INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS FOR

COMM 20023
Introduction to Communication and Media

Compiled by:

Dr. Maria Lourdes D.P. Garcia

Prof. Ma. Pamela Grace C. Muhi
Prof. Milagros Dela Costa
Prof. Arapia Ariraya
(Faculty)
Department of Broadcast Communication
College of Communication
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction
Module Timeline
Activities
Final Requirement
Grading System
Contact Support

Module 1: Communication Overview ------------ p.7

Prepared by Dr. Maria Lourdes D.P. Garcia

Lesson 1. Basic concept of communication

Lesson 2. Barriers in Communication
Lesson 3. Levels of Communication
Lesson 4. Non-Verbal Communication

Module 2: Effective Communication ----------- p.28

Prepared by Prof. Ma. Pamela Grace C. Muhi

Lesson 1. Effective Communication Skills

Lesson 2. Effective Business Communication

Module 3: Basic Communication Models and Theories -------- p.43

Prepared by Prof. Ma. Pamela Grace C. Muhi

Lesson 1. Communication Models

Lesson 2. Communication Theories

Module 4: Allied Fields Related to Communication ------ p. 68

Prepared by Prof. Milagros Dela Costa

Lesson 1. Public Relations

Lesson 2. Advertising
Lesson 3. Marketing

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Module 5: Six Information Revolution -------- p.77
Prepared by Prof. Milagros Dela Costa

Lesson 1. The 1st Revolution – Writing

Lesson 2. The 2nd Revolution – Printing
Lesson 3. The 3rd Revolution – Media
Lesson 4. The 4th Revolution – Entertainment
Lesson 5. The 5th Revolution – The Toolshed Home
Lesson 6. The 6th Revolution – The Highway

Module 6: Media ------- p. 108

Prepared by Dr. Garcia, Prof. Dela Costa and Prof. Ariraya

Lesson 1. Print
Lesson 2. Radio
Lesson 3. Television
Lesson 4. Film
Lesson 5. Emerging Media

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Introduction
This course is designed to provide a comprehensive overview of communication and the skills
necessary to communicate in a variety of contexts. Emphasis is placed on communication
processes and techniques used in interpersonal, group, public, intercultural and mass
communication situations. Upon completion, students should be able to explain and illustrate
the forms and purposes of human communication in a variety of contexts. This course will also
provide students with the understanding of the different forms of media, its evolution, operation,
features, latest trend and innovations. This instructional material contains six (6) modules with
lessons and activities, which shall be completed by students (correspondence).

Module Timeline
For students under correspondence mode, they are expected work on every module according
to their own pace. All requirements must be compiled and submitted via courier on or before 22
January 2021.

Activities
All activities for each lesson should be accomplished by the students. It should be compiled in a
designated folder solely for activities (there will be a separate folder for the final requirement).
Indicate under which the Module and Lesson your answers for that particular activity is for. Do
not forget to state the question/s or instruction/s for every answers. Follow the format below.
Module 1 - Communication Overview
Lesson 1 - Basic Concepts of Communication
Question/s or Instruction/s:

Answers:

Lesson 2 - Barriers in Communication

Question/s or Instruction/s:

Answers:

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Final Requirement:

Students are expected to turn in a research paper on media use and consumption of household
members as final requirement for the subject Introduction to Communication and Media. Please
take note of the guidelines, outline and format to be followed.

Title: “Analysis Paper on Media Use and Consumption”

Guidelines:
1. Monitor your household (HH) member’s media use and consumption for a period of 2
weeks. How many hours a day spent on consuming media (see no. 2) of each HH
member including yourself.
2. Media should include: print, radio, television, film and internet
3. Due date – see Module Timeline
4. Submission – separate folder from your activities folder

Outline:
I. Introduction – provide a brief overview of your paper, objectives, rationale why your
paper is important. Cite references on media use and consumption in the form of
readings and related studies both local and abroad. Provide a cross referencing
discussion by relating these references to your paper.
II. Household Profile - HH members demographics: age, civil status, educational
attainment, occupation. Discuss each HH member’s profile especially the following
demographics which may be a strong factor on the member’s media consumption.
For those living alone, you have to obtain the data from family members if they are
living elsewhere. You have to take note of this, if that is the case. Number of HH
communication equipment, appliances and gadgets should also be discussed.
III. Data Presentation and Analysis – Raw and processed data should be both presented.
However, only the processed data will be discussed in this chapter. Raw data should
be part of the appendix and should be organized to form the processed data which
will be the basis of your discussion and analysis. Use tables, graphs and illustrations
for your processed data. Use percentage share and number of hours as unit of
analysis. It is expected that you provide an in-depth discussion and analysis.
IV. Conclusion – conclusion should be based on the results of the data presented in
Chapter III (Data Presentation and Analysis)

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Format:
Short bond paper
Double spaced
1x1 margin
Arial font, 12 pt
Not less than 25 pages

Criteria for Grading:

1. Visual Presentation - 15%
2. Analysis - 45
3. Creativity - 20
4. Innovativeness -20
= 100 %

Grading System
All activities will be evaluated to form 30% of a student’s grade, while 70% will come from the
final requirement.

GRADING SYSTEM
Activities 1 – 14 30%
Final Requirement 70%
TOTAL 100%

Contact Support
1. Dr. Garcia – dbcpup@gmail.com/094549468/ Malou Garcia (messenger)
2. Prof. Dela Costa – lacosta1127@yahoo.com/ 09088601127/ Mila De la Costa
(messenger)
3. Prof. Muhi – pamelamuhi2000@gmail.com/ 09228166899/ Pamela Calixto Muhi
(messenger)

Nota bene: This Instructional Material (IM) is not entirely written by the faculty but is just a compilation of
reading materials only for purposes of the subject course Introduction to Media and Communication. The
attached materials are credited to the authors of said articles as properly acknowledged in the references.
This material is not for sale. Students are not allowed to reproduce or duplicate it. For strict confidentiality
and compliance.

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 MODULE 1: COMMUNICATION OVERVIEW
Prepared by Dr. Maria Lourdes D.P. Garcia

This module will give the knowledge on the meaning of communication its basic components
such as understanding its nature, communication as an important part of everyday life.
Understanding the nature concept and process would make the life of people change. Student
of Mass Comm needs to master the meaning of communication they should have a deeper
understanding on the basics of communication that will serve as their foundation in all subjects
in Broadcast Journalism Curriculum courses in the College of Communication.

Learning Objectives:
1. Demonstrate in-depth knowledge on the meaning of communication
2. Understand the general knowledge in communication.

Learning Outcomes:
1. Learn the fundamentals of communication as a field of study
2. Learn the different barriers in communication and how to address them
3. Learn the non-verbal forms of communication (kinesics, haptics, proxemics,
chronemics, artifactual and paralinguistic)

LESSON 1: BASIC CONCEPTS OF COMMUNICATION

Communication can be defined in different terms. It is the process on how messages are
received and interpreted. Communication is also about forming relationships with others and is
something that we do on a daily basis (Nonis, 2016). It can be an exchange of information
between individual, for example, by means of speaking, writing, or using a common system of
signs of behavior (Ndonye, 2014). It is the process of transmitting information and common
understanding from one person to another. (Lunenburg, 2010).

Elements and Process of Communication

The term communication process refers to the exchange of information (a message) between
two or more people. For communication to succeed, both parties must be able to exchange
information and understand each other. If the flow of information is blocked for some reason or
the parties cannot make themselves understood, then communication fails. (Nordquist, 2020)

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 Figure 1. Basic Communication Model with Encoding and Decoding (credits: Google
Images)
According to Sampa (2017), there are five basic elements of communication and each plays a
vital part of the communication process:
• Sender – plays the specific role of starting communication.
• Receiver – the party to whom the sender transfers the message. It can be one person
or an entire audience of people.
• Message – most crucial component of effective communication. The message isn’t
necessarily what the senders aim to be. Rather, the message is what the receiver
perceives the messages to be.
• Channel – the message travels from one point to another through a channel of
communication.
• Feedback – it describes the receiver’s response or reaction to the sender’s message.
It helps the sender to determine how the receiver interpreted the message and how it
can be improved.

According to Sipacio, Philippe John F. & Balgos, Ann Richie G. (2016), there are nine basic
elements of communication process:
• Speaker – the source of information or message.
• Message – the information, ideas, or thoughts conveyed by the speaker in words or in
actions.

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 • Encoding – the process of converting the message into words, actions, or other forms
that the speaker understands.
• Channel – the medium or the means, such as personal or non-personal, verbal or
nonverbal in which the encoded message is conveyed.
• Decoding – the process of interpreting the encoded message of the speaker by the
receiver.
• Receiver – the recipient of the message, or someone who decodes the message.
• Feedback – the reactions, responses, or information provided by the receiver.
• Context – the environment where communication takes place.
• Barrier – the factors that affect the flow of communication.

According to Nordquist (2018), there are seven basic elements of communication process:

• Sender – he communication process begins with the sender, who is also called the
communicator or source. The sender has some kind of information—a command,
request, or idea —that he or she wants to share with others.
• Receiver – The person to whom a message is directed is called the receiver or the
interpreter. In order to comprehend the information from the sender, the receiver must
first be able to receive the sender's information and then decode or interpret it.
• Message – The message or content is the information that the sender wants to relay
to the receiver.
• Medium – Also called the channel, the medium is the means by which a message is
transmitted.
• Feedback – The communication process reaches its final point when the message
has been successfully transmitted, received, and understood. The receiver, in turn,
responds to the sender, indicating comprehension. Feedback may be direct, such as
a written or verbal response, or it may take the form of an act or deed in response.
• Noise – This can be any sort of interference that affects the message being sent,
received, or understood.
• Context – This is the setting and situation in which communication takes place. Like
noise, context can have an impact on the successful exchange of information. It may
have a physical, social, or cultural aspect to it.

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Functions of Communication
Communications serves four major functions within a group or organization. These are Control,
Motivation, Emotional Expression, Information. (Anoynmous, 2018) For emotional expression,
Remoral (2017) explained that human always need to express their emotions verbally and
nonverbally. Emotions are a central part of who we are. Beyond thinking about the things and
people in our world, we feel about them and about ourselves.

While Valle (2019) gave another four functions with no emotional expression included but it has
social interaction. Regulation or Control is used in order to literally regulate or control the
behavior of people. In addition, Remoral (2017) said that communication can be used to
regulate the nature and amount of activities humans engage in. It is also utilized to regulate the
nature and number of activities that people engage in. Social Interaction’s function is utilized to
make social relationships. this is also used to form bonds, intimacy, relations, and connections
with others. Motivation is used to power up preferences, desires, needs, wants, decisions,
goals, and strengths. Information is used for grabbing and sharing information.

On other accounts, Hyderabad (n.d.) said that the functions of communications are as follows:
a. The information function serves to provide knowledge to the individuals need for
guidance in their actions. It also fulfills one’s desires for awareness of things that affect
them.
b. The command and instructive functions serve to make the people aware of his
obligations to the formal organization and to provide him with additional guidance on how
to perform his duties adequately.
c. The influence and persuasion function (also known as motivational function)
encourages the appropriate individual to perform or to exhibit a certain behaviour.
Messages communicated are used to convince individuals that their actions can be
personally or organizationally beneficial.
d. The integrative function refers to the fact that the communication of messages /
ideas, if properly handled, should help to relate the activities of the 5 people or workers to
their efforts complement rather than detract from each other. Work efforts are unified
rather than fragmented as a result of properly integrative communication.

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Forms of Communication
Cabrera et. Al. (2008) stated that there are two forms of communication, Verbal and Non-
Verbal, whereas verbal communication uses written or spoken language and non-verbal makes
use of non-linguistic symbols such as sign, touch, facial expression, body language, tone of
voice, clothing and artifacts.

In other sources, written and visual language are being separated from the two main forms that
was first stated above. Wilkomm (2018) said that there are five forms of communication, as
follows:

• Verbal Communication - Verbal communication occurs when we engage in speaking

with others. It can be face-to-face, over the telephone, via Skype or Zoom, etc. Some
verbal engagements are informal, such as chatting with a friend over coffee or in the
office kitchen, while others are more formal, such as a scheduled meeting. Regardless
of the type, it is not just about the words, it is also about the caliber and complexity of
those words, how we string those words together to create an overarching message, as
well as the intonation (pitch, tone, cadence, etc.) used while speaking. In addition, when
occurring face-to-face, while the words are important, they cannot be separated from
non-verbal communication.
• Non-verbal Communication - What we do while we speak often says more than the
actual words. Non-verbal communication includes facial expressions, posture, eye
contact, hand movements, and touch.
• Written Communication - Whether it is an email, a memo, a report, a Facebook post, a
Tweet, a contract, etc. all forms of written communication have the same goal to
disseminate information in a clear and concise manner – though that objective is often
not achieved. In fact, poor writing skills often lead to confusion and embarrassment, and
even potential legal jeopardy. One important thing to remember about written
communication, especially in the digital age, is the message lives on, perhaps in
perpetuity. Thus, there are two things to remember: first, write well – poorly constructed
sentences and careless errors make you look bad; and second, ensure the content of
the message is something you want to promote or be associated with for the long haul.
• Listening - The act of listening does not often make its way onto the list of form of
communication. Active listening, however, is perhaps one of the most important form of
communication because if we cannot listen to the person sitting across from us, we

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 cannot effectively engage with them. Think about a negotiation – part of the process is to
assess what the opposition wants and needs. Without listening, it is impossible to
assess that, which makes it difficult to achieve a win/win outcome.
• Visual Communication - Visual types of communication include signs, maps or drawings
as well as color or graphic design. These typically reinforce verbal communication, and
they help to make a point. Visual aids can help a speaker remember important topics,
give the audience something to look at, and generally help convey the message being
presented (Vivian, J., 1999).

LESSON 2. BARRIERS in COMMUNICATION

A communication barrier is anything that prevents us from receiving and understanding the
messages others use to convey their information, ideas and thoughts. They can interfere with or
block the message you are trying to send.

According to Kunbakonam (2016), there are five types of Communication Barriers, which are:
1. Attitudinal or Psychological barriers
2. Behavioral barriers
3. Cultural barriers
4. Language Barriers (Semantic barriers)
5. Environment and Physical Barriers

Attitudinal Barriers
A common cause of communication breakdown in a workplace situation is people holding
different attitudes, values and discrimination. An example of this is differing perceptions people
have of power and status. Some people may think that they should treat people or be treated
differently based on what they perceive as their status or power within a workplace or in the
community. If they think that managers and supervisors have power over staff, for example, that
they can allocate duties, reward, promote, or dismiss staff, this may lead to barriers before the
communication even takes place. However, what one person considers power and control might
be considered leadership or mentoring by another person. Effective communication is
necessary no matter what level or position you occupy. If you feel someone is trying to exert
power or control over you, communicate this to them. Discrimination arises when people make
judgments about individuals or groups without thinking clearly. Behaviours such as stereotyping,
bias and prejudice are forms of discrimination. When people discriminate, they make decisions

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without bothering to get all the necessary information about the people they are judging.
Discrimination causes people to miss out on the value of difference, and the benefits that
individuals and groups bring to any situation (Konbakonam, 2016). Valuing people who are
different allows us to draw on a broader range of insights, ideas, experience and knowledge.
Each person’s uniqueness comes from personal characteristics such as race, gender,
education, age, ability, lifestyle, experience.

On the other hand, attitudinal behaviors for Kapur (2018), are considered as Psychological
Barriers. According to him, In the process of communication, it is vital to understand each
other’s mindset and mental capacity; this applies in every case whether it is a professor giving a
lecture or a conversation between the employer and an employee. If someone is communicating
with the other individual or a group of individuals with an attitude of disinterest or unwillingness
then the process of communication will not be effective. In this case, it would have believed to
be that attitude of the communicators is inappropriate for the purpose of making the process of
communication effectual. It is therefore considered crucial to overcome the psychological
barriers.

Behavioral Barriers
The behaviors like bias, generalizations and stereotyping can cause communication barriers.
Having these attitudes and not confronting them is not just wrong, it is bad for individuals. In the
workplace, such attitudes can cost the organization time and money.

Stereotyping occurs when you assume, we know something about a person because of their
cultural or social background. Our views may come from a bias you may have against a
particular behavior, appearance, possession or even a particular geographical area. Our
situation, appearance and behavior may contribute to other people’s stereotyped views. This
could contribute to communication breakdown. Learn to treat everyone as an individual. We will
open up the channels for communication and overcome the barriers based on discrimination.
(Kunbakonam, 2016)

Cultural Barriers
Communication also takes place between people belonging to different nationalities, religions,
castes, creeds, races, ethnicities etc. in other words, when two persons are communicating with
each other, and there may be differences in their cultural backgrounds. It is vital to overcome all

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the barriers that might occur within the course of communication. It is crucial to make people
aware of ones own culture with whom they are communicating. In the form of communication, it
is vital to form an understanding and acceptance of another person’s culture (Kapur, 2018).

Overcoming Cultural Barriers by Kunbakonam (2016)

• Respecting other’s feelings and attitudes
• Using active listening skills
• Encouraging involvement of others by asking questions while respecting personal
privacy
• Using open body language and an encouraging vocal tone
• Taking other people’s fears and concerns into consideration.
• Refraining from giving unsolicited advice.

Language Barriers
Language barriers occur when people do not speak the same language, or do not have the
same level of ability in a language. However, barriers can also occur when people are speaking
the same language when we use inappropriate levels of language or we use jargon or slang
which is not understood by one or more of the people communicating (Kumbakonam, 2016)

When communicating with the other persons, no matter what kind of communication means is
utilized, whether it is formal or informal, it is vital to make use of appropriate words, vocabulary
and language; all kinds of communication should reflect decency. Language and vocabulary
that is used in communication should be understandable to the persons; if a person speaks only
English and a word is used in Spanish then he may or may not understand the word, for
instance, if a person speaks only English, then it could be a possibility that he might have
studied other languages such as Spanish or French. Two or more persons when they are
communicating with each other should use a common language, so that everyone can
understand it well (Kapur, 2018).

Overcoming Language Barriers by Kumbakonam (2016)

Using visuals like photographs, drawings, diagrams can help to overcome language barriers as
can using appropriate non-verbal communication. We should be aware that different situations
and different cultures have varying interpretations of non-verbal communication. What is

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acceptable in one culture may be offensive in another. What is clear to us may not be clear to
others. The quality of your voice is also important for clear communication. Be sure to speak
with appropriate volume for the situation and use clear diction. Listening actively to other people
and letting them know that you are listening is an excellent way to overcome language barriers.

