( xkT ) e dx
h3  kT 0

 8 2me*3 / 2 3  ( E  E )  
n kT  2 exp   C F

12 x
 e dx
x
h3  kT 0
 Electron concentration in Conduction Band

 8 2me*3 / 2 3  ( E  E )  
n kT  2 exp   C F

12 x
 e dx
x
h3  kT 0

12 x 
The integral is a gamma function, x e dx (3 / 2) 
0 2

 8 2me*3 / 2 3  ( EC  E F )  
n 3
kT  2 exp    2
h  kT
3
 me*kT  2
 ( E  EF ) 
n 4 2  2
 exp   C 
 h   kT
4 2 2 2 2 2 23 / 2
3
 2 me*kT  2
 ( E  EF ) 
n 2 2
 exp   C 
 h   kT
 Electron concentration in Conduction Band

 ( Ec  E F ) 
n  N c exp   
 k BT 

n = Electron concentration in the CB

Nc = Effective density of states at the CB edge
Ec = Conduction band edge, EF = Fermi energy
kB = Boltzmann constant, T = Temperature (K)
Effective Density of States at CB Edge
3/ 2
 2m k T *
N c 2 
e B
2
 h 
Nc = Effective density of states at the CB edge, me* = Effective mass of the electron
in the CB, k = Boltzmann constant, T = Temperature, h = Planck’s constant
 Hole Concentration in Valence Band

One can in a similar fashion one can calculate the number density of holes, p,
by evaluating the expression
Ev
p  p ( E )dE Ev
0 g VB ( E )1  f ( E )dE
Ebot

For holes in VB, E< EF  (E − EF) << kT

 E  EF  (E − EF)/ kT <<1
exp 
1  kT   E  EF 
1  f ( E ) 1   1  exp  1
 E  EF   E  EF   kT 
1  exp  1  exp  
 kT   kT   E  EF 
exp 
1  f (E)   kT  exp E  E F 
 
 E  EF   kT 
1  exp 
 kT 
 Hole Concentration in Valence Band

p Ev
  g VB ( E ) 1   f ( E )dE

 m*h 
3/ 2
 E  EF 
 
gCB ( E )  8 2  2  EV  E
1/ 2 1  f ( E ) exp 
 h   kT 
 

Derivation of hole concentration is similar to the electron concentration,

so the rest of the derivation is left to you
 Hole Concentration in Valence Band

 ( E F  Ev ) 
p  N v exp   
 k BT 
p = Hole concentration in the VB
Nv = Effective density of states at the VB edge
Ev = Valence band edge, EF = Fermi energy
kB = Boltzmann constant, , T = Temperature (K)

Effective Density of States at VB Edge

3/ 2
 2m k T  *
N v 2  h B
2
 h 
Nv = Effective density of states at the VB edge, mh* = Effective mass of a hole in
the VB, k = Boltzmann constant, T = Temperature, h = Planck’s constant
 Carrier concentration in Intrinsic Semiconductor

It is interesting to consider the product np

 ( EC  E F )   ( E F  Ev ) 
np  N C exp    NV exp   
 kT   kT
 ( EC  Ev ) 
np  N C NV exp   
 kT
 Eg 
 np  N C NV exp   
 kT 
 Mass Action Law
In intrinsic semiconductor, n = p =ni

2  E g 
Mass Action Law np ni  N c N v exp  
 k BT 
ni = intrinsic concentration

The np product is a “constant”, ni2, that depends on the material properties Nc, Nv, Eg, and the temperature. If
somehow n is increased (e.g. by doping), p must decrease to keep np constant.

Mass action law applies in thermal equilibrium and in the dark (no
illumination)
 Carrier concentration in Intrinsic Semiconductor

From the product np,

 Eg 
np n  N c N v exp 
2
i

 k BT 
Intrinsic concentration

 E 
 
1
g
ni  N c N v 2
exp  
 2 k BT 
(a) Energy band diagram.
(b) Density of states (number of states per unit energy per unit volume).
(c) Fermi-Dirac probability function (probability of occupancy of a state).
(d) The product of g(E) and f (E) is the energy density of electrons in the CB (number of electrons per unit energy
per unit volume). The area under nE(E) versus E is the electron concentration.
 Fermi Energy in Intrinsic Semiconductors

Setting p = ni

 ( E Fi  Ev )   Eg 
 
1
N v exp     Nc Nv 2
exp  
 k BT   2 k BT 
1
 ( E Fi  Ev )   Eg   Nc  2
exp    exp   
 k BT   2 k BT   Nv 
1
 ( E Fi  Ev ) Eg   N c  2
exp      
 k BT 2 k BT   N v 
 Fermi Energy in Intrinsic Semiconductors

Taking log on both sides

1
(  E Fi  Ev ) Eg  Nc  2
 ln  
k BT 2 k BT  Nv 
Eg 1  Nc 
 E Fi  Ev   k BT ln  
2 2  Nv 
Eg 1  Nc 
E Fi  Ev   k BT ln  
2 2  Nv 
 Fermi Energy in Intrinsic Semiconductors

1 1  Nc 
E Fi  Ev  E g  k BT ln  
2 2  Nv 
EFi = Fermi energy in the intrinsic semiconductor
Ev = Valence band edge, Eg = Ec - Ev = Bandgap energy
kB = Boltzmann constant, T = temperature
Nc = Effective density of states at the CB edge
Nv = Effective density of states at the VB edge
substituting the proper expressions for Nc and Nv

1 3  me 
*
E Fi  Ev  E g  k BT ln  * 
2 4  mh 
me* = Electron effective mass (CB), mh* = Hole effective mass (VB)
 Average Electron Energy in CB
Average is found from

 Eg ( E ) f ( E )dE 3
E CB  E c  k BT
CB
Ec
ECB  
g CB ( E ) f ( E )dE
Ec
2
E CB = Average energy of electrons in the CB, Ec = Conduction band
edge, kB = Boltzmann constant, T = Temperature
(3/2)kBT is also the average kinetic energy per atom in a monatomic
gas (kinetic molecular theory) in which the gas atoms move around
freely and randomly inside a container.
The electron in the CB behaves as if it were “free” with a mean
kinetic energy that is (3/2)kBT and an effective mass me*.
 Fermi Energy
Fermi energy is a convenient way to represent free carrier concentrations (n in the
CB and p in the VB) on the energy band diagram.

However, the most useful property of EF is in terms of a change in EF.

Any change DEF across a material system represents electrical work input or output
per electron.

DEF = eV
For a semiconductor system in equilibrium, in the dark, and with no applied
voltage or no emf generated, DEF = 0 and EF must be uniform across the system.
 Electron and Hole Drift Velocities

vde = eEx vdh = hEx

vde = Drift velocity of the electrons, e = Electron drift mobility, Ex = Applied

electric field, vdh = Drift velocity of the holes, h = Hole drift mobility

Conductivity of a Semiconductor

 = ene + eph
 = Conductivity, e = Electronic charge, n = Electron concentration in the CB, e =
Electron drift mobility, p = Hole concentration in the VB, h = Hole drift mobility