Environmental and Physical Barriers

Under the environmental and physical barriers, Kapur (2018) noted the following classification of
barriers:
1. Time – This is the barrier which is concerned with developing quicker and speedy
channels of communication. For example, when communicating with somebody, if
the process is time consuming such as mailing letters then it is a barrier, any kind of
communication whether, it is done in a formal or an informal manner, if it is highly
time consuming then it proves to be a barrier and for efficient working, individuals
need to develop a faster means of communication such as electronic mail instead of
sending letters by post.
2. Space – It is vital to eliminate the unwanted distance within the communication
system, if the condition requires it, for example, it can occur in telephonic
communication. If two persons need to discuss an important matter and one of them
is in India, whereas other one is in the United States of America, then telephonic
conversation may not prove to be very effective, then they can send each other
details through the system of email.
3. Place – The area, the environment where the communication is taking place should
be clear and not over-crowded. Noise pollution can be a barrier to effective
communication, this is obvious, where there is noise, there a person cannot
efficiently communicate, therefore places and areas with lesser people, proper
ventilation is required for effective communication.
4. Medium – The medium via which the process of communication is taking place
should be effective and appropriate. Communication takes place in various forms; it
is oral, written, audio, video, formal, informal, the medium used for the purpose of
communicating should be accurate, precise and understandable.

On other sources, there are only four types of barriers. Semantic Barriers are symbols with
different meanings; badly expressed messages; faulty translation; unclarified assumptions; and
specialists’ language. Emotional or Psychological Barriers includes premature evolution,

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inattention, loss of transmission and poor retention, under reliance on the written word, distrust
of communication and failure to communicate. Organization Barriers covers organizational
policy, organization rules and regulations, status relations and complexity in organization.
Personal barriers are divided into two categories, Barriers in Superior and Barriers in
Subordinates.Barriers in Superior includes attitude of superior, fear of challenge of authority,
lack of time, lack of awareness. Barriers in Subordinates are unwillingness to communicate and
lack of proper incentive.

Overcoming the Barriers of Effective Communication using Effective Communication

Skills
1. Connecting with the audience
2. Summarizing what has been said
3. Effective questions
4. Seeking participation
5. Simple words
6. Body Language (smile, eye contact, gestures, tone)
7. Cultural Sensitivity
8. Checking for understanding.

LESSON 3. LEVELS OF COMMUNICATION

According to Daraji and Dhameliya (2014), there are five levels of communication:
• Intrapersonal Communication – it is the communication within oneself.
• Interpersonal Communication – sharing ideas and information on a “one-on-one”
basis. It is also known as dyadic communication.
• Small Group Communication – Three to twelve (3 – 12) persons are considered a
small group sharing ideas and information.
• Public Communication – it takes place when people gather in a unit that is too large
for everyone to talk and contribute.
• Mass Communication – many people, in different places, at different times can
receive the same messages through mediums such as electronic device, internet,
television, radio, film, print newspapers, magazines, and books.

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 According to Sampa (2017), there are five levels of communications:
• Intrapersonal Communication – active internal involvement of the individual in
representative processing of messages.
• Interpersonal Communication – in this level of communication, communication
channels are the medium chosen to convey the message from sender to receiver.
• Group Communication – small group communication generally takes place in a
context that mixes interpersonal communication interactions with social clustering.
• Public Communication – it’s a level of communication built on ideas and images,
persuasion and information, strategy, and tactics.
• Mass Communication – process in which a person, group of people, or an
organization sends a message through a channel of communication to a large
group of anonymous and heterogeneous people and organization.

National Open School (2013) states that there are four levels of communication:
• Intrapersonal Communication – is basically communicating with oneself.
• Interpersonal Communication – is communication between persons or one to one
communication. This level of communication can be either formal or informal.
Formal Interpersonal Communication
-sales counters, job interviews, and taking part in meetings or conferences.
Informal Interpersonal Communication
-private discussions with friends or family members, corridor discussions and
conversation in canteens or restaurants
• Public Communication – defined as a situation where many people receive
messages from one person. The skills of the person are very important here in this
situation.
• Group Communication – it is a level of communication wherein a group of people,
generally known to each other. This group of people meet, and talk to each other
with a common.

While, Tubbs and Moss (1991) stated that there are six levels of communication:

• Two-Person Communication – also dyadic communication is the basic unit of

communication.

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 • Small-group Communication – is defined as “face to face” communication among a
small group of people who share a common purpose or goal.
• Public Communication – often referred to as public speaking.
• Organizational Communication – “the flow of messages within a network of
interdependent relationships” (Goldhaber, 1990).
• Mass Communication – communication that is mediated. Communicates through
printed or electronic media.
• Intercultural Communication – communication between members of different
cultures.

LESSON 4. NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION

NOTE: All Unit 4 Content came from the book, “A Primer on Communication Studies” with
anonymous author (2012) and is llicensed under Creative Commons.

Nonverbal communication is a process of generating meaning using behavior other than words.
Nonverbal communication includes vocal elements, which is referred to as paralanguage and
includes pitch, volume, and rate, and non-vocal elements, which are usually referred to as body
language and includes gestures, facial expressions, and eye contact, among other things.
(Andersen, 1999)

Just as verbal language is broken up into various categories, there are also different types of
nonverbal communication. As we learn about each type of nonverbal signal, keep in mind that
nonverbal often work in concern with each other, combining to repeat, modify, or contradict the
verbal message being sent.

Kinesics
The word kinesics comes from the root word kinesis, which means “movement,” and refers to
the study of hand, arm, body, and face movements. Specifically, this section will outline the use
of gestures, head movements and posture, eye contact, and facial expressions as nonverbal
communication.

• Gestures
There are three main types of gestures: adaptors, emblems, and illustrators.

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 Adaptors are touching behaviors and movements that indicate internal states typically
related to arousal or anxiety. Adaptors can be targeted toward the self, objects, or others. In
regular social situations, adaptors result from uneasiness, anxiety, or a general sense that
we are not in control of our surroundings. Many of us subconsciously click pens, shake our
legs, or engage in other adaptors during classes, meetings, or while waiting as a way to do
something with our excess energy. Public speaking students who watch video recordings of
their speeches notice nonverbal adaptors that they didn’t know they used. In public speaking
situations, people most commonly use self- or object-focused adaptors. Common self-
touching behaviors like scratching, twirling hair, or fidgeting with fingers or hands are
considered self-adaptors.
Emblems are gestures that have a specific agreed-on meaning. These are still different from
the signs used by hearing-impaired people or others who communicate using American Sign
Language (ASL).
Illustrators are the most common type of gesture and are used to illustrate the verbal
message they accompany. For example, you might use hand gestures to indicate the size or
shape of an object. Unlike emblems, illustrators do not typically have meaning on their own
and are used more subconsciously than emblems. These largely involuntary and seemingly
natural gestures flow from us as we speak but vary in terms of intensity and frequency
based on context. Although we are never explicitly taught how to use illustrative gestures,
we do it automatically.
• Head Movements and Posture - In terms of head movements, a head nod is a universal sign
of acknowledgement in cultures where the formal bow is no longer used as a greeting. In
these cases, the head nod essentially serves as an abbreviated bow. An innate and
universal head movement is the headshake back and forth to signal “no.” Moreover, there
are four general human postures: standing, sitting, squatting, and lying down. Within each
of these postures there are many variations, and when combined with particular gestures or
other nonverbal cues they can express many different meanings. Most of our
communication occurs while we are standing or sitting. One interesting standing posture
involves putting our hands on our hips and is a nonverbal cue that we use subconsciously to
make us look bigger and show assertiveness. When the elbows are pointed out, this
prevents others from getting past us as easily and is a sign of attempted dominance or a
gesture that says we’re ready for action. In terms of sitting, leaning back shows informality
and indifference, straddling a chair is a sign of dominance (but also some insecurity

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 because the person is protecting the vulnerable front part of his or her body), and leaning
forward shows interest and attentiveness
• Eye Contact – We communicate through eye behaviors, primarily eye contact. While eye
behaviors are often studied under the category of kinesics, they have their own branch of
nonverbal studies called oculesics, which comes from the Latin word oculus, meaning “eye.”
The face and eyes are the main point of focus during communication, and along with our
ears our eyes take in most of the communicative information around us. The saying “The
eyes are the window to the soul” is actually accurate in terms of where people typically think
others are “located,” which is right behind the eyes.
• Facial Expressions - Our faces are the most expressive part of our bodies. Much research
has supported the universality of a core group of facial expressions: happiness, sadness,
fear, anger, and disgust. The first four are especially identifiable across cultures. Smiles are
powerful communicative signals and, as you’ll recall, are a key immediacy behavior.
Although facial expressions are typically viewed as innate and several are universally
recognizable, they are not always connected to an emotional or internal biological stimulus;
they can actually serve a more social purpose.

Haptics
To learn about the power of touch, we turn to haptics, which refers to the study of
communication by touch. We probably get more explicit advice and instruction on how to use
touch than any other form of nonverbal communication. Touch is necessary for human social
development, and it can be welcoming, threatening, or persuasive.

There are several types of touch, including functional-professional, social-polite, friendship-

warmth, love-intimacy, and sexual-arousal touch. At the functional-professional level,
touch is related to a goal or part of a routine professional interaction, which makes it less
threatening and more expected. At the social-polite level, socially sanctioned touching
behaviors help initiate interactions and show that others are included and respected. A
handshake, a pat on the arm, and a pat on the shoulder are examples of social-polite touching.
A handshake is actually an abbreviated hand-holding gesture, but we know that prolonged
hand-holding would be considered too intimate and therefore inappropriate at the functional-
professional or social-polite level. At the functional-professional and social-polite levels, touch
still has interpersonal implications. In addition, a social-polite touch exchange plays into initial

20
impression formation, which can have important implications for how an interaction and a
relationship unfold.

At the friendship-warmth level, touch is more important and more ambiguous than at the
social-polite level. At this level, touch interactions are important because they serve a relational
maintenance purpose and communicate closeness, liking, care, and concern. The types of
touching at this level also vary greatly from more formal and ritualized to more intimate, which
means friends must sometimes negotiate their own comfort level with various types of touch and
may encounter some ambiguity if their preferences don’t match up with their relational partner’s.
At the love-intimacy level, touch is more personal and is typically only exchanged between
significant others, such as best friends, close family members, and romantic partners. Touching
faces, holding hands, and full frontal embraces are examples of touch at this level. Although this
level of touch is not sexual, it does enhance feelings of closeness and intimacy and can lead to
sexual-arousal touch, which is the most intimate form of touch, as it is intended to physically
stimulate another person.

Vocalics
We learned earlier that paralanguage refers to the vocalized but nonverbal parts of a
message. Vocalics is the study of paralanguage, which includes the vocal qualities that go along
with verbal messages, such as pitch, volume, rate, vocal quality, and verbal fillers. (Andersen,
1999)

Pitch helps convey meaning, regulate conversational flow, and communicate the intensity of a
message. Even babies recognize a sentence with a higher pitched ending as a question. We
also learn that greetings have a rising emphasis and farewells have falling emphasis.

Paralanguage provides important context for the verbal content of speech. For example, volume
helps communicate intensity. A louder voice is usually thought of as more intense, although a
soft voice combined with a certain tone and facial expression can be just as intense. We
typically adjust our volume based on our setting, the distance between people, and the
relationship.

Speaking rate refers to how fast or slow a person speaks and can lead others to form
impressions about our emotional state, credibility, and intelligence. As with volume, variations in

21
speaking rate can interfere with the ability of others to receive and understand verbal messages.
A slow speaker could bore others and lead their attention to wander. A fast speaker may be
difficult to follow, and the fast delivery can actually distract from the message. Speaking a little
faster than the normal 120–150 words a minute, however, can be beneficial, as people tend to
find speakers whose rate is above average more credible and intelligent. (Buller, et. Al., 1986)
Our tone of voice can be controlled somewhat with pitch, volume, and emphasis, but each voice
has a distinct quality known as a vocal signature. Voices vary in terms of resonance, pitch, and
tone, and some voices are more pleasing than others. People typically find pleasing voices that
employ vocal variety and are not monotone, are lower pitched (particularly for males), and do
not exhibit particular regional accents. Many people perceive nasal voices negatively and assign
negative personality characteristics to them. (Andersen, 1999)

Verbal fillers are sounds that fill gaps in our speech as we think about what to say next. They
are considered a part of nonverbal communication because they are not like typical words that
stand in for a specific meaning or meanings. Verbal fillers such as “um,” “uh,” “like,” and “ah” are
common in regular conversation and are not typically disruptive. As we learned earlier, the use
of verbal fillers can help a person “keep the floor” during a conversation if they need to pause for
a moment to think before continuing on with verbal communication. Verbal fillers in more formal
settings, like a public speech, can hurt a speaker’s credibility. The following is a review of the
various communicative functions of vocalics:

• Repetition. Vocalic cues reinforce other verbal and nonverbal cues (e.g., saying “I’m not
sure” with an uncertain tone).
• Complementing. Vocalic cues elaborate on or modify verbal and nonverbal meaning
(e.g., the pitch and volume used to say “I love sweet potatoes” would add context to the
meaning of the sentence, such as the degree to which the person loves sweet potatoes
or the use of sarcasm).
• Accenting. Vocalic cues allow us to emphasize particular parts of a message, which
helps determine meaning (e.g., “She is my friend,” or “She is my friend,” or “She is
my friend”).
• Substituting. Vocalic cues can take the place of other verbal or nonverbal cues (e.g.,
saying “uh huh” instead of “I am listening and understand what you’re saying”).
• Regulating. Vocalic cues help regulate the flow of conversations (e.g., falling pitch and
slowing rate of speaking usually indicate the end of a speaking turn).

22
 • Contradicting. Vocalic cues may contradict other verbal or nonverbal signals (e.g., a
person could say “I’m fine” in a quick, short tone that indicates otherwise).

Proxemics
Proxemics refers to the study of how space and distance influence communication. We only
need look at the ways in which space shows up in common metaphors to see that space,
communication, and relationships are closely related.
Space influences how people communicate and behave.
Smaller spaces with a higher density of people often lead
to breaches of our personal space bubbles. If this is a
setting in which this type of density is expected
beforehand, like at a crowded concert or on a train during
rush hour, then we make various communicative
adjustments to manage the space issue. Unexpected
breaches of personal space can lead to negative
reactions, especially if we feel someone has violated our
space voluntarily, meaning that a crowding situation
didn’t force them into our space. (Andersen, 1999)

Figure 2. Proxemic Distances

Proxemic Distances (Credits: A Primer on Communication
Studies)

Public Space (12 Feet or More)

Public and social zones refer to the space four or more feet away from our body, and the
communication that typically occurs in these zones is formal and not intimate. Public space
starts about twelve feet from a person and extends out from there. This is the least personal of
the four zones and would typically be used when a person is engaging in a formal speech and is
removed from the audience to allow the audience to see or when a high-profile or powerful
person like a celebrity or executive maintains such a distance as a sign of power or for safety
and security reasons. In terms of regular interaction, we are often not obligated or expected to
acknowledge or interact with people who enter our public zone. It would be difficult to have a
deep conversation with someone at this level because you have to speak louder and don’t have
the physical closeness that is often needed to promote emotional closeness and/or establish
rapport.

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Social Space (4–12 Feet)
Communication that occurs in the social zone, which is four to twelve feet away from our body,
is typically in the context of a professional or casual interaction, but not intimate or public. This
distance is preferred in many professional settings because it reduces the suspicion of any
impropriety.

Personal Space (1.5–4 Feet)

Personal and intimate zones refer to the space that starts at our physical body and extends four
feet. These zones are reserved for friends, close acquaintances, and significant others. Much of
our communication occurs in the personal zone, which is what we typically think of as our
“personal space bubble” and extends from 1.5 feet to 4 feet away from our body. Even though
we are getting closer to the physical body of another person, we may use verbal communication
at this point to signal that our presence in this zone is friendly and not intimate. This zone is
broken up into two subzones, which helps us negotiate close interactions with people we may
not be close to interpersonally. (McKay et. Al, 1995) 59. The outer-personal zone extends from
2.5 feet to 4 feet and is useful for conversations that need to be private but that occur between
people who are not interpersonally close. This zone allows for relatively intimate communication
but doesn’t convey the intimacy that a closer distance would, which can be beneficial in
professional settings. The inner-personal zone extends from 1.5 feet to 2.5 feet and is a space
reserved for communication with people we are interpersonally close to or trying to get to know.
In this subzone, we can easily touch the other person as we talk to them, briefly placing a hand
on his or her arm or engaging in other light social touching that facilitates conversation, self-
disclosure, and feelings of closeness.

Intimate Space
As we breach the invisible line that is 1.5 feet from our body, we enter the intimate zone, which
is reserved for only the closest friends, family, and romantic/intimate partners. Being close to
someone and feeling their physical presence can be very comforting when words fail. There are
also social norms regarding the amount of this type of closeness that can be displayed in public,
as some people get uncomfortable even seeing others interacting in the intimate zone. While
some people are comfortable engaging in or watching others engage in PDAs (public displays
of affection) others are not.

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Chronemics
Chronemics refers to the study of how time affects communication. Time can be classified into
several different categories, including biological, personal, physical, and cultural time.
(Andersen, 1999) Biological time refers to the rhythms of living things. Humans follow a
circadian rhythm, meaning that we are on a daily cycle that influences when we eat, sleep, and
wake. Personal time refers to the ways in which individuals experience time. The way we
experience time varies based on our mood, our interest level, and other factors. Think about
how quickly time passes when you are interested in and therefore engaged in something.
Physical time refers to the fixed cycles of days, years, and seasons. Physical time, especially
seasons, can affect our mood and psychological states. Cultural time refers to how a large
group of people view time. Polychronic people do not view time as a linear progression that
needs to be divided into small units and scheduled in advance. Polychronic people keep more
flexible schedules and may engage in several activities at once. Monochronic people tend to
schedule their time more rigidly and do one thing at a time. A polychronic or monochronic
orientation to time influences our social realities and how we interact with others.

Personal Presentation and Environment

It refers to how the objects we adorn ourselves and our surroundings with, referred to
as artifacts, provide nonverbal cues that others make meaning from and how our physical
environment—for example, the layout of a room and seating positions and arrangements—
influences communication.

REFERENCES:

Nonis, C. (March 28, 2016). Communication vs. communications. Comm Arts Blog. Retrieved
08/16/2020 from: http://www.xavier.edu/communication-arts-
department/2016/03/Communication-vs-CommunicationS.cfml#.WXUpntPyunc.

Daraji and Dhameliya (2014). Levels of Communication. Retrieved 7/3/18 from:

https://www.slideshare.net/cparmar2596/levels-of-communication-42589486.

25
Wilkom, A.C. (July, 2018). Five Types of Communications. Retrieved 08/16/2020 from
https://drexel.edu/goodwin/professional-studies-blog/overview/2018/July/Five-types-of
communication/
Lawrence Robinson, Jeanne Segal, Ph. D., and Melinda Smith, M.A. (2019). Effective
Communication. Retrieved 08/17/2020 from https://www.helpguide.org/articles/relationships-
communication/effective-communication.htm

Juneja, P., (2015). Seven C's Of Effective Communication. [online]

Managementstudyguide.com. Retrieved 08/17/2020
<https://www.managementstudyguide.com/seven-cs-of-effective-communication.htm>

EAB Authors (2018). The 5 P’s of Public Speaking. Retrieved 08/17/2020 from
https://eab.com/insights/daily-briefing/workplace/the-5-ps-of-confident-public-speaking/.

Physiopedia (N.d.). Communication in Healthcare. Retrieved 08/17/2020 from

https://www.physio-pedia.com/Communication_in_Healthcare#cite_note-
Ha_and_Longnecker_2010-2
Anonymous (N.d.) Introduction to Business Communications. Retrieved 08/17/2020 from
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-business/chapter/introduction-to-business-
communications/
Billard, Thomas (2020). The Sociology of Communication (BA Communication). Retrieved
08/17/2020 from https://www.thomasjbillard.com/syllabi/the-sociology-of-
communication#:~:text=Whereas%20psychological%20studies%20of%20communication,collect
ives%20and%20the%20ways%20in
Anonymous (n.d.). Communicating Astronomy with the Public (CAP) Retrieved 08/17/2020 from
https://www.capjournal.org/about.php #:~:text= Public%communication
20%20of%20astronomy%20provides,formal%20and%20informal%20science%20education.&te
xt=This%20is%20the%20main%20task,to%20bring%20astronomy%20to%20society.

Journals and PDFs

Nordquist, Richard. (2020, April 6). The Basic Elements of the Communication Process.
Retrieved from https://www.thoughtco.com/what-is-communication-process-1689767
Vlăduţescu, Ştefan. (2015). Functions Of Communication: An Organizational Communication
Case. [Journal]

26
Kapur, Radhka (2018). Barriers to Effective Communication. Retrieved from
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323794732_Barriers_to_Effective_Communication.
[Journal]
Kumbakonam, Usha. (2016). Communication Barriers. Retrieved 08/16/2020 from
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/304038097_COMMUNICATION_BARRIERS#:~:text=
and%20received%20successfully.,A%20communication%20barrier%20is%20anything%20that
%20prevents%20us%20from%20receiving,you%20are%20trying%20to%20send. [journal]
Anonymous (2018). What is Communication and Functions of Communications. Retrieved
08/16/2020 from https://www.papertyari.com/general-awareness/management/communication-
functions-communication/. [PDF]
a J, Longnecker N. (n.d.). Doctor-patient communication: a review. Ochsner Journal; 2010:
10(1): 38-43
Mehnert A, Lehman C, Cook U. Difficult communication situations in doctor-patient
interactions. Federal health journal; 2012; 2(12): 111-116

Books
Bauer and Erodgan (2012). An Introduction to Organizational Behavior: Different Types of
Communications and Channels, v.1.1., section 8.4.
Cabrera, L. & Zabala de Asis, B. (2008). Effective Speech Communication for Filipinos.
Booklore Publishing Corporation
Sampa, E. (2017). Disciplines and Ideas of Social Sciences. Rex Publishing Company, pp. 147-
151.
Tubbs, S. L., & Moss, S. (1991). Human Communication 4th Edition. McGraw-Hill.
Vivian, J. (1999). The Media of Mass Communication 5th Edition. A Viacom Company
Anonymous (2012). A Primer on Communication Studies. Licensed under Creative Commons
P. Andersen (1999) Nonverbal Communication: Forms and Functions (Mountain View, CA:
Mayfield)
Goding, A., Wrench, J., Johnson, D.I., & Attias, B. (2012). Public Speaking. Licensed under
Creative Commons.
Ruggles Richard & Ruggles, Nancy (1972). Annals of Economic and Social Measurement,
Volume 1, Number 2. Chapter: Communication in Economics: The Media and Technology p.
217.

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 MODULE 2: EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
Prepared by: Prof. Ma. Pamela Grace C. Muhi

Overview:
Communication is key to your success—in relationships, in the workplace, as a citizen of your
country, and across your lifetime. Communicating effectively is a key ingredient common among
successful individuals. Our daily routine requires us to communicate. It is communication that
binds people and society together. It is considered as a natural process. Society moves on
human interactions and exchange of ideas, thoughts, and feelings. Relationship builds up
through communication. Lack of communication among the people in society will severely affect
social cohesion and cohabitation. Progress and prosperity will come to a standstill if there is no
effective communication. Communication is a factor of building and maintaining good relations.
It enables people to understand each other. Communication is as important and meaningful in
individual life as in the society. Individuals make friends, builds up relationship and lead a true
social life through communicating effectively with the fellow beings.

Communication is the lifeline of a business organization. It is essential for realizing the

objectives of an organization. Chester I. Barnard viewed communication as means by which
people are linked together in an organization to achieve a common purpose. He pointed out that
a common purpose in an organization can only be achieved if it is commonly known, and to be
known it must be communicated effectively in language, oral and written. The importance of
communication can be assessed as follows:

• Communication is needed to establish and disseminate the goals of a business organization.

• The smooth and unperturbed functioning of an enterprise.
• Communication helps the organization in arriving at vital decisions.
• It also helps a lot in planning and coordination.
• It is a basic tool for motivation and an increase in the morale of the employees largely depend
upon the effectiveness of communication.
• It helps a business as means of bringing about maximum production at the lowest level by
maintaining good human relationship in the organization.
• It works as an effective link between branches of the organization situated at great distances.
• It helps in publicizing goods and services.
• It reduces rumors and ensures smooth running of the organization as a whole.

28
 Learning Objectives:
1. To understand the importance of effective communication and its application on day-to-
day activities and the workplace
2. To learn the effective communication skills needed on the personal and professional
level.
Learning Outcomes:
1. Integrates academic preparations and practical applications necessary in communication
and life-long learning.
2. Exhibit exemplary performance as communication professionals in terms of government
and non-government services.

LESSON 1. COMMUNICATION SKILLS

Conveying a message effectively is an art
as well as a skill developed after
continuous practice and experience. Some
skills listed here such as self-efficacy, self-
confidence and respectfulness, are not
actually skills but traits and values that
should be possessed by all. The
predetermined set of skills required for an
influential communication process are as
follows:

Effective Communication Skill 1. Become an Engaged Listener

When communicating with others, we often focus on what we should say. However, effective
communication is less about talking and more about listening. Listening well means not just
understanding the words or the information being communicated, but also understanding the
emotions the speaker is trying to convey. Listening is the active and dynamic process of

29
attending, perceiving, interpreting, remembering, and responding to the expressed (verbal and
nonverbal) needs, concerns, and information offered by other human beings.

There is a big difference between engaged listening and simply hearing. When you really
listen—when you’re engaged with what’s being said—you’ll hear the subtle intonations in
someone’s voice that tell you how that person is feeling and the emotions they’re trying to
communicate. When you’re an engaged listener, not only will you better understand the other
person, you’ll also make that person feel heard and understood, which can help build a
stronger, deeper connection between you.

By communicating in this way, you will also experience a process that lowers stress and
supports physical and emotional well-being. If the person you are talking to is calm, for example,
listening in an engaged way will help to calm you, too. Similarly, if the person is agitated, you
can help calm them by listening in an attentive way and making the person feel understood.

If your goal is to fully understand and connect with the other person, listening in an engaged
way will often come naturally. If it doesn’t, try the following tips. The more you practice them, the
more satisfying and rewarding your interactions with others will become.

Tips for becoming an engaged listener

Focus fully on the speaker. You can’t listen in an engaged way if you’re constantly checking
your phone or thinking about something else. You need to stay focused on the moment-to-
moment experience in order to pick up the subtle nuances and important nonverbal cues in a
conversation. If you find it hard to concentrate on some speakers, try repeating their words over
in your head—it’ll reinforce their message and help you stay focused.

Favor your right ear. As strange as it sounds, the left side of the brain contains the primary
processing centers for both speech comprehension and emotions. Since the left side of the
brain is connected to the right side of the body, favoring your right ear can help you better detect
the emotional nuances of what someone is saying.

Avoid interrupting or trying to redirect the conversation to your concerns. By saying something
like, “If you think that’s bad, let me tell you what happened to me.” Listening is not the same as
waiting for your turn to talk. You can’t concentrate on what someone’s saying if you’re forming

30
what you’re going to say next. Often, the speaker can read your facial expressions and know
that your mind’s elsewhere.

Show your interest in what’s being said. Nod occasionally, smile at the person, and make sure
your posture is open and inviting. Encourage the speaker to continue with small verbal
comments like “yes” or “uh huh.”

Try to set aside judgment. In order to communicate effectively with someone, you don’t have to
like them or agree with their ideas, values, or opinions. However, you do need to set aside your
judgment and withhold blame and criticism in order to fully understand them. The most difficult
communication, when successfully executed, can often lead to an unlikely connection with
someone.

Provide feedback. If there seems to be a disconnect, reflect what has been said by
paraphrasing. “What I’m hearing is,” or “Sounds like you are saying,” are great ways to reflect
back. Don’t simply repeat what the speaker has said verbatim, though—you’ll sound insincere
or unintelligent. Instead, express what the speaker’s words mean to you. Ask questions to clarify
certain points: “What do you mean when you say…” or “Is this what you mean?”

Effective Communication Skill 2: Pay attention to nonverbal signals

The way you look, listen, move, and react to another person tells them more about how you’re
feeling than words alone ever can. Nonverbal communication, or body language, includes facial
expressions, body movement and gestures, eye contact, posture, the tone of your voice, and
even your muscle tension and breathing.

Developing the ability to understand and use nonverbal communication can help you connect
with others, express what you really mean, navigate challenging situations, and build better
relationships at home and work.

You can enhance effective communication by using open body language—arms uncrossed,
standing with an open stance or sitting on the edge of your seat, and maintaining eye contact
with the person you’re talking to.

31
You can also use body language to emphasize or enhance your verbal message—patting a
friend on the back while complimenting him on his success, for example, or pounding your fists
to underline your message.

Improve how you read nonverbal communication

Be aware of individual differences. People from different countries and cultures tend to use
different nonverbal communication gestures, so it’s important to take age, culture, religion,
gender, and emotional state into account when reading body language signals. An American
teen, a grieving widow, and an Asian businessman, for example, are likely to use nonverbal
signals differently.

Look at nonverbal communication signals as a group. Don’t read too much into a single gesture
or nonverbal cue. Consider all of the nonverbal signals you receive, from eye contact to tone of
voice to body language. Anyone can slip up occasionally and let eye contact go, for example, or
briefly cross their arms without meaning to. Consider the signals as a whole to get a better
“read” on a person.

Improve how you deliver nonverbal communication

Use nonverbal signals that match up with your words rather than contradict them. If you say one
thing, but your body language says something else, your listener will feel confused or suspect
that you’re being dishonest. For example, sitting with your arms crossed and shaking your head
doesn’t match words telling the other person that you agree with what they’re saying.

Adjust your nonverbal signals according to the context. The tone of your voice, for example,
should be different when you’re addressing a child than when you’re addressing a group of
adults. Similarly, take into account the emotional state and cultural background of the person
you’re interacting with.

Avoid negative body language. Instead, use body language to convey positive feelings, even
when you’re not actually experiencing them. If you’re nervous about a situation—a job interview,
important presentation, or first date, for example—you can use positive body language to signal
confidence, even though you’re not feeling it. Instead of tentatively entering a room with your
head down, eyes averted, and sliding into a chair, try standing tall with your shoulders back,

32
smiling and maintaining eye contact, and delivering a firm handshake. It will make you feel more
self-confident and help to put the other person at ease.

Effective Communication Skill 3. Keen Observation

A person must possess sharp observing skills to gain more and more knowledge and
information. It is a general but not common characteristics among people. Some are observant
some are not. In fact, being a keen observant is one of traits of a scientist we learned during our
science class. When our science teacher asked us to jot down our observations during
experiments. Since the environment or the context, we are in, communicates a message in
itself, it would be helpful if we look closely around us for some message that may be vital to us
more than we ever know. For example, mother nature sends signal of an approaching storm, or
when we smell something delicious might be telling us that someone is cooking sumptuous
food. We know by now that communication is experiential. With the use of the five (5) senses
we can gather information around us. Our sense of sight, smell, hearing, touch and taste help
us experience our surroundings for us to communicate that experience to others. Detecting non-
verbal messages (explained later on) is also part of being observant, however, knowing what
specific non-verbal cue stands for what specific message will be discussed in the succeeding
items. Further, this is an important trait in the medical and care-giving professions, as
successful practitioners apply sharp observing skills among their patients who might be sending
signals consciously or not when in pain or discomfort during emergencies.

Effective Communication Skill 4: Clarity and Brevity

Spoken or written words clarity is important. Message must be drafted in simple words, and it
should be clear and precise to create the desired impact over the receiver. Clarity improves
connection and engagement because it increases trust and transparency. Clarity exposes
purpose by unveiling expectations. Clarity tells people exactly what you want. According to
Anthony Robbins, “Clarity is power.” Clarity is essential in driving people towards a certain
objective or purpose.

Testing your message reduces misinterpretation and failure in communications. Let’s be clear,
clarity of intended expectations will sharpen a message and improve delivery. Clarity
reduces frustration resulting from perceptions and judgement. Here is a quick way to test your
clarity. Share one sentence with no less than 10 words and no more than 15, with a person or

33
group. After delivery, ask that they repeat it back to you verbatim. What were the results? Are
you surprised by the fact some won’t recall “exactly” what you said? Now really test your clarity,
ask them to tell you what you wanted based on that sentence. Did they properly interpret your
expectations and purpose?

Seven Tips for Creating CLARITY in Communications

Concise messaging improves connection; be brief and succinct

Laser-focus on anticipated actions and intentions

Ask specifically what you want without ambiguity

Results orientation informs your audience on how you will measure success

Identify how you will measure the impact of your communications

Target your message to your audience

Yes responses confirm agreement in understanding and expectations

Effective Communication Skill 5: Emotional Intelligence

A person must be emotionally aware and has the ability to influence others from within.
Emotional intelligence (otherwise known as emotional quotient or EQ) is the ability to
understand, use, and manage your own emotions in positive ways to relieve stress,
communicate effectively, empathize with others, overcome challenges and defuse conflict.
Emotional intelligence helps you build stronger relationships, succeed at school and work, and
achieve your career and personal goals. It can also help you to connect with your feelings, turn
intention into action, and make informed decisions about what matters most to you. Daniel
Goleman revolutionized our thinking in regards to leadership and intelligence in the 90s when
he presented his ideas on emotional intelligence in his book, Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can
Matter More Than IQ. Emotional intelligence, he says, is “the capacity for recognizing our own
feelings and those of others, for motivating ourselves, and for managing emotions well in
ourselves and our relationships.

34
Emotional intelligence is commonly defined by four attributes:

1. Self-management – You’re able to control impulsive feelings and behaviors, manage

your emotions in healthy ways, take initiative, follow through on commitments, and adapt
to changing circumstances.
2. Self-awareness – You recognize your own emotions and how they affect your thoughts
and behavior. You know your strengths and weaknesses, and have self-confidence.
3. Social awareness – You have empathy. You can understand the emotions, needs, and
concerns of other people, pick up on emotional cues, feel comfortable socially, and
recognize the power dynamics in a group or organization.
4. Relationship management – You know how to develop and maintain good relationships,
communicate clearly, inspire and influence others, work well in a team, and manage
conflict.

Why is emotional intelligence so important?

As we know, it is not the smartest people who are the most successful or the most fulfilled in
life. You probably know people who are academically brilliant and yet are socially inept and
unsuccessful at work or in their personal relationships. Intellectual ability or your intelligence
quotient (IQ) is not enough on its own to achieve success in life. Yes, your IQ can help you get
into college, but it is your EQ that will help you manage the stress and emotions when facing
your final exams. IQ and EQ exist in tandem and are most effective when they build off one
another.

Emotional Intelligence and Communication

Learning more about how to manage your emotions is a very effective way of improving your
communication skills, whether you’re speaking with your employees in a town hall presentation
or responding to tough questions during a media interview. When a business leader lacks
emotional intelligence, he or she becomes more easily flustered by unexpected questions, and
more likely to say something that they cannot retract, thus finding themselves on the front page
of The Wall Street Journal for all the wrong reasons. The problem is certainly not limited to
media interviews. Leaders who have yet to develop sufficient emotional intelligence tend to
react to situations without filtering their responses verbally and tonally; as well, they may exhibit

35
inappropriate body language. Each of these responses can jeopardize relationships with
employees, investors, and strategic business partners.

Strengthen Emotional Intelligence to Communicate and Lead Better

As you begin to understand how an increased awareness of emotional response impacts the
way in which you communicate verbally and non-verbally, you will be better equipped to
moderate how you respond in a variety of business situations. For example, you may recognize
a tendency to speak faster when anxious during a last-minute meeting, you’ll become more able
to control your volume when you are angry with a co-worker, or you may learn that you scowl
subconsciously when a certain topic is repeatedly raised by employees.

Since many emotional reactions happen subconsciously, you may think that they cannot be
controlled. Not true. Through training and coaching, you can begin to recognize how to control –
and better yet, leverage your emotions – to be more effective with your business and personal
communication. Ultimately, improving your emotional intelligence will allow you to be heard
more accurately, inspire and motivate others, and augment your overall leadership presence.

Effective Communication Skill 6: Selecting the Right Channel or Medium

Not all communication channel or medium are appropriate or effective all the time in any given
communication set-up. It is important to know which channel is seen to be right and effective
considering some factors in the communication process and the varying characteristics of each
communication medium. Selection of the right communication channel depends on an
understanding of the communication objectives and audiences, and the strengths and
weaknesses of the different channels that are available. The correct selection is vital to the
success of a communication process. Likewise, selection of the right communication medium
depends on the environment where the communication is about to take place such as in the
workplace for example where it applies not only interpersonal form of communication but all
sorts of written forms of communication as well. It involves diverse participants and multiple
complex messages to be disseminated within and outside the workplace. For less complicated
communication environment, interpersonal communication is most likely used and seen
effective especially during day to day conversations. The following are the different
communication channels or medium:

36
 1. Face to face or Interpersonal Communication – seeing the facial expressions and body
language of your receiver will help you determine at the sender if your message was
conveyed accordingly and likewise through immediate feedback. Barriers are addressed
instantly such if there are noises or words unfamiliar to the receiver since the both actors
in the process are face to face.

2. Written or print-based communication – these are letters, memorandums, magazines,

brochures etc. provides detailed information which can be kept and stored for future
reference. This is the most common form of medium in the workplace. It provides paper
trail on the different communication transactions and operations of the organization.

3. Electronic and Computer based Communication -this includes emails, video

conferencing, audio-video materials, intranet, social media networks. It provides
convenience and accessibility regardless of geographical constraints. For big
multinational companies with global presence, this is more appropriate and effective but
also entails higher cost with the procurement of information, communication technology
infrastructures and equipment.

Effective Communication Skill 7: Providing Feedback

Effective communication is always a two-way process. A person must take as well as give
feedback to bring forward the other person’s perspective too. Receivers are not just passive
absorbers of messages. They receive the message and respond to them. This response of a
receiver to sender’s message is called Feedback. Sometimes a feedback could be non-verbal
smiles, sighs etc. Sometimes it is oral, as when you react to a colleague’s ideas with questions
or comments. Feedback can also be written like - replying to an e-mail, etc.

Feedback is your audience’s response; it enables you to evaluate the effectiveness of your
message. If your audience does not understand what you mean, you can tell by the response
and then refine the message accordingly.

Giving your audience a chance to provide feedback is crucial for maintaining an open
communication climate. A good communicator must create an environment that encourages
feedback. For example, after explaining the lesson to the students, the teacher must ask them
whether they have understood it or not. By asking questions like “Do you understand?”, “Do you

37
have any doubts?”, “which part you need to be clarified about?”, etc. Equally important, the
teacher must allow students to express their views also.

Feedback is essential in communication so as to know whether the recipient has understood the
message in the same terms as intended by the sender and whether he agrees to that message
or not.

Activities:

I. Answer the following questions (5 pts):

______ 1. Is the active and dynamic process of attending, perceiving, interpreting,

remembering, and responding to the expressed (verbal and nonverbal) needs,
concerns, and information offered by other human beings.

______ 2. the lifeline of an organization essential for realizing the objective of the
organization.

______3. Tools we use to observe.

______ 4. Ability to influence others.

______ 5. The response of the receiver to the sender.

II. Discussion Paper (15 pts each) : Write your reflection on the following. Explain clearly.

1. The importance of effective communication to you as an individual. Cite

examples and illustrations.

2. Make an observation of your environment. You may look inside your home,
outside from your window, out in the garden, and if possible, at the park, out in
the street, market or church. Write down and describe what you have observed.
You own observation may also entail your own interpretation. For example, if
you see two people holding hands may bring you to think that they are a
couple….etc.

3. Take note of the non-verbal messages sent by members of your household for
a week. Again, make your own interpretation of those messages without asking
them first, then verify later on. Take note your correct observations as well as
your errors.

38
 References:
1. theinvestorsbook.com/effective-
communication.html#:~:text=Definition%3A%20Effective%20communication%20is%
20a,best%20understood%20by%20the%20receiver.
Activity
2. https://www.helpguide.org/articles/mental-health/emotional-intelligence-
eq.htm#:~:text=Emotional%20intelligence%20(otherwise%20known%20as,overcome
%20challenges%20and%20defuse%20conflict.
3. https://franchetti.com/emotional-intelligence-impact-communication-workplace/
4. https://www.managementstudyguide.com/feedback_communication.htm

LESSON 2. Effective Business Communication

Learning Objectives:
1. To understand the fundamentals of business communication and its application in
the work place.
2. To learn the effective communication skills needed on the personal and professional
level.

Learning Outcomes:
1. Integrates academic preparations and practical applications necessary in
communication and life-long learning.

Business communication represents you and your employer. You want to make a good first
impression on your friends and family, instructors, and employer. They all want you to convey a
positive image, as it reflects on them. In your career, you will represent your business or
company in spoken and written form. Your professionalism and attention to detail will reflect
positively on you and set you up for success. In both oral and written situations, you will benefit
from having the ability to communicate clearly. These are skills you will use for the rest of your
life. Positive improvements in these skills will have a positive impact on your relationships, your
prospects for employment, and your ability to make a difference in the world.

Oral and written communication proficiencies are consistently ranked in the top ten desirable
skills by employer surveys year after year. In fact, high-powered business executives

39
sometimes hire consultants to coach them in sharpening their communication skills. Knowing
this, you can see that one way for you to be successful and increase your promotion potential is
to increase your abilities to speak and write effectively. According to the National Association of
Colleges and Employers, the following are the top five personal qualities or skills potential
employers seek:
1. Communication skills (verbal and written)
2. Strong work ethic
3. Teamwork skills (works well with others, group communication)
4. Initiative
5. Analytical skills

Business communication in written and oral form requires skill and expertise. From text
messages to reports, how you represent yourself with the written word counts. Writing in an
online environment requires tact and skill, and an awareness that what you write may be there
forever. From memos to letters, from business proposals to press releases, your written
business communication represents you and your company: your goal is to make it clear,
concise, and professional.

The communication channels in the workplace as indicated in the previous Lesson 1 are
classified according to the following types:
1. Face to face or Interpersonal communication – one-on-one meetings, team and
group meetings, town hall, general assembly, team presentations.
2. Written or printed communication – memorandum, letters, reports, brochures
3. Electronic or computer-based communication – emails, instant messaging, video-
conferencing, telephone conversations, intranet

Some of the identified communication channel features and application were listed on the table
below.

40
 Table 1. Summary Table on Communication Channels
SUMMARY TABLE ON (also seen
COMMUNICATION on the Appendices)
CHANNELS
Communication Tool Type Feature Application Pros Cons
1. one-on-one meetings face-to-face verbal/oral, informal, personal, address sensitive internal issues among opportunity for time consuming,
instant feedback, scoping employees, useful during urgent issues or clarification, venue has to be
problems, coordination of activities, expound on ideas decided.

2. Memorandum Written formal, structured Internal communication within the complex ideas can needs to be well-
organization be presented, written, no instant
instructions or feedback
guidelines,

3. Emails Electronic written, computer assisted, informal coordination purposes, requests quick and easy, can send too much
paper pile creates information,require
record of s big storage
correspondence,
allows document
sharing

4. Team Presentation Face to Face verbal/oral, formal, instant feedback presentation of special topics and concerns, direct can be difficult to
new business venture or projects, new ideas communication, present complex
and innovations allows questions ideas, relies on the
and clarifications presentation skills
of the presenter

5. Letters Written formal, structured communication to be sent out to outside complex ideas can needs to be well-
stakeholders be presented, written, no instant
instructions or feedback, hand
guidelines, carried documents
may be lost during
distribution or
among the files of
the receiver.

Interpersonal Communication requires good speaking skills as well as listening and analytical
ability to process information before sending and after receiving it. Quick organization of
thoughts during actual communication activity is a common trait of great speakers. However, on
more formal speaking engagements that allows speech preparation, requires a good written
speech as well. The essentials of effective communication such as clarity, active listening,
mutual respect are all applicable in this form of communication. Face to face communication are
more personal and can be used to tackle sensitive subjects with the ability to check
understanding, ask questions, and provide and receive feedback.

There is an ample amount of time allotted for written and printed communication forms such as
memoranda, letters, report brochures, etc. It allows data gathering and research to substantiate
the information to be disseminated. This is the most formal form of communication in the
workplace. Complex ideas can be presented to everyone and instructions can be laid out in a
clear format. The advantage of written and printed communication is having to keep records and
paper trail on all important business transactions in the workplace for future cross referencing.

41
Feedback in this form may take a while and usually resorts to another form of communication
such as sending an email or calling the other party for your feedback or clarification.

Electronic or computer-based communication entails the use of equipment or technology in

sending information. This is the least formal communication channel compared to other forms.
Some organizations primarily require written communication even if it was sent out through
email while some modern-day companies accept communication via email. The most notable
advantage of this form is the convenience to communication even when parties are bounded by
geographical and time zone constraints. Multinational organizations with global presence take
advantage of using these technologies to coordinate operations and activities instantaneously
and efficiently.

Activity:
With the given situation below, identify the most appropriate communication channel to be used and
indicate the type (10pts).
------------ 1. The supervisor wants to talk to Mario about his tardiness.
_______ 2. A foreign investor wants to discuss possible partnership with your company.
________ 3. Your Japan headquarters wants to schedule a meeting with the Philippine office
representatives.
________ 4. As the head engineer, you need to get the project inputs of the planning
department for your report.
________ 5. It is time for this annual publication of your company.
________ 6. During company buy-in how to inform the employees about the changes.
________ 7. The CEO asked you about your new project proposal.
________ 8. Your director is asking you about the status of your project.
________ 9. HR will conduct the annual family day.
________ 10. You requested information from regional office by sending them a
correspondence but no response to date and you need to make a follow up.

References:
1. Business Communication for Success. [Author removed at request of original publisher]
UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA LIBRARIES PUBLISHING EDITION, 2015
2. Leadership & Strategy » Internal Communication » Methods and Channels » Selecting
the Right Communication Channel or Medium Selecting the Right Communication
Channel or Medium
3. https://www.managementstudyguide.com/feedback_communication.htm

42
 MODULE 3: BASIC COMMUNICATION MODELS AND THEORIES
Prepared by Prof. Ma. Pamela Grace C. Muhi

Overview:
Models of communication simplify the process by providing a visual representation of the
various aspects of a communication encounter. Some models explain communication in more
detail than others, but even the most complex model still does not recreate what we experience
in even a moment of a communication encounter. Models still serve a valuable purpose for
students of communication because they allow us to see specific concepts and steps within the
process of communication, define communication, and apply communication concepts. When
you become aware of how communication functions, you can think more deliberately through
your communication encounters, which can help you better prepare for future communication
and learn from your previous communication.

Communication is a complex process, and it is difficult to determine where or with whom a

communication encounter starts and ends. It can sometimes be helpful to consider different
communication models. Communication theory is a complex topic. It studies the scientific
process of sending and receiving information. There are many principles, methods, and
components that can affect a message, and a communication theory explains it all. There are a
lot of features of communication theory that can affect the process: sender, receiver, noise,
nonverbal cues, cultural differences, and so on. To make things a little less complicated, the
creators of the different communication theories paired them with communication models.

LESSON 1. COMMUNICATION MODELS

Communication models may be grouped and classified as linear, interaction, and transaction
models. Although these models of communication differ, they contain some common elements.
The first two models we will discuss, the transmission model and the interaction model, include
the following parts: participants, messages, encoding, decoding, and channels. In
communication models, the participants are the senders and/or receivers of messages in a
communication encounter. The message is the verbal or nonverbal content being conveyed
from sender to receiver. For example, when you say “Hello!” to your friend, you are sending a
message of greeting that will be received by your friend.

The internal cognitive process that allows participants to send, receive, and understand
messages is the encoding and decoding process. Encoding is the process of turning thoughts

43
into communication. As we will learn later, the level of conscious thought that goes into
encoding messages varies. Decoding is the process of turning communication into thoughts.
For example, you may realize you’re hungry and encode the following message to send to your
roommate: “I’m hungry. Do you want to get pizza tonight?” As your roommate receives the
message, they decode your communication and turn it back into thoughts in order to make
meaning out of it. Of course, we do not just communicate verbally—we have various options, or
channels for communication. Encoded messages are sent through a channel, or a sensory
route on which a message travels, to the receiver for decoding. While communication can be
sent and received using any sensory route (sight, smell, touch, taste, or sound), most
communication occurs through visual (sight) and/or auditory (sound) channels. If your roommate
has headphones on and is engrossed in a video game, you may need to get their attention by
waving your hands before you can ask them about dinner.

Learning Objectives:
1. To learn the different communication models and theories
2. To understand the practical application and uses of these models and theories

Learning Outcomes:
1. Integrates academic preparations and practical applications necessary in communication
and life-long learning.

Linear model of communication

The linear or transmission model of communication, as shown in the Figure 3 below, describes
communication as a linear, one-way process in which a sender intentionally transmits a
message to a receiver (Ellis & McClintock, 1990). This model focuses on the sender and
message within a communication encounter. Although the receiver is included in the model, this
role is viewed as more of a target or end point rather than part of an ongoing process. We are
left to presume that the receiver either successfully receives and understands the message or
does not. The scholars who designed this model extended on a linear model proposed by
Aristotle centuries before that included a speaker, message, and hearer. They were also
influenced by the advent and spread of new communication technologies of the time such as
telegraphy and radio, and you can probably see these technical influences within the model
(Shannon & Weaver, 1949). Think of how a radio message is sent from a person in the radio
studio to you listening in your car. The sender is the radio announcer who encodes a verbal

44
message that is transmitted by a radio tower through electromagnetic waves (the channel) and
eventually reaches your (the receiver’s) ears via an antenna and speakers in order to be
decoded. The radio announcer does not really know if you receive their message or not, but if
the equipment is working and the channel is free of static, then there is a good chance that the
message was successfully received.

Figure 3. Linear Process of Communication

Although the transmission model may seem simple or even underdeveloped to us today, the
creation of this model allowed scholars to examine the communication process in new ways,
which eventually led to more complex models and theories of communication. The following
communication models are examples of linear model:

Lasswell’s Model
Lasswell’s communication model was developed by communication theorist Harold D. Lasswell
(1902-1978) in 1948. Lasswell’s model of communication (also known as action model or linear
mode or one-way model of communication) is regarded as one of the most influential
communication models. Lasswell states that in order to understand the process of mass
communication one has to understand each of the stages. This model stresses on the effect
rather than the message itself. Effect means observable or measurable change in the receiver.
It also suggests that any change in the elements will change the effect. Until the 1960s,
Lasswell’s questions below dominated the scene of mass media research.

45
 Figure 4. Lasswell’s Model of Communication

Lasswell model suggests the message flow in a multicultural society with multiple audiences.
The flow of message is through various channels. In this model, the communication component
WHO refers the research area called “Control Analysis”,
SAYS WHAT is refers to “Content Analysis”,
IN WHICH CHANNEL refers to “Media Analysis”,
TO WHOM is refers to “Audience Analysis”
WITH WHAT EFFECT is refers to “Effect Analysis”

The notable advantages of Lasswell’s Model, it is found to be easy and simple, it suits almost all
types of communication and it considers the concept of effect. However, since it is linear and
one-way, feedback was not taken into account and thus, some practitioners found this
incomplete. Noise was also not a factor in the process.

Shannon and Weaver Model

In 1948, Claude Shannon was an American mathematician, Electronic engineer and Warren
Weaver was an American scientist both of them join together to write an article in “Bell System
Technical Journal” called “A Mathematical Theory of Communication” and also called as
“Shannon-Weaver model of communication”. This model gave us the concept of “Noise”. This is
often called Telephone Model because it is based on the experience of having the message
interfered with by “noise” from the telephone switchboard back in 1940s. This model is specially
designed to develop the effective communication between sender and receiver. Also, they find
factors which affecting the communication process called “Noise”. At first the model was
developed to improve the Technical communication. Later it’s widely applied in the field of
Communication.

46
As illustrated, the model deals with various concepts like Information source, transmitter, Noise,
channel, message, receiver, channel, information destination, encode and decode.
Sender : The originator of message or the information source selects desire message
Encoder : The transmitter which converts the message into signals
Note: The sender’s messages converted into signals like waves or Binary data which is
compactable to transmit the messages through cables or satellites. For example: In telephone
the voice is converted into wave signals and it transmits through cables
Decoder : The reception place of the signal which converts signals into message. A reverse
process of encode
Note : The receiver converts those binary data or waves into message which is comfortable and
understandable for receiver. Otherwise receiver can’t receive the exact message and it will
affect the effective communication between sender and receiver.

Figure 5. Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication

Receiver : The destination of the message from sender

Note : Based on the decoded message the receiver gives their feedback to sender. If the
message distracted by noise it will affect the communication flow between sender and receiver
Noise: The messages are transferred from encoder to decoder through channel. During this
process the messages may distracted or affected by physical noise like horn sounds, thunder
and crowd noise or encoded signals may distract in the channel during the transmission process
which affect the communication flow or the receiver may not receive the correct message.

47
Note : The model is clearly deals with external noises only which affect the messages or signals
from external sources. For example: If there are any problems occurring in network which
directly affect the mobile phone communication or distract the messages

Practical Example of Shannon-Weaver model of communication:

Thomson made call to his assistant “come here I want to see you”. During his call, noise
appeared (transmission error) and his assistant received “I want” only. Again Assistant asked
Thomson (feedback) “what do you want Thomson”.
Sender : Thomson
Encoder : Telephone (Thomson)
Channel : Cable
Noise : Distraction in voice
Reception : Telephone (Assistant)
Receiver : Assistant.
Due to transmission error or noise, Assistant can’t able to understand Thomson’s messages.
*The noise which affect the communication flow between them.

Criticism of Shannon-Weaver model of communication:

1. One of the simplest model applied in various communication theories

2. It’s more effective in person-to-person communication than group or mass

audience.

3. The model based on “Sender and Receiver”. Here sender plays the primary role and
receiver plays the secondary role (receive the information or passive)

4. Communication is not a one-way process. If it’s behaved like that, it will lose its
strength. For example: Audience or receiver who listening a radio, reading the books or
watching television is a one-way communication because absence of feedback

5.. Understanding Noise will help solve the various problems in communication

Berlo’s Model
In 1960, David Berlo postulated Berlo’s Sender-Message-Channel-Receiver (SMCR) Model of
Communication with reference to the Shannon and Weaver’s Model in 1949. He described
factors affecting the individual components in the communication making the communication

48
more efficient. This model also focuses on encoding and decoding which happens before
sender sends the message and before receiver receives the message, respectively.

Figure 6. Berlo’s SMCR Model of Communication

Components of Berlo’s SMCR Model of Communication:

Berlo’s SMCR Model of Communication includes four components that describe the
communication process illustrated above. The different components in the model are influenced
by various factors.
1. Sender
The sender of the message is the source who creates and sends the message to the receiver.
The source is the start of the communication process and is the person who encodes the
message. Factors that may influence the sender are also applicable to the receiver. Consider
how the message is interpreted, for example. Berlo’s SMCR Model of Communication identifies
the following factors that affect the source:
Communication skills - includes reading, listening, speaking etc.

49
Attitude - one’s attitude in relationship to the audience, receiver and subject changes the
meaning and consequence of the message.
Knowledge - familiarity with the subject of the message makes communication more effective.
Social systems – includes values, beliefs, religion and rules influence the way in which the
sender communicates the message, alongside location and circumstances.
Culture - cultural differences may result in the message being interpreted differently.

2. Message
The message is the package of information or meaning that is sent from sender to receiver. The
message can be sent in various forms, such as audio, speech, text, video or other media. The
sender of the messages always wants the receiver to interpret the message in a certain way.
The source’s intention is therefore translated into a coded message. The receiver should
understand the message with reasonable accuracy. The message is influenced by:
Content - the content of the message from beginning to end.
Elements - are (non)verbal aspects, such as gestures and signs, that may influence the
message. Albert Mehrabian’s communication model goes into this in more detail.
Treatment - refers to the way in which the message is sent, the message’s packaging.
Structure - as the word suggests, the structure of the message refers to the way the message
was developed and organized.
Code - is the form in which the message is sent. This may include text, language, video,
gestures, music, etc.

3. Channel
The channel is the medium used to send the message. The medium must be able to be picked
up by the sensory system of the receiver and may therefore involve vision, sound, smell, taste
or touch. Physiologically, humans use the five (5) senses to communicate, namely hearing,
seeing, touching, smelling, tasting. While mass communication always involves technical tools,
such as phones, the Internet and television. In these cases, the transmitted information is
assimilated via vision and sound.

4. Receiver
The receiver is the person who receives and subsequently decodes the coded message. In a
linear communication process, the receiver is always located at the end. In order to make
communication as effective and smooth as possible, Berlo’s SMCR Model of Communication

50
assumes the receiver’s thinking pattern must be in accordance with that of the sender. The
same factors therefore influence this component in Berlo’s SMCR Model of Communication.
After all, the receiver decodes the message him/herself and gives it their own meaning.

A Disrupted Communication Process

In practice, communication is not nearly as smooth as described in Berlo’s linear model. There
are a number of factors that may lead to a disrupted communication process. Examples of
disruptions include:

Loss or distortion - the person sending the message must encode the message in such a way
that the full intention of the message is clear. He/she may choose to do this with words, but it is
very rare that the full intention is encoded in a message. In some cases, a message may even
barely contain the information the sender wants to convey. Even if an additional channel is
added to the communication process, the message may become distorted. For example,
consider the familiar team-building game where a message is constantly passed on in a circle of
people. The last person will often hear a completely distorted or unrecognizable message.
Every time the message is conveyed by a different person, part of its initial intention is lost.

Noise - after the message is sent, noise may occur. This noise disrupts the source and
message and causes the receiver to only partially receive the message or not at all. Internal
noise refers to a state in which part of the communication process, the receiver for example, is
not feeling well, or not entirely focused. As a result, the receiver may miss out on certain parts of
the message. External noise, on the other hand, may be caused by background noise during a
phone call, for example. This also causes the receiver to potentially misunderstand certain parts
of the message.

There may also be situations in which noise is caused intentionally. Non-intentional noise is
caused unintentionally and can, for example occur if sender uses difficult words, which then
makes it more difficult for the receiver to understand the message.

Berlo’s SMCR Model Synchronization

The communication process may be either synchronous or asynchronous. If the receiver is in
direct contact with the sender, this is referred to as a synchronous channel or process. If, on the

51
other hand, the sender and receiver are not in direct contact with each other, this is referred to
as an asynchronous communication process.

The danger of asynchronous communication is that both the sender and receiver will not receive
direct feedback on how the message is conveyed. It also prevents the message from being
adjusted, making it impossible to clarify certain matters further.

Criticism of Berlo’s Model :

• There is no concept of feedback, so the effect is not considered.

• There is no concept of noise or any kind of barriers in communication.

• It is a linear model of communication, there is no two-way communication.

• Both of the participants must be similar according to all the factors mentioned.

Interactive Model of Communication

The interactive or interaction model of communication, the figure below shows communication
as a process in which participants alternate positions as sender and receiver and generate
meaning by sending messages and receiving feedback within physical and psychological
contexts (Schramm, 1997). Rather than illustrating communication as a linear, one-way
process, the interactive model incorporates feedback, which makes communication a more
interactive, two-way process. Feedback includes messages sent in response to other
messages. For example, your instructor may respond to a point you raise during class
discussion or you may point to the sofa when your roommate asks you where the remote control
is. The inclusion of a feedback loop also leads to a more complex understanding of the roles of
participants in a communication encounter. Rather than having one sender, one message, and
one receiver, this model has two sender-receivers who exchange messages. Each participant
alternates roles as sender and receiver in order to keep a communication encounter going.
Although this seems like a perceptible and deliberate process, we alternate between the roles of
sender and receiver very quickly and often without conscious thought.

52
 Figure 7. Interactive Model

The interactive model is also less message focused and more interaction focused. While the
linear model focused on how a message was transmitted and whether or not it was received,
the interactive model is more concerned with the communication process itself. In fact, this
model acknowledges that there are so many messages being sent at one time that many of
them may not even be received. Some messages are also unintentionally sent. Therefore,
communication is not judged effective or ineffective in this model based on whether or not a
single message was successfully transmitted and received.

The interactive model takes physical and psychological context into account. Physical context
includes the environmental factors in a communication encounter. The size, layout,
temperature, and lighting of a space influence our communication. Imagine the different physical
contexts in which job interviews take place and how that may affect your communication.
Whether it is the size of the room or other environmental factors, it is important to consider the
role that physical context plays in our communication. Psychological context includes the mental
and emotional factors in a communication encounter. Stress, anxiety, and emotions are just
some examples of psychological influences that can affect our communication. Seemingly
positive psychological states, like experiencing the emotion of love, can also affect

53
communication. Feedback and context help make the interaction model a more useful
illustration of the communication process, but the transaction model views communication as a
powerful tool that shapes our realities beyond individual communication encounters. Osgoods
and Schramm’s model is an example of interactive model.

Osgoods and Schramm’s Model

The Osgood-Schramm model is built on the theory that communication is a two-way street, with
a sender and a receiver. Charles Egerton Osgood popularized the notion that communication
was circular rather than linear, meaning that it required two participants taking turns sending
and receiving a message.

Figure 8. Osgood’s and Schramm’s Circular Model

It is a Circular Model, so that communication is something circular in nature of which its

components are:
Encoder – Who encodes and sends the message (message originates)
Decoder – Who receives the message
Interpreter – Person trying to understand (analyses, perceive) or interpret

Note: From the message starting to ending, there is an interpretation goes on. Based on this
interpretation only the message is received.

This model breaks the sender and receiver model it seems communication in a practical way. It
is not a traditional model. It can happen within our self or two people; each person acts as both
sender and receiver and hence use interpretation. It is simultaneously taking place e.g.
encoding, interpret and decoding.

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Semantic noise is a concept introduced here it occurs when sender and receiver apply different
meaning to the same message. It happens mostly because of words and phrases such as
technical language. So certain words and phrases will cause you to deviate from the actual
meaning of the communication.

Note: When semantic noise takes place decoding and interpretation becomes difficult and
people get deviated from the actual message.

Advantage of Osgood- Schramm model of communication

• Dynamic model- Shows how a situation can change
• It shows why redundancy is an essential part
• There is no separate sender and receiver, sender and receiver is the same person
• Assume communication to be circular in nature
• Feedback – central feature.

However, this model does not talk about semantic noise and it assume the moment of encoding
and decoding.

Later, Wilbur Schramm, who talked about the model in his book, The Process and Effects of
Communication, adapted the model and added the notion of field of experience, or
commonality, to the mix. Field of experience incorporates what is mutually understood between
the sender and receiver. For example, a professor of calculus would have very little luck
communicating important math principles to a classroom of kindergarten students, because they
do not share a field of experience that makes the message easy to understand.

For his part, Schramm is considered one of the pioneers of the mass communications field. He
started the doctoral program in mass communication at the University of Iowa, helping develop
mass communication (television, print news, and other ways to communicate) as a university
discipline. Wilbur Schramm proceeded from a simple human communication to a more
complicated model that accounted for the accumulated experiences of two (2) individuals trying
to communicate and then to a model that considered human communication with interaction
between two (2) individuals.

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 Figure 9. Schramm’s Model I and II

In his second model, Schramm introduced the notion that only what is shared in the fields of
experience of both source and destination is actually communicated, because only that
proportion of the signal is common to both of them.

Transactional Model of Communication

As the study of communication progressed, models expanded to account for more of the
communication process. Many scholars view communication as more than a process that is
used to carry on conversations and convey meaning. We do not send messages like computers,
and we do not neatly alternate between the roles of sender and receiver as an interaction
unfolds. We also cannot consciously decide to stop communicating because communication is
more than sending and receiving messages. The transaction model differs from the
transmission and interaction models in significant ways, including the conceptualization of
communication, the role of sender and receiver, and the role of context.

The Transactional Model of Communication proposed by Barnlund states that giving and
receiving messages is reciprocal (Barnlund, 1962). During the exchange of messages between
sender and receiver, each take turns to send or receive messages. In this model, both sender
and receiver are known as communicators and their role reverses each time in the
communication process as both process of the sending and receiving occurs at the same time.
This means that both communicators (the sender and the receiver) are responsible of the effect
and effectiveness of the communication. People do not simply send meaning from one to the
other then back again. They need to build a shared meaning of the message. In addition, both
verbal and non-verbal behavioral cues, the environmental and noise are a part of the message.

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The transaction model of communication describes communication as a process in which
communicators generate social realities within social, relational, and cultural contexts. In this
model, which is shown in the figure below, we do not just communicate to exchange messages;
we communicate to create relationships, form intercultural alliances, shape our self-concepts,
and engage with others in dialogue to create communities.

Figure 10. Transactional Model of Communication

The roles of sender and receiver in the transaction model of communication differ significantly
from the other models. Instead of labeling participants as senders and receivers, the people in a
communication encounter are referred to as communicators. Unlike the interactive model, which
suggests that participants alternate positions as sender and receiver, the transaction model
suggests that we are simultaneously senders and receivers. This is an important addition to the
model because it allows us to understand how we are able to adapt our communication—for
example, a verbal message—in the middle of sending it based on the communication we are
simultaneously receiving from our communication partner.

References:
1. https://pressbooks.bccampus.ca/professionalcomms
2. Barnlund,D. (1962). Toward A Meaning-Centered Philosophy Of
Communication. Journal of Communication.12.4 197-211.

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Activity:
I. Identification:
1. _____ A concept introduced by Schramm in his 2nd model of communication.
2. _____ Refers to the way in which message was sent and packaged.
3. _____ Observable or measurable change in the receiver.
4. _____ The pioneer theorist of one-way communication.
5. _____ Visual representation of various aspects of a communication encounter.
6. _____ The first model that gave us the concept of noise.
7. _____ The communication model that may either be synchronous or asynchronous.
8. _____ A type of communication model that is one way.
9. _____ Circular model of communication.
10. _____ It occurs when sender and receiver apply different meaning to the same
message.
II. (50 pts.) Learning the different communication model and its elements. Think of a situation
where you can apply each of the following models:
1. Lasswell’s Model
2. Berlo’s Model
3. Shannon and Weaver
4. Osgoods and Schramm
5. Barlund’s Transactional Model

LESSON 2. COMMUNICATION THEORIES

Overview:
We live in an era in which the processes of news production and the patterns of media
consumption are changing rapidly with the advent of new digital technologies. Even the most
seasoned professionals are struggling to determine what the media landscape of the future will
look like and what business models can be used to support it. It is in times like these when the
theories of mass communication are particularly valuable. The broadly explanatory concepts of
theory help us understand some of the underlying ways in which humans respond to and share
different types of information, and as thus can help us to make some informed predictions about

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what the future may hold. How to communicate something, and how to do it right were the main
concerns in this area of study. We, communicators, understand that communication is not a
singular, but a plural process between two or more persons, and so the exchange of messages
is only a minor part in this complex and interesting process.

Learning Objectives:
1. To learn the different communication theories
2. To understand the practical application and uses these theories

Learning Outcomes:
1. Integrates academic preparations and practical applications necessary in communication
and life-long learning.

THEORY is “an umbrella term for all careful, systematic, and self-conscious discussion and
analysis of communication phenomena,” by University of Minnesota communication professor
Ernest Bormann. THEORY is nothing more than a “set of systematic hunches about the way
things operate.” Theory consists of a set of systematic, informed hunches about the way things
work. It studies the scientific process of sending and receiving information including its
principles, methods, and components that can affect the elements of communication. Theory is
a set of logical tested and systematically interrelated proportions that have been developed
through research, describing and explaining some social phenomena (Seranda Kos, 1998). It is
a set of statements or principles to explain a group of facts or phenomena especially that have
been repeatedly tested or widely accepted and can be used in more predictions about natural
phenomena.

Images of Theory
Theories as Nets: Philosopher of science Karl Popper says that “theories are nets cast to catch
what we call the ‘world’. We endeavor to make the mesh ever finer and finer”. For serious
scholars, theories are the tools of the trade. The term the world can be interpreted as everything
that goes on under the sun – thus requiring a grand theory that applies to all communication, all
the time. Conversely, catching the world could be constructed as calling for numerous special
theories – different kinds of small net to capture distinct types of communication in local
situations. Yet either way, the quest for finer-meshed nets is somewhat disturbing because the
study of communication is about people rather than schools of fish. The idea that theories could

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be woven so tightly that they would snag everything that humans think, say, or do seems naïve.
The possibility also raises questions about our freedom to choose some actions and reject
others.

Theories as Lenses: Many scholars see their theoretical constructions as similar to the lens of a
camera or a pair of glasses as opposed to a mirror that accurately reflects the world out there.
The lens imagery highlights the idea that theories shape our perception by focusing attention on
some features of communication while ignoring other features, or at least pushing them into the
background. Two (2) theorist could analyze the same communication event – an argument,
perhaps – and depending on the lens each uses, one theorist may view this speech act as a
breakdown of communication or the breakup of a relationship, while the other theorists will see it
as democracy in action. The danger of the lens metaphor is that we might regard what is seen
through the glass as so dependent on the theoretical stance of the viewer that we abandon any
attempt to discern what is real or true.

Theories as Maps: We use this image to describe the First Look text to others. Within this
analogy, communication theories are maps of the way communication works. The truth they
depict may have to do with objective behaviors “out there” or subjective meanings inside our
heads. Either way we need to have theory to guide us through unfamiliar territory, however, that
the map is not the territory. A static theory, like a still photograph, can never fully portray the
richness of interaction between people that is constantly changing, always more varied, and
inevitably more complicated than what any theory can chart.

Below are some examples of communication theories:

1. Magic Bullet and Hypodermic Needle Theory

The mass media in the 1940s and 1950s were perceived as a powerful influence on behavior
change. Several factors contributed to this “strong effects” theory of communication, such as:

• The fast rise and popularization of radio and television

• The emergence of the persuasion industries, such as advertising and propaganda

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 • The Payne Fund studies of the 1930s which focused on the impact of motion pictures on
children, and Hitler’s monopolization of the mass media during the WWII to unify the
German public behind the Nazi party.

The Hypodermic Needle Theory implies that mass media has a direct, immediate and powerful
effect on its audiences. The theory suggests that the mass media could influence a very large
group of people directly and uniformly by “shooting” or “injecting” them with appropriate
messages designed to trigger a desired response. The effects of this theory suggest that media
could manipulate a passive and gullible public, leading theorists believed this was one of the
primary ways media authors shaped audience perception. A linear communication theory which
suggests that the media has a direct and powerful influence on audiences, like being injected
with a hypodermic needle. This theory considers only one option. That the audience are passive
and what they see they will act out or believe. The majority of Copy Cat murders that take place
relate heavily to this theory. You could argue that when a Copy Cat murder takes places, the
predator watches, hears or plays something and then goes and acts out the crime. Although
many people still talk about the media in this way, this theory is disregarded as an out-dated
way of thinking about media influence. Audiences are more active than this theory suggests.

The Hypodermic Needle Theory suggests that the media has a direct and powerful influence on
audiences. It was developed in the 1920s and 1930s after researchers observed the effect of
propaganda during World War I and incidents such as Orson Welles’ War of the Worlds
broadcast. It became the dominant way of thinking about media influence during the subsequent
decades. The Hypodermic Needle theory is a linear communication theory which suggests that
a media message is injected directly into the brain of a passive, homogenous audience. This
theory suggests that media texts are closed and audiences are influenced in the same way. The
Hypodermic Needle Theory is no longer accepted by media theorists as a valid explanation of
communication and media influence. Indeed, some dispute whether early media theorists gave
the idea serious attention. In their book An Integrated Approach to Communication Theory and
Research, Michael Salwen and Don Stacks write: “The hypodermic-needle model dominated
until the 1940s. As discussed earlier, although there is some question whether such a model
influenced scholarly research, anyone reading pre-World War II popular literature will see that it
underlay much popular thinking about the mass media and their consequences.” Although the
Hypodermic Needle Theory has been abandoned by most media theorists, it continues to
influence mainstream discourse about the influence of the mass media. People believe that the

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mass media can have a powerful effect on people and parents continue to worry about the
effect of television and violent video games

Figure 11. Hypodermic Needle Theory (CCTO)

The public essentially cannot escape from the media's influence, and is therefore considered a
"sitting duck". Both models suggest that the public is vulnerable to the messages shot at them
because of the limited communication tools and the studies of the media's effects on the
masses at the time. It means the media explores information in such a way that it injects in the
mind of audiences as bullets. The "magic bullet" and "hypodermic needle" models originate
from Harold Lasswell's 1927 book, Propaganda Technique in the World War. Recent work in the
history of communication studies have documented how the two models may have served as
strawman theory or fallacy or even a "myth". Others have documented the possible medical
origins of the metaphor of the magic bullet model.

2. Two-step Flow of Communication by Lazarsfeld

New assessments that the Magic Bullet Theory was not accurate came out of election studies in
"The People's Choice," (Lazarsfeld, Berelson and Gaudet, 1944/1968). The project was
conducted during the election of Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1940 to determine voting patterns and
the relationship between the media and political behavior. The majority of people remained
untouched by the propaganda; interpersonal outlets brought more influence than the media.

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The effects of the campaign were not all-powerful to where they persuaded helpless audiences
uniformly and directly, which is the very definition of what the magic bullet theory does. As focus
group testing, questionnaires, and other methods of marketing effectiveness testing came into
widespread use; and as more interactive forms of media (e.g.: internet, radio call-in shows, etc.)
became available, the magic bullet theory was replaced by a variety of other, more instrumental
models, like the two step of flow theory and diffusion of innovations theory.

The Two-step Flow of Communication asserts that information from the media moves in two (2)
distinct stages. First, individuals (opinion leaders) who pay close attention to the mass media
and its messages receive the information. Opinion leaders are quite influential in getting people
to change their attitudes and behaviors and are quite similar to those they influence. Second,
opinion leaders pass on their own interpretations to the public.

The theory refined the ability to predict the influence of media messages on audience behavior,
and it helped explain why certain media campaigns may have failed to alter audience attitudes
and behavior.

Figure 12. Lazarsfeld Two-step Flow

The figure shows that message from mass media was directed to opinion leaders with particular
influence in their respective social environment. Messages were processed and subjected to
interpretation of opinion leader prior to dissemination to public.

3. Agenda-setting Theory

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Agenda setting describes a very powerful influence of the media – the ability to tell us what
issues are important. As far back as 1922, the newspaper columnist Walter Lippman was
concerned that the media had the power to present images to the public. McCombs and Shaw
investigated presidential campaigns in 1968, 1972 and 1976. In the research done in 1968 they
focused on two elements: awareness and information.

Investigating the agenda-setting function of the mass media, they attempted to assess the
relationship between what voters in one community said were important issues and the actual
content of the media messages used during the campaign. McCombs and Shaw concluded that
the mass media exerted a significant influence on what voters considered to be the major issues
of the campaign.

Figure 13. Agenda-setting Theory

This theory, as shown in the figure above, describes a very power influence of the media – the
ability to tell us what issues are important. Agenda-setting is the creation of public awareness
and concern of salient issues by the news media. Two (2) basic assumptions underlie most
research on agenda-setting:
• The press and the media do not reflect reality; they filter and shape it;
• Media concentration on a few issues and subjects leads the public to perceive those
issues as more important than other issues.

Agenda-setting theory seems quite appropriate to help us understand the pervasive role of the
media (for example on political communications systems).

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4. Spiral of Silence

German political scientist Elisabeth Noelle- Neumann (1974) introduced the “spiral of silence” as
an attempt to explain in part how public opinion is formed. She wondered why the Germans
supported wrong political positions that led to national defeat, humiliation and ruin in the 1930s-
1940s.

The phrase "spiral of silence" actually refers to how people tend to remain silent when they feel
that their views are in the minority.

The model is based on three premises:

1) people have a "quasi-statistical organ," a sixth-sense if you will, which allows them to
know the prevailing public opinion, even without access to polls,

2) people have a fear of isolation and know what behaviors will increase their likelihood of
being socially isolated, and

3) people are reticent to express their minority views, primarily out of fear of being isolated.

Figure 14. Spiral of Silence (CTTO)

The closer a person believes the opinion held is similar to the prevailing public opinion, the more
they are willing to openly disclose that opinion in public. Then, if public sentiment changes, the
person will recognize that the opinion is less in favor and will be less willing to express that
opinion publicly. As the perceived distance between public opinion and a person's personal

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opinion grows, the more unlikely the person is to express their opinion. The closer a person
believes the opinion held is similar to the prevailing public opinion, the more they are willing to
openly disclose that opinion in public. Then, if public sentiment changes, the person will
recognize that the opinion is less in favor and will be less willing to express that opinion publicly.
As the perceived distance between public opinion and a person's personal opinion grows, the
more unlikely the person is to express their opinion.

It is related to the mass media, in such a way that mass media influences public opinion. Shifts
in public opinion occur commonly and therefore this theory is used to search an explanation for
behavior (speak up or stay silent). The theory has also been criticized for ambiguity and
methodological weakness, but the idea has persisted. Evidence of the spiral effect is usually
small but significant.

Example:
This example shows an effect of the theory where during the 1991 Gulf War the U.S. support for
the war was measured. Either it is a consensus view or did media coverage contribute to a
spiral of silence that dampened opposition to the war?

In a survey that asked about people’s opinions, 145 respondents were clearly less supportive of
the war than the popular support depicted by the media. Those who watched television and
perceived that the public supported the war, were more likely to support the war themselves.
This study supports the spiral of silence and suggests that people are swayed by bandwagon
effects rather than fearing social isolation.

References:
1. http://www.mediaknite.org/hypodermic-needle-theory/
2. Lasswell, H. Propaganda Techniques in the World War. University of Michigan.
1927.
3. Griffin, E. A First Look at Communication Theory. Wheaton College, Mcgraw Hill.
2012

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Activity:
I. Identification (10pts):
1. _____ This study in 1930s focused on the impact of motion pictures on children and
Hitler’s monopolization of mass media.
2. _____ The director of the film, War of the Worlds that influenced the development of a
theory.
3. _____ This theory refers to how people tend to remain silent when they feel that their
views are in the minority.
4. _____ The book from which the magic bullet and hypodermic needle theory is based
on.
5. _____ To whom the messages in the two-step flow theory is directed to.
6. _____ a set of logical tested and systematically interrelated proportions that have
been developed through research, describing and explaining some social phenomena
is a set of logical tested and systematically interrelated proportions that have been
developed through research, describing and explaining some social phenomena.
7. ______ in this theory, it is said the public essentially cannot escape from the media's
influence and therefore considered as a “sitting duck”.
8. ______ This is what it aims to catch when theories are referred to as nets.
9. ______ This theory is the creation of public awareness and concern of salient issues
by the news media.
10. ______ The author of Spiral of Silence Theory.
II. (50 pts.) Learning the different communication theories its elements, think or imagine of a
situation or event where you can apply each of the following theories:
1. Magic Bullet or Hypodermic Needle Theory
2. Two-step Flow of Communication
3. Agenda-setting Theory
4. Spiral of Silence

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 MODULE 4: ALLIED FIELDS RELATED TO COMMUNICATION
Prepared by Prof. Milagros M. de la Costa

Overview:

More-often-than-not, people assume that Public Relations is Advertising—and that Advertising

is Marketing! In general, advertising and public relations are considered components of
marketing. The basics of all these three allied fields of communication will be discussed in the
next lessons. Be able to analyze and differentiate each after reading the material.

The discussion will be of importance to the students since these three fields are possible career
paths for our future graduates.

Learning Objectives:

1. To identify the different fields related to communication.

2. To know the nature and fundamentals of these allied fields.

LESSON 1. PUBLIC RELATIONS

Public Relations is a strategic communication process that builds mutually beneficial

relationships between organizations and their publics. It is about influencing, engaging and
building a relationship with key stakeholders across numerous platforms in order to shape and
frame the public perception of an organization. Public relations also encompass the
anticipating, analyzing and interpreting public opinion, attitudes and issues that might have an
impact for good or ill, on the operations and plans of the organization.

Counseling management at all levels in the organization with regard to policy decisions, courses
of action and communications—including crisis communications, taking into account their public
ramifications and the organization’s social responsibilities.

Protecting the reputation of an organization.

Researching, conducting and evaluating on a continuing basis, programs of action.

Planning and implementing the organization’s efforts to influence or change public

opinion/policy.

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Managing resources needed to perform all of the above.

Overseeing the creation of content to drive customer engagement.

The following are illustrative examples of public relations:

1. Investor Relations - publishing quarterly reports and press releases.

2. Government Relations - communication with the government regarding compliance
issues.
3. Community Relations - supporting programs of sustainability and managing
communications with communities and non-profits.
4. Media Relations - establishing and managing relationships with media organizations and
individuals. Generating publicity by acting as a source for media content.
5. Media Productions - producing content such as promotional videos to achieve
communication goals in areas such as investor relations or brand awareness.
6. Customer Relations - working with customer service to manage customer feedback and
address customer inquiries and concerns. Engaging customers such as lead users to
feed product improvement and innovation.
7. Marketing Communications - leveraging communication channels and media
relationships to generate demand for products and brand awareness.
8. Influencers - managing relationships with influential individuals in your industry.
9. Social Media - managing social media communication channels to engage the public in
a way that reflects well on your reputation and brand.
10. Internal Communications – supporting teams such as executives and human resources
in communicating important messages to employees.
11. Industry Events – orchestrating participation in industry events to generate publicity and
establish industry and media relationships.
12. Crisis Communications – leveraging an organization’s communication channels and
media relationships to support crisis management.

LESSON 2. ADVERTISING

Advertising is the techniques and practices used to bring products, services, opinions, or
causes to public notice for the purpose of persuading the public to respond in a certain way
toward what is advertised. Most advertising involves promoting goods for sale, but similar

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methods are used to encourage people to drive safely, to support various charities, or to vote for
political candidates. In many countries advertising is the most important source of income for
the media (e.g., newspapers, magazines, or television stations) through which it is conducted.

Advertising developed in a variety of media. Perhaps the most basic was the newspaper,
offering advertisers large circulations and the opportunity to alter their advertisements on a
frequent and regular basis. The contents of magazines on the other hand may be of general
interest or they may be aimed at specific audiences (such as people interested in
outdoor sports, computers or literature) and offer the manufacturers of products of particular
interest to such people the chance to make contact with their most likely customers. Many
national magazines publish regional editions, permitting a more selective targeting of
advertisements.

In Western industrial nations television and radio became the most pervasive media. Although
in some countries radio and television are state-run and accept no advertising. Advertisers in
other countries on the other hand are able to buy short “spots” of time, usually a minute or less
in duration. Advertising spots are broadcast between or during regular programs, at moments
sometimes specified by the advertiser and sometimes left up to the broadcaster. For
advertisers, the most important facts about a given television or radio program are the size
and composition of its audience. The size of the audience determines the amount of money the
broadcaster can charge an advertiser, and the composition of the audience determines the
advertiser’s choice as to when a certain message, directed at a certain segment of the public,
should be run. The other advertising media include direct mail, which can make a highly detailed
and personalized appeal; outdoor billboards and posters; transit advertising, which can reach
the millions of users of mass-transit systems; and miscellaneous media, including dealer
displays and promotional items such as matchbooks or calendars.

In the 21st century, with an intensely competitive consumer market, advertisers increasingly
used digital technology to call greater attention to products. In 2009, for example, the world’s
first video advertisements to be embedded in a print publication appeared in Entertainment
Weekly magazine. The thin battery-powered screen implanted in the page could store up to 40
minutes of video via chip technology and automatically began to play when the reader opened
the page.

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For an advertisement to be effective, its production and placement must be based on a
knowledge of the public and a skilled use of the media. Advertising agencies serve to
orchestrate complex campaigns whose strategies of media use are based on research into
consumer behavior and demographic analysis of the market area. A strategy will combine
creativity in the production of the advertising messages with canny scheduling and placement,
so that the messages are seen by, and will have an effect on, the people the advertiser most
wants to address. Given a fixed budget, advertisers face a basic choice: they can have their
message seen or heard by many people fewer times, or by fewer people many times. This and
other strategic decisions are made in light of tests of the effectiveness of advertising campaigns.

Nature of Advertising

Advertising is the prominent element of the promotion mix. Advertising has a huge reach and is
pervasive in nature. Here’s more about what an advertising message should have:

• Attention seeker
The term ‘advertising‘ is derived from the Latin word ‘advertere’ that means ‘to turn the
attention’. Every piece of advertising attempt to seek the attention of your audience towards a
product or service.
• Has a unique selling proposition
Often, the advertiser need to have a unique selling proposition (USP). This unique selling
proposition makes the product or service stand out of the crowd. Advertising attempts to
persuade and influence the audience through the different kinds of appeal.
• Visually attractive
The visual and non-verbal elements play a dominant role in advertising. An eye-catching
advertisement uses crisp information and focuses on the visual treatment to convey the
message. The visual elements used in the advertisements not only convey the information, but
also tell a story.
• Consumer oriented
Advertising broadens the knowledge of the consumers. With this nature of advertising,
consumers can have the know-how of the products, brands or services that exist in the market.
In fact, every product or service is designed in a way to keep the consumers satisfied.
• Uses various media
Print platforms like newspapers and magazines, audiovisual platforms like, films, hoardings,
banners and the social media.

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 Objectives of Advertising
There are 3 main objectives of advertising. These are:

To Inform: Advertisements are used to increase brand awareness and brand exposure in
the target market. Informing potential customers about the brand and its products is the first
step towards attaining business goals.

To Persuade: Persuading customers to perform a particular task is a prominent objective of

advertising. The tasks may involve buying or trying the products and services offered, to form a
brand image, develop a favorable attitude towards the brand etc.

To Remind: Another objective of advertising is to reinforce the brand message and to reassure
the existing and potential customers about the brand vision. Advertising helps the brand to
maintain top of mind awareness and to avoid competitors stealing the customers. This also
helps in the word of mouth marketing.

Importance of Advertising to Business and Consumers

The main purpose of a business is to sell goods and services in order to gain profits. Advertising helps
businesses to earn profits by enabling the public to know about the products and services thus resulting
to more sales. On the other hand, consumers will never get to know about the products and services if
they are not advertised. Assisting the consumers to make decisions regarding which product to buy or
service to use – is advertisements. As a result, consumers get the best possible options.

The advertising industry today has become a huge industry because of the large number of products
and services being offered. As a result, the competition has also increased requiring every businessman
to promote his products and services in the best possible manner. This has further led to the
development of new advertising techniques and an increase in the number of advertising agencies
which are available today. The aim of every promotional campaign is to enable the products to reach
the right people by increasing awareness about the product, its benefits and drawbacks. This is
important for the success of a business.

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Types of Advertising

Advertising activities can be categorized into;

Above the line advertising (ATL) - include activities that are largely non-targeted and have a
wide reach. Examples of above the line advertising are TV, radio, & newspaper advertisements.

Below the line advertising (BTL) -include conversion focused activities which are directed
towards a specific target group. Examples of below the line advertising are direct mail
campaigns, trade shows, catalogs and targeted search engine marketing.

Through the line advertising (TTL) - This is a combination of both of the other forms, ATL in
terms of its wide reach, BTL in terms of its targeted nature and conversion focus. These are
directed towards brand building and conversions and make use of targeted (personalized)
advertisement strategies. In this example, a pizza company could launch a nationwide Youtube
campaign that would show different video ads to different users according to where the users
lived, featuring a promotional code for a discount on purchases made at their local outlet.

Advertising activities can also be categorized into 5 types based on the advertisement medium
used. These types of advertisements are:

1. Print Advertising - Newspaper, magazines, & brochure advertisements, etc.

2. Broadcast Advertising - Television and radio advertisements.
3. Outdoor Advertising - Hoardings, banners, flags, wraps, etc.
4. Digital Advertising - Advertisements displayed over the internet and digital
devices
5. Product/Brand Integration - Product placements in entertainment media like TV
show, YouTube video, etc.

LESSON 3. MARKETING

Marketing is the activity, set of institutions, and processes for creating, communicating,
delivering, and exchanging offerings that have value for customers, clients, partners, and
society at large.

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Definition of Marketing Research

Marketing research is the function that links the consumer, customer, and public to the marketer
through information–information used to identify and define marketing opportunities and
problems; generate, refine, and evaluate marketing actions; monitor marketing performance;
and improve understanding of marketing as a process. Marketing research specifies the
information required to address these issues, designs the method for collecting information,
manages and implements the data collection process, analyzes the results, and communicates
the findings and their implications.

Types of Marketing
Influencer Marketing - According to the Association of National Advertisers (ANA), influencer
marketing focuses on leveraging individuals who have influence over potential buyers and
orienting marketing activities around these individuals to drive a brand message to the larger
market. In influencer marketing, rather than marketing directly to a large group of consumers, a
brand inspires or compensates influencers (which can include celebrities, content creators,
customer advocates, and employees) to get the word out on their behalf.

Relationship Marketing - According to the Association of National Advertisers

(ANA), relationship marketing refers to strategies and tactics for segmenting consumers to build
loyalty. Relationship marketing leverages database marketing, behavioral
advertising and analytics to target consumers precisely and create loyalty programs. Example a
business to consumer, follow-up let their customers fill a personal information form so
that the management can ensure that they can contact them for follow-ups, another
example is special updates and announcements. May it be through email
marketing, residence mailing or online direct messaging; sending special updates and
announcements can be a part of the retention program of businesses.

Viral Marketing - is a marketing phenomenon that facilitates and encourages people to pass
along a marketing message. Nicknamed “viral” because the number of people exposed to a
message mimics the process of passing a virus or disease from one person to another.
Example the hilarious ad from The City of Los Angeles made a huge sensation on Twitter at the
beginning of 2018. The city was looking to hire a professional graphic designer so they made a

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funny visual ad letting people know that currently, someone without any graphics skills is doing
their marketing materials. Could be one of the city’s employees or a child. Funny as it may be,
the ad was retweeted (28,738 Retweets), and people actually applied for the job, because the
layout included The City of Los Angeles’ real logo and a tempting salary package.

Green Marketing - refers to the development and marketing of products that are presumed to be
environmentally safe (i.e., designed to minimize negative effects on the physical environment or
to improve its quality). This term may also be used to describe efforts to produce, promote,
package, and reclaim products in a manner that is sensitive or responsive to ecological
concerns. Like, not containing toxic materials or Produced from recycled materials or able to be
recycled.

Keyword Marketing - involves placing a marketing message in front of users based on the
specific keywords and phrases they are using to search. A key advantage of this method is that
it gives marketers the ability to reach the right people with the right message at the right time.
For many marketers, keyword marketing results in the placement of an ad when certain
keywords are entered. For example, assume a Web surfer enters “buy widgets online” as a
search phrase. First, we know the potential visitor is interested in widgets. Specifically, they are
interested in buying widgets. Better yet, they are looking to buy online. This three word search
phrase tells us much about what the Web surfer is looking for at that exact moment in time.

Guerilla Marketing - describes an unconventional and creative marketing strategy intended to

get maximum results from minimal resources. It takes consumers by surprise, makes an
indelible impression, and pops up where and when people least expect it. Example the Kitkat
(chocolates) benches in different areas like park and groceries.

4 P’s of Marketing

Product - is defined as a bundle of attributes (features, functions, benefits, and uses) capable of
exchange or use; usually a mix of tangible and intangible forms. Thus a product may be an idea,
a physical entity (a good), or a service, or any combination of the three. It exists for the purpose
of exchange in the satisfaction of individual and organizational objectives. While the term
“products and services” is occasionally used, product is a term that encompasses
both goods and services.

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Price - is the formal ratio that indicates the quantity of money, goods, or services needed to
acquire a given quantity of goods or services. It is the amount a customer must pay to acquire
a product.

Place (Or Distribution) - refers to the act of marketing and carrying products to consumers. It is
also used to describe the extent of market coverage for a given product. In the 4Ps, distribution
is represented by place or placement.

Promotion - According to the Association of National Advertisers (ANA), promotion

marketing includes tactics that encourage short-term purchase, influence trial and quantity of
purchase, and are very measurable in volume, share and profit. Examples
include coupons, sweepstakes, rebates, premiums, special packaging, cause-related marketing
and licensing.

ACTIVITY / ASSESSMENT

Enumerate similarities and differences of the three allied fields discussed.

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 MODULE 5: SIX INFORMATION REVOLUTION
Prepared by: Prof. Milagros M. de la Costa

Overview:

What would constitute as information revolution? The word revolution implies a sudden and
often violent change, but revolutions can also be more subtle, evolving over decades, even
centuries. For this Module, let us think of the word revolution as profound changes that has
affected entire societies, shaken political structures, influenced economic developments, altered
communal activities and personal behavior. All these caused by the development of new
communication tools.

The discussion in the following pages is based on the book “A History of Mass Communication:
Six Information Revolutions” by Irving Fang.

Learning Objectives:

1. To know the six periods in history that fit the description of an information revolution.

2. To know the various means of communication that was invented, its development, how it
influenced the society it grew from as well as the effects on the next generations.

Learning Outcomes:

1. Integrates academic preparations and practical applications necessary in communication

and life- long learning.

LESSON 1: THE FIRST REVOLUTION - WRITING

The Invention of Writing

It was in the Nile delta of Egypt, along the banks of the Indus in northwest India, the Yellow in
China, and the Tigris and Euphrates in the part of Mesopotamia (that is now Iraq), where the
Sumerians once lived. Their communities grew, conquests united them, governments followed,
and commerce spread. Priests required tribute to the gods and tax collectors came calling for
much of what was left. All of this getting and giving required writing and record keeping.

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On what medium were all these records, these calendars and contracts, these land deeds and
calculations kept? To be practical the medium had to be transportable, storable, reasonably
permanent, readily made, and cheap. The writing had to be fixed, so a contract, government
document, or religious proclamation could not be altered. The writers of documents would get
what they needed, for even at this early stage of history, the requirements of the users were
driving the technology. Writing would be the foundation of progress. The tools themselves were
ordinary, humble things.

Writing on Clay

At about 8,000 B.C. in Sumer, small clay triangles, spheres, cones, and other tokens were
molded to represent sheep, measures of grain, jars of oil, and other trading goods. These
tokens served a community as a means of keeping track of goods for the purpose of pooling
and redistributing the community's resources. As status symbols for the elite members of the
community, they were sometimes placed in burial sites. The tokens also indicated gifts brought
to the temple for the gods, or brought to a ruler as tribute, or yielded with the best possible
grace to the tax gatherer. At first they pressed on the clay tokens while still soft for identification.
The next step toward writing was taken by scratching a representation of the token in the clay.
The earliest Sumerian writings were pictographs, simple drawings of objects. Archaeological
diggings at Uruk showed that the Sumerians advanced to ideographic writing, in which an image
or symbol might stand for one or more objects; a symbol could also represent a concept. Writing
on clay tablets with cuneiform script developed into a tool that was able to communicate ideas.

Skin and Bones and Papyrus

Animal skins and bones, palm leaves and oak tree bark, wood and wax, metal and stone,
seashells and pottery, silk and cotton, jade and ivory from elephant tusks have all been used to
store humankind's memory. Homer's Iliad speaks of messages written on wood. In Roman
times, wax coated the wood. That permitted reuse, as the wax could be warmed and smoothed
over, an early recycling program. The reply to a letter might be written on the same letter while
the messenger waited. Officials in Julius Caesar's government used such wax tablets to provide
a daily bulletin exhibited in public places like the Forum of Rome. This was the Acta Diurna.
They functioned like an early newspaper for the Roman citizenry.

The familiar vocabulary of the written word began to take shape. Researchers speak of early
writing on leaves and tree bark. From the practice of writing on palm leaves comes our use of

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leaf as a page of a book. The Latin word liber, referring to the inner bark of trees, gives us
library. From the Anglo-Saxon boc, also meaning bark, we get book. The word paper itself
comes from the word papyrus. The Greek word for papyrus was Byblos, after the Phoenician
city of Byblos, home of sea traders who carried the bales of papyrus to the Greek cities. From
byblos comes the word bible, meaning book or book.

Although the medium of clay offered permanent writing and record keeping, plus widespread
availability, its disadvantages of inconvenience and weight limited its value. The makers and
keepers of records required something different, a medium that ideally was plentiful, cheap,
lightweight, and reasonably durable in the short run.

Papyrus in Egypt

Ancient Egyptians found it in the Nile river delta, the reed called papyrus, growing 10 feet high
along its banks. From it, peasants constructed boats and huts. Workers split the reeds into thin
strips, placed one layer crosswise over another in close-set rows, hammered them gently for a
couple of hours, and let them dry in the sun. A seashell or a piece of ivory was used to smooth
the resulting sheets. The product of this effort weighed little but lasted for years. Glue fastened
the sheets end to end to make a scroll. It could be rolled up for convenient transport and
storage.

When writing shifted from priestly control to widespread use, Egypt under the pharaohs around
2000 B.C., underwent a transformation from absolute monarchy to a more egalitarian system of
organization that coincided with a shift to papyrus as a medium of communication. The flow of
power from a tightly organized class led by the pharaohs and the priests, resulted to a
decentralization of command. A government that depended upon absolute and centralized
control, such as that of the pharaohs, weakened as Egyptian minor officials discovered the ease
with which they could communicate with each other. The increased writing was accompanied
by secularization of writing and of increased thought and activity. Writing on papyrus was
quicker and more relaxed, even hasty, compared to the stiff and formal stone chiseling.

In Egypt and Mesopotamia, the scribes who learned to read and write (considered as
programmers of the ancient world) enjoyed a high social status because writing was considered
as complex and took much study to learn. The scribe's craft even attracted recruits from the
privileged classes. For slave and freeman, literacy became a skill worth achieving, a path to a
better life. The literate, those who could write and read contracts, oversee commercial dealings,

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and engage in exchanges of diplomatic notes, achieved a measure of influence. Illiterates hired
scribes if it was necessary to control copy.

Figure 15
An Egyptian scribe, usually a
slave, kept the household accounts
and wrote letters for his master.
Scribes also copied books.

Reeds gathered along the Nile would make Egypt a paper mill to other civilizations for an
estimated 3,000 years, an astonishing span. Ships leaving the port city of Alexandria carried
bales of papyrus to Athens, Rome, and hundreds of other cities as literacy spread.

Papyrus in Greek Hands

Papyrus widened Greek influence because the Greeks were the source of so much of the
Mediterranean world's teaching. The Ptolemies (royal family) who ruled Egypt and controlled the
papyrus industry were of Greek origin. The Egyptian queen Cleopatra was descended from one
of Alexander's generals. Papyrus saw increasing use in the Hellenic world. As Greek influence
dominated Egypt under the Ptolemies, the Greek-controlled port city of Alexandria in Egypt
became the leading source of book publishing. With papyrus and the phonetic alphabet as the
carrier of thought, knowledge and ideas traveled the Hellenic world and returned enriched.

Just like in Egypt, the Greeks, and Romans, trained their slaves as copyists, readers, and, in
Rome, librarians. For literate household slaves, their new life as scribe was infinitely better. The
scribe kept the family's accounts, noted what was bought, what was sold, how much was paid
or received for this and that. The scribe counted the sheaves of wheat and the sheep going to
market, recorded the tribute given to the tax collectors and to the priests.

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Parchment

Papyrus had its limitations. Manuscripts made from the reeds growing along the banks of the
Nile eventually turned brittle and disintegrated. Only a very few papyri still survive in libraries,
carefully preserved. A further limitation is that papyrus came from one source, Egypt. Something
more durable and more universally available was also manufactured. That was parchment,
made from the skin of a sheep, a calf, or a goat. The skin was scraped clean to remove the
hairs, rubbed smooth with pumice stone, then dressed in chalk and lime. Ancient writers also
used vellum, the thin and supple skin of unborn lambs or kids. Like papyrus, parchment was
rolled up as books, with their edges fastened, page after page, or folded into books, their pages
cut and bound for turning. Both were relatively cheap and easily transported. Parchment had
some advantages. It could take writing on both sides. It was sturdy and durable, which
schoolchildren and travelers appreciated, but less so the scribes, for writing on parchment took
some physical effort. It was actually recyclable, because the ink could be removed, and the
parchment written on again. Perhaps its greatest advantage was that it could be fabricated
anywhere there were sheep. Papyrus grew only in the Nile Valley. Parchment also resisted time
better than papyrus. Old parchment documents still exist, but almost no papyrus from ancient
times. Both were to continue in use for centuries, interchangeable as writing media.

Other Writing Surfaces

Half a world away, another culture, older and more firmly established than the Greek, had long
ago learned to rely upon a different, non-alphabetic writing, and upon paper, a medium much
cheaper to produce. Yet China, where paper and printing with movable type were invented,
would never give rise to an information revolution.

Paper would not be made from trees until nearly two thousand years later, but in their
experiments with materials Chinese and Japanese paper makers used mulberry bark for paper
that has remained in perfect condition to this day.

Dark Ages

The information revolution gathered strength over the next century as the first readers came into
being. During the following three centuries, there would be an outpouring of intellectual, artistic,
and political ideas such as the world had never seen before. By the seventh century B.C., the
Greeks must have had papyrus. Throughout the Mediterranean world, words on papyrus led to

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a knowledge explosion as scrolls reached isolated scholars. Aristotle could not have gathered
the body of known knowledge without the means of creating a permanent record on a storable
medium. Science and medicine could not have advanced as they did without ideas,
conclusions, and reports of experiments written on a transportable medium. By the time of
Aristotle in the fourth century B.C., the Greeks, especially the Athenians, had a reading public,
some collections of books, and of libraries.

The burst of Greek lyric poetry has been attributed to cheap papyrus. Access to supplies of
papyrus brought the copying of books and perhaps the first private collections. By the fifth
century B.C., in Greece a book market existed. In the cities, free people are learning to read and
write. Athens created a public depository of books in 330 B.C., during the lifetime of Aristotle,
who according to the Greek historian Strabo, was the first book collector; it was Aristotle who
taught the kings of Egypt to set up proper libraries instead of mere collections of books, and it is
from his collections that we have the word museum. With Aristotle the Greek world passed from
oral instruction to the habit of reading. Others made great strides in mathematics, medicine,
astronomy, geography, and biology. After Aristotle, the Hellenic world had a new reality, a
written culture functioning alongside its oral culture. Life would no longer be the same. In a
sense, the first information revolution had ended, and had been a success, although virtually by
definition a successful revolution never ends.

ACTIVITY/ ASSESSMENT

Submit ALL activities on a separate sheet.

Enumerate and explain the various ways papyrus affected ancient Egypt and its people.

LESSON 2. THE SECOND REVOLUTION - PRINTING

Overview:

The Dark Ages of European civilization had lasted for almost a thousand years. Starting in India
or China, the bubonic plague swept across Asia and into Europe. Perhaps 20 million people

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died in Europe alone, but no one can ever know. Paris, Florence, and Vienna had the most
victims. Entire villages were wiped out. Almost everyone expected to die.

News from afar came at third and fourth hand from itinerant monks, soldiers, peddlers, couriers,
and the pardoners who traveled from town to town selling absolution from sin. For the most part,
people neither knew nor cared how the rest of the world fared. For the few common men who
were fortunate enough to be literate, not much was available to be read, and what literacy
existed was held in low regard. Most nobles, even kings, could neither read nor write. Medieval
bishops encouraged civil illiteracy. The Bible could not be translated into the vernacular. Only
the clergy could possess copies, in Latin. Yet, the ranks of those with some measure of
education had expanded.

Finally, technology was bringing change. Cheap, locally produced paper was replacing papyrus.
It is in this era where literacy started to spread. By the end of the century, literacy was being
considered a test for intelligence. Limited as it was, the mass of writing had multiplied
considerably. For the scholar, there were, in addition to the Bible, books on the various arts and
sciences, plus romances and other diverting topics.

Learning Objectives:

1. To know how the invention of paper and printing spread literacy.

2. To understand how the diffusion of printing across the world led to decentralization of
(people in) authority and influence.

Learning Outcomes

1. Integrates academic preparations and practical applications necessary in

communication and life-long learning.

Origins of Paper

The invention of paper in China is credited to a eunuch, Ts'ai Lun, the emperor's minister of
public works, in 105 A.D., although he may have been given credit for someone else's invention.
The clever inventor may have observed the wasp, which chews plants into a moist pulp and
presses them into layers for its nest. The inventor tore rags apart into fibers, soaked them in
water and beat them into a pulp, then pressed the pulp flat in a screen, and allowed the thin
sheets of pulp to dry. The resultant paper held together, could be cut to any size, and could be

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written upon. Further experiments showed that linen, hemp, even fish nets and tree bark could
be used to make paper. A hairbrush served as the writing instrument, with ink from lamp black.

Approximately during the same period that the ancient Greeks were wrestling with political ideas
along with a great expansion of knowledge in several fields, the Chinese were also advancing in
medical theory, mathematics, philosophy, and technology generally far ahead of anything in the
West. Yet, in China there was no possibility of radical change. Free debate in an open society
did not exist. Dynasties might change, but imperial rule remained untouchable.

For 500 years after its invention, paper was made only in China. Then Buddhist priests carried
the secrets of paper and ink making to Korea and Japan, where the papermaker's art developed
in unique ways.

Paper Moves West

Paper craft also began its long journey west. When the Arabs captured Samarkand in 751, they
discovered among their prisoners several Chinese papermakers. According to one version the
men voluntarily gave up the secrets of their craft; another version claims they did so only under
torture. From them the Arabs learned the papermaker's art. A large industry of papermaking
grew in Samarkand, then traveled the Silk Road to Baghdad and Damascus, which was to
supply Europe with paper for several centuries. Islamic civilization was at its height. Its famed
love of learning was well served by this new art. Paper replaced papyrus even in Egypt.

Books and Libraries

The book production of the monasteries was almost exclusively limited to church scholars and
the schools that the monasteries kept for their novices.

Figure 16
In a monastery, scriptorium monks
copied books onto parchment, a
prepared animal skin, usually from
a sheep or a goat.

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For nearly a thousand years, from the fall of Rome to the introduction of the printing press, the
monasteries kept the sputtering flame of knowledge. Monks, hunched over their desks,
painstakingly hand lettered and painted manuscripts magnificently to reproduce books,
incunabula, for libraries and cathedrals. Reading in the medieval monastery did not always
mean what we mean today. Reading usually meant that the master read to the students. Books
of the period were meant to be read aloud. The cost of books and the limited number of readers
permitted no other choice.

The founding of universities, beginning in Bologna in 1158, shook the monopoly of the
monasteries over the production and distribution of books, knowledge, and information. With the
rise in book production, literature could be absorbed in privacy instead of by sitting in an
audience to hear it.

The First Newspapers

The first newspaper may have been the Latin news periodical Mercurius Gallo-Belgicus printed
in Cologne starting in 1594. The idea of the newspaper soon spread across western Europe. It
reached the American colonies in 1690.

The spreading of literacy, which printing made possible, led during the 17th and 18th centuries
to news about public affairs and the establishment of a base of public opinion that governments
ignored at their peril. Commoners steeped in book learning were now sitting in the highest
councils of government. An unintended consequence of the printing of news, whether by
newsbook, newsletter, newssheet, or newspaper, was that it chipped away at authority. Public
started to question authority. News printing helped to undermine the concept of the Divine Right
of Kings. The printing of news was awaited so eagerly, even by illiterate commoners who
listened to reports read aloud, that those in power found themselves obliged to publish in order
to assure support.

Printing and Literacy

Printing spread literacy. Literacy spread printing. Together they created the modern world. In
Europe, for more than one thousand years, Latin was the international language and the
language of diplomacy, just as Chinese was in the Far East and English is today all over the
world. Latin was the language of scholars and schoolboys, the language of books, the language
used to communicate with God. Then came printing, and with it the publication of books in the

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vernacular or local dialect in the streets of Europe. With the shift to printing in vernaculars, over
a period of centuries Latin itself, along with those other classical languages whose knowledge
once signified the scholar, Greek and Hebrew, fell into disuse except for formal prayer.

What literacy existed was mostly for men though. Women were not expected to be schooled
and just a modest percentage could read. Among women of the poorer classes, literacy
probably did not exist.

Printing and literacy were engines that helped to fuel the religious Reformation, the secular
Renaissance, a spirit of nationalism, and the growth of mercantilism. Over several centuries the
printing presses broke down the feudal system of kings and barons. Priests lost the exclusive
prerogative of interpreting the Bible. The rigid social structure that determined a man's fate from
the day of his birth crumbled as men empowered by literacy dared to reach out in new
directions. Printing gave a boost to the people’s lives.

China’s Printing and Gutenberg

The oldest book surviving today is a religious work dated 868, the Diamond Sutra, on a roll 16
feet long, a Chinese version of Buddhist scripture. So far, “no positive documentary evidence
has yet been found to show that European block printing came from the Far East at all. But
strong circumstantial evidence leads to the conviction that either through Russia, through
Europeans in China, through Persia, or through Egypt—perhaps through several or all of these
routes—the influence of the block printing of China entered the European world during the time
of the Mongol Empire and the years immediately following and had its part in bringing about the
rise and gradual development of that activity which in turn paved the way for Gutenberg's
invention.

What Gutenberg produced that did not exist in Asia was a printing system. Most obvious among
its elements were controlled, exact dimensions of alphabet type cast from metal punches made
of hardened steel. In inventing printing, Gutenberg had also invented industrial repetition. The
information revolution that he began in the fifteenth century would flower in the industrial
revolution of the nineteenth century.

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 Activity:

During this period, nobles and kings could neither read nor write. Bishops encouraged illiteracy.
In your own opinion, why is this the case?

LESSON 3: THIRD REVOLUTION - MASS MEDIA

Beginning around the time of the American and French revolutions, the Industrial Revolution
would create mass society. It would bring much to improve life: cheap cotton for clothing, cheap
pottery for dishes, mass produced furniture, cheap coal to fuel factories, cheap transportation
for people and goods. The Industrial Revolution also brought the misery of grueling labor, often
for longer hours than in pre-industrial times, the breakup of families, machinery accidents, job
insecurity, employers who cared for machines not workers, sudden spurts in food prices, and
the lack of any cushion for illness or aging.

The Industrial Revolution put print into unaccustomed hands. It created books and magazines,
which it shelved in city libraries, and it trained minds to read them. It printed newspapers for
everyone and filled them with the kind of news and advertising to which everyone could
respond. And as it did all these things to open people's minds, it led them into mental seclusion
at the same time. This is because reading is not a collective activity in a family setting or a
literary salon but a solitary and silent one.

The Industrial Revolution brought to printing the advantages of mass production—a greater
output of printed material at a far lower cost. Paper supply, however, would remain a problem
for decades more, because it still depended on rags as raw material. During the 1880s, a new
method, electrotyping, improved the quality of printing, especially of photographs. The problem
of how to put photographs in newspapers and magazines was solved and would get better with
time. The public loved seeing pictures with their news.

Learning Objectives

1. To understand the newspaper business during the industrial revolution.

2. To know the humble beginnings of photography, telegraphy, telephone, radio and
movies and their use in that era.

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Learning Outcomes

1. Integrates academic preparations and practical applications necessary in communication

and life-long learning.

Paper for Everyone

In 1719 a French scientist, advised papermakers to learn from a type of wasp that built its nest
out of dry wood that it mixed with its saliva to form a paste. The wasp smeared the paste in thin,
overlapping strips that strongly resembled paper. Little was done with the idea of using wood
pulp until German papermakers eventually picked up the concept. The first wood pulp paper
machines were finally manufactured in the 1840s, and by the end of the nineteenth century, the
price of paper plummeted.

Newspaper Business

The early decades of the nineteenth century saw newspapers

thriving. Trade and political newspaper were so expensive
the average person possibly might not have even been aware
of the existence of such a thing -- a newspaper. Until the
PENNY PRESS came.

Figure 17
To increase readership, the penny press
newspapers were sold for the first time by
“paper boys”.

The newspaper for the workingman. For a penny, the popular press competed not with the older
type of newspapers which was expensive, but rather with the small cakes and apples that sold
on the streets for a penny. Copies of the New York Sun were hawked on street corners.

The effect of cheap newspaper on newspaper readership was immediate and astonishing.
Between 1830 and 1840 the number of daily newspapers more than doubled. A penny or two

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brought news about people in unusual circumstances to masses of ordinary people who lacked
interest in either commerce or politics but were able to read and had a curiosity to satisfy.
Popular journalism delighted in scandal, crime, and other human-interest news. The urban
gentleman regarded these popular newspapers with contempt, buying a copy now and then just
to amuse his family.

To capture readers attention, they published a new kind of information, the unimportant but
interesting item. The publishers did not flinch at accusations of vulgarity and sensationalism.
Beneath that news item appeared another new kind of information, equally trivial by itself, but
equally significant when seen in its totality, namely the advertisement that could be addressed
to a mass audience. Mass communication made possible mass advertising that created the
appetites leading to mass consumption, which in its turn gave purpose to mass production.

Photography

The start of photography was with the camera obscura,

from the Latin camera (room) and obscura (dark). During
the sixteenth century in Italy, the camera obscura was
used to aid in drafting and painting. It has a peephole, a
lens, and sometimes a mirror, plus a pane of glass. The
artist would then put a thin sheet of paper to trace the
reflected image in order to preserve it.

Figure 18. Camera Obscura

Chemical discoveries eventually paved the way in

capturing reality as it existed, not drawn, or traced with an ordinary pencil. A German scientist,
Johann Schulze, noticed that a bottle filled with a certain silver compound turned violet black
on the side exposed to sunshine. In 1827, exactly one century after Schulze's publication of his
discovery, and following a decade of experimenting with various chemicals, a French inventor,
Joseph Niepce, used a camera obscura to produce the world's first true photograph, the
courtyard outside his window. On a trip to Paris, Niepce met Louis Daguerre, a painter and
theatrical producer, who was also trying to capture a camera image. They eventually became
partners. After Niepce's death, Daguerre went on to improve the process, and in 1837 he
produced a photograph of surprising quality, a still life with tones of light and shadow. Not long,
improvements spread quickly to the growing numbers of amateur photographers

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By the 1850s, the cost of having a photograph taken had dropped enough to make it available
to the common man. Family pictures were popular, especially pictures of children, partly
because of their high mortality rate. Many children died of epidemics like measles that today are
usually under control. One advertising line was: "Secure the shadow 'ere the substance fade."
Photographers in the mid-nineteenth century advertised their readiness to take pictures of the
dead in their coffins.

Realizing that they had in their hands a new way to record history, travelers could hardly wait to
haul their heavy cameras and darkroom equipment to distant corners of the world.
Photographers needed wagons to haul around hundreds of pounds of bottled chemicals, plus
the glass plates, dishes, measures, funnels, and a water pail, to say nothing of the heavy
camera, lenses, and tripod. For the first time in history, people safe at home saw a little of what
went on in a war. They would soon see much more the grim pictures of the aftermath of battles.

Ancient Signals

The word telegraph comes from the Greek, meaning to write at a distance. Efforts of people to
communicate over distance without physical transportation of the information go back at least to
Homer's Iliad when beacon fires heralded the coming of ships. Athenians used signal fires to
warn of a Spartan attack. Roman fires warned of pirate ships. Julius Caesar followed a Persian
practice of stationing soldiers with “leather” lungs on platforms to shout messages back and
forth. The Romans and later the Moors used the heliograph, a mirror of gleaming metal that
flashed in the sunlight. In the sixteenth century, beacon fires gave the English fleet the message
that the Spanish Armada was nearing. American Indians sent smoke signals. Incas had a
system of messengers each of whom ran about a mile at top speed to the next messenger; this
relay system enabled a message to travel at the rate of about 150 miles per day across the Inca
kingdom. No one figured out how to beat the Inca system until the nineteenth century. The
semaphore, a visual telegraph, depended upon the positioning of pairs of torches or flags to
represent an assortment of messages or individual letters

Telegraph

Developed in the 1830s and 1840s by Samuel Morse and other inventors, the telegraph
revolutionized long-distance communication. It worked by transmitting electrical signals over a
wire laid between stations. In addition to helping invent the telegraph, Samuel Morse developed
a code (Morse code) that assigned a set of dots and dashes to each letter of the alphabet for

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the simple transmission of complex messages across telegraph lines. Although the telegraph
had fallen out of widespread use by the start of the 21st century, replaced by the telephone, fax
machine and Internet, it laid the groundwork for the communications revolutions that let to those
later innovations.

With information now moving from city to city at lightning speed, prices of goods became more
uniform, a function of national supply and demand instead of local conditions. Thanks to both
the railroad and the telegraph, prices declined. In Europe, a cable laid under the English
Channel tied England to France in 1851. Others soon were in operation connecting England to
Ireland, and Denmark to Sweden. Then Europe and Africa were linked by a cable across the
Mediterranean Sea. In 1866, after several failures, the first transatlantic cable was laid between
England and Canada by the Great Eastern, which was five times the size of any other ship
afloat, the world's largest ship.56 Cables reached Australia in 1902 and Shanghai, China, in
1906. Now, especially for trade and politics, the world's most powerful nations linked themselves
in a web of instant information. The web would not eliminate misunderstandings or wars no
matter how much it was thickened by additional strands, but it could be said that these first
under-the-sea cables created a sea change in how peoples dealt with each other.

Its Role in Transmitting News

The telegraph found other uses besides sending business information. Its ability to transmit
news dispatches transformed the entire newspaper industry. News gathering from distant
points was time consuming, linked as it was to the
slow modes of transportation. Like any message, first
the news had to be reduced to writing. Then, the
written report had to be put on a steamer, carriage,
horse, or train, carried on foot, or, more likely, a
combination of these to get to the printing house.
With the telegraph the time that news took to be
published dropped from more than ten days to one

Figure 19
day.
Morse Telegraph key. Used by a trained
operator to transmit text messages in
Morse code.

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Telephone

For a telegraph message, the current flows and

is broken, again and again. To transmit a voice, a
continuous current must be modified. Alexander
Graham Bell, assisted by young Thomas
Watson, eventually was able to verify an old idea
he had that he could transmit the human voice
"telegraphically" by wire if he could vary an
electrical current exactly as air pressure varies
when words are spoken. On March 10, 1876,
Figure 20
Bell said to his assistant from an adjoining room, Telegraph register. A receiver of telegraph
messages which produces sounds of “dots” and
"Mr. Watson, come here. I want you." And the
“dashes” that represent text characters in Morse
telephone was born. code.

The telephone then was regarded as a status symbol not to be shared by the lower classes,
objecting to any widening of access to the Bell system by such devices as coin-operated public
telephones or telephone directories available to the general public. The notion of the telephone
as a public utility was still years in the distance when a Washington, D.C., hotel proprietor had to
go to court to prevent the local telephone company from shutting off his service because he
allowed guests to use the phone in the lobby. In Leicester, England, telephone officials rebuked
a subscriber for calling the fire brigade, noting that the fire was not on his property. An appeal to
the postmaster-general brought the ruling that it was acceptable to use a telephone in the event
of fires and riots.

Radio

The history of radio went through two distinct periods of social use, point-to-point
communication, and broadcasting. Point-to-point communication began as wireless telegraphy
and became wireless telephony. Wireless telegraphy, like the telegraph, with messages going
from one point to another using dots and dashes. Wireless telephony, like the telephone, was
voices, with messages from one point to another. Their primary usage was and is business
communication, such as from ship-to-shore. Broadcasting, whose purpose is information and
entertainment, carries voices, music, and all other sounds, going from one point to many points.

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Origins of Radio

In the early part of the nineteenth century, the period of great discoveries about the nature of
electricity, English scientist Michael Faraday and American scientist Joseph Henry published
reports of their inquiries into the connection between electricity and magnetism. Telegraph
engineers, as they labored to solve problems, added more information. A Scottish physicist,
James Clerk Maxwell, went beyond what was known about electromagnetism with a far-
reaching theory of invisible waves. Although he did not try to prove his theory of electromagnetic
fields, others did. In 1887, a German physicist, Heinrich Hertz, supported Maxwell's theory
through experiments that sent electrical current through the air in the form of waves.

Guglielmo Marconi, son of a well-to-do Italian landowner and his Irish wife, a member of the
Jameson Whiskey family, would prove to be a very sharp businessman as he followed Hertz's
trail. The teenage Marconi was entranced with the idea that radio experiments might be taken
out of the lab and into a money-making business. By good luck a well-known physics professor,
was a neighbor to the Marconis, and agreed to offer guidance to the boy. Studying and
experimenting on the family estate, Marconi began by repeating Hertz's transmission of a few
yards. In 1894, the same year that Lodge gave his demonstration, Marconi was able to open
and close a relay to send a current through a coherer to sound a buzzer 30 feet away. Moving
outdoors, he figured that he could increase the range by elevating the signal. After constructing
an antenna, Marconi was able to receive the buzzer's sound more than two miles away on the
other side of a hill. According to the tale, one day by accident he left part of his antenna on the
ground while he held part in the air. To Marconi's surprise, the signal was greatly improved.
Marconi continued to design new antennae by trial and error. He was soon able to send Morse
Code dots and dashes for miles across the hills around his home. It was an era when
instantaneous communications were limited by where telegraph and telephone wires ran, when
ships at sea had no way to receive information from the outside world and no way to signal for
help if they were in distress.

Marconi's mother realized the business possibilities in being able to send telegraph messages
without wires, especially ship-to-ship and ship-to-shore. She applied to the Italian Ministry of
Posts and Telegraphs, which turned the invention down. They saw no value in it. Annie
Jameson Marconi now turned to her wealthy and politically well-connected relatives. She and
her son traveled with his equipment to England, where Marconi gave a demonstration across
nine miles for telephone and telegraph officials of the British Post Office. Marconi demonstrated

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the use of wireless to the nation with the world's greatest navy. This time the British were
interested.

Other inventors and scientists, seeing the potential for making a fortune, busily developed their
own systems and applied for patents whenever they designed an improved piece of equipment.
Inventions were coming from, among others, Oliver Lodge in England, and Reginald
Fessenden, Lee de Forest, John Stone, and E. Howard Armstrong in the United States. Over
the years, they battled each other in the marketplace and in the courts, exhausting their time,
money, and energy for patent.

From his laboratory at Brant Rock, Massachusetts, Fessenden was the first to publicly send a
human voice over a radio frequency. It was on Christmas Eve in 1906. Except for some
reporters and a few amateurs, his audience could not have consisted of more than a few
amazed Marconi operators on duty at their posts on ships and at shore stations to hear a voice
at Christmas reciting a biblical passage. Fessenden also sang, played the violin, and broadcast
phonograph music.

How Movies were born

Railroad baron Leland Stanford, ex-governor of California and founder of Stanford University,
wanted to settle a bet with a friend on whether a trotting horse lifted all four hooves off the
ground at the same time. He hired
professional photographer Eadweard
Muybridge, who, after several trials,
set a row of twenty-four cameras
along a racetrack. Strings that would
trip the camera shutters stretched
across the track. The result in 1878
was a series of stills that, flipped in
rapid succession, displayed the
horse in motion (Stanford won his
bet; all four feet were off the ground).

Figure 21. Horse in Motion by Eadweard Muybridge

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Etienne Jules Marey (a physician doing research on animal locomotion) expeimented as well
but instead of using a lot of cameras, as Muybridge had done, built a single camera that could
rapidly shoot a series of pictures on a single plate and did not require strings. Soon inventors in
several countries were solving the mechanical difficulties standing in the way of motion pictures.
Among them were William Friese-Greene in England and the brothers Louis and Auguste
Lumiere in France. W.K.L. Dickson in the years 1891 and 1892 invented the Kinetograph
camera and the motor-driven Kinetoscope, which ran 50 feet of film in about 30 seconds.
Sprockets guided the film's perforated edges past the lens with a controlled, intermittent
movement like the ticking second hand of a watch. Here was the peep show, one viewer at a
time. Dickson in the years 1891 and 1892 invented the Kinetograph camera and the motor-
driven Kinetoscope, which ran 50 feet of film in about 30 seconds. Sprockets guided the film's
perforated edges past the lens with a controlled, intermittent movement like the ticking second
hand of a watch. Here was the peep show, one viewer at a time. Customers paid 25 cents upon
entering, which gave them tickets allowing them to peep into five machines. Start the electric
motor, gaze into the peep hole, and there was magic! The viewer stared into a box to see the
frames of film flicker by.

In France, the Lumiere brothers, Louis and Auguste, owners of a photographic products
manufacturing business, saw a Kinetoscope on display in Paris and set about to improve it.
They were able to project their films onto a screen for an audience, whereas the Kinetoscope
accommodated only one viewer at a time.

Projected Movies

The audiences were drawn not primarily from the wealthy or the middle class, but mostly from
the multitudes of the poor who could not afford the price of vaudeville shows. The very first
Lumiere and Edison films were actualities or scenes from real life: people in a park, workers
leaving a factory, a man playing a fiddle, a baby being fed, a parade. In time, audiences tired of
this. Motion pictures might have ended as just another novelty. What made the difference was
fiction.

Activity:
What do you think is the best invention during this period? Explain your answer.

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LESSON 4: The Fourth Revolution – Entertainment

As the Industrial Revolution gained strength, it gave rise not only to mass information, but to
mass entertainment. Thanks to assembly lines and new technology, people could afford to buy
cameras to take pictures of each other and their annual vacations. They put Victrolas in their
parlors. They bought novels and magazines. In the new century, they went each week to the
picture show. A few went from nickelodeon to nickelodeon. An entertainment industry grew to
feed a discovered public hunger for packaged pleasure, the world's fourth information
revolution.

Learning Objective

1. To know about the mediums during this time that made this period an entertainment era.
2. To know how the existing mediums evolved in order to survive.

Learning Outcome

1. Integrates academic preparations and practical applications necessary in

communication and life-long learning.

Novel

In the eighteenth century, a new literary form emerged in England and spread to Europe and the
United States. The novel, a product of middle-class sensibilities and morality, put fictional
characters through a complex of events within a recognizable social setting. The key element in
an English novel was the gain or loss of social status, a topic that preyed on the minds of the
middle-class readers. From its beginnings until the twentieth century, the novel was typically
dominated by class consciousness. Themes that raised social problems or personal foibles
resonated with readers. Popular fiction writers like Charles Dickens serialized their novels in
weekly newspapers and magazines before they appeared between hard covers. To keep the
readers buying magazines, writers ended chapters on a note of suspense. At home, families
read these serialized novels aloud as a form of entertainment. Along the way came the
discovery of a public appetite for novels that were easy to read, did not tax the brain, and were
filled with action, adventure, and romance. Characters, absolutely evil or purely good, were
similar from book to book. Outcomes were predictable. The very predictability of the stories was
one of their most desired features. Purists may sniff at what they term trash, but it certainly sells.

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Phonograph

Back in the mid-1800s if you want to hear music, your only option is to listen while someone
else plays or you yourself play it. This changed when the phonograph was developed (February
1878) as a result of Thomas Edison’s work on two other inventions, the telegraph and the
telephone”. A little scratchy and inaudible by our standards today but Edison’s phonograph was
the first reliable one that can record and play back audio. By buying the records one enjoyed,
the mass public would decide the direction that music took. Without the phonograph record, jazz
would not have sent its notes around the world. Nor would swing, nor rock 'n' roll, nor country,
nor rap. The phonograph brought democracy to music.

Edison was once asked of all his thousand-fold patents, which is his favorite invention? ”I like
the phonograph best” he replied.

Radio Broadcasting

World war I was over. A few radio amateurs were experimenting. Among those experimenting
with radio was Frank Conrad, a Westinghouse Corporation engineer who had manufactured
portable equipment. From the garage of his home in Pittsburgh, he spoke to other amateurs and
broadcast music by placing his microphone next to a Victrola. Conrad asked for postcards from
anyone who could hear him. To his surprise, listeners wrote in to request tunes. So many wrote,
in fact, that Conrad tried to oblige by transmitting the broadcasts according to a schedule. He
added sports scores and some singing and instrument playing by his children. A Pittsburgh
newspaper printed a story about his concerts and his audience swelled. A record store owner
agreed to lend him some phonograph records in return for mentioning the name of the store on
the air. The owner soon discovered that the records Conrad played were in more demand than
any others. In a few other places, experimental broadcasts were going out, but in Pittsburgh
something unique happened. After Home's Department Store advertised wireless sets for sale
so people could listen to Conrad's broadcasts, his employer, Westinghouse, decided to
manufacture inexpensive radio receivers. A major corporation had finally recognized that a
market existed beyond point-to-point transmission. To win customers, Westinghouse followed
Conrad's lead by providing a regular program schedule. It also erected a transmitter at the

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Westinghouse factory, which went on the air with the call letters KDKA on November 2, 1920.
The date was chosen so that the first broadcast could be of the returns of the Harding-Cox
presidential election. A few thousand people tuned in. By 1926, one house in six had a radio.

Money from commercials broadcast nationwide paid for the writers, actors, musicians,
announcers, journalists, producers, engineers, and others who put together the dramas,
comedies, variety shows, children's shows, and news programs that made the radio in the parlor
the favorite place for the family to gather in the evening. Radio stations competed with the
intention of capturing the largest possible audience. Educational broadcasting tried to coexist
with commercial broadcasting but with so much difficulty due to their dependence on donations
to survive. Britain, on the other hand, established the government run British Broadcasting
Corporation, which programmed what those who were in charge believed listeners needed to
hear and should hear. It was—and still is—financially supported by annual license fees on
television sets. Starting in the mid-1950s, the BBC permitted an independent commercial
service, to operate under strict regulation. Many nations followed the British model. Besides
commercials and license fees, a third method evolved for supporting a national broadcasting
system: direct government funding. In authoritarian nations, radio and television stations got
funds from direct grants, which kept the broadcasters firmly attached to the purse strings in the
hands of the government leader.

With the coming of television, radio needed a new format to survive. Recorded music provided a
way for radio stations not only to survive, but to thrive. The number of radio stations has
doubled and redoubled since the arrival of television. Recorded music spun by disk jockeys at
local stations became the primary source of programming by the late 1950s. The joining of radio
and recording made sweet music for both industries.

Owning Cameras

From the time of its invention, photography was more than a means of information. It was a
source of deep personal pleasure. It had also become a medium for artistic expression. By the
end of the nineteenth century, some 50 different types of cameras were manufactured. The
Kodak offered camera owners simplicity, reducing the usual ten or more operations needed for
an exposure to just three: pull the cord, turn the key, press the button. The photographer did not

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need to understand any chemistry. For the first time, anyone could take a picture. Millions soon
did.

Movies that Tell Stories

Movie audiences loved stories. France's George Melies, who had run a magic show, produced
the first openly fiction films. Modern audiences enjoy A Trip to the Moon, as a whimsical
introduction to the history of space flight. Melies was among the first to stretch the film from less
than one minute to an entire reel of 10 to 15 minutes length. This is where NICKELODEON
started. These are small, simple theaters. Exhibitors strung a few of these brief films together in
random fashion as a program. In this way the nickelodeon began, its name reflecting the price
of admission. The first nickelodeon opened in Pittsburgh in 1904. Within a year, 2,500 were
operating. Nickelodeons popped up in every corner of the land, gaudy and brightly lit,
sometimes with a barker out front aided by a loud phonograph to fill up the house.

The wealthy classes did not frequent the nickelodeons, but from their ranks came expressions
of worry that uneducated workingmen and women were being fed revolutionary ideas.
Suggestions were made that the content of the nickelodeons be regulated, censored, or even
suppressed. Some of these suggestions came from saloon owners who were losing customers,
managers of vaudeville houses, and ministers who saw their congregations sharply diminished.
In time, the nickelodeons would indeed be put out of business, but only by better quality
theaters and better shows.

The Coming of Color

At first, a few films were hand painted, frame by frame, clearly an impractical solution. In
another process, scenes were tinted; segments of black-and-white film were simply dipped into
dye so scenes showing a lot of sky might be blue, scenes of a burning building might be tinted
red. An improved method chemically toned the darker areas and shadows, leaving the
highlighted areas clear. These attempts strove to heighten the mood of the film rather than to
add realism. The first patent for a color process was issued in 1897, shortly after movies began.

ACTIVITY/ASSESSMENT
Come up with imaginative and ingenious ideas how books can survive the digital age under its
present form (paper books).

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LESSON 5: THE FIFTH REVOLUTION – THE TOOLSHED HOME

What makes a house a home? It is when your home is equipped with “tools” such as radio,
television, video cassette recorders, newspapers, books, magazines, fax machines and
computers, all of which perform a variety of communication function that make it unnecessary to
leave the comforts of your home. This is when your dwelling is transformed into a toolshed
home. Some of these tools of communication will be discussed further in this lesson.

Learning Objective:

1. To know how television was born and its repercussion on other mediums.
2. To know how cable tv and home video cassette recorder came about.

Learning Outcome:

1. Integrates academic preparations and practical applications necessary in

communication and life-long learning.

TELEVISION’S SCIENTIFIC ROOTS

Television means seeing at a distance. Its roots reach back at least to 1817, when Swedish
scientist Jon Berzelius discovered that selenium, a sulfur-like chemical element that is a
byproduct of copper refining, conducted electricity, depending upon how much light shone upon
it. In 1873, an Irish telegraph operator, Joseph May, by exposing a selenium resistor to light,
sent a signal across the ocean on the Atlantic telegraph cable. Two years later, American
engineer Philip Carey proposed a means of television using a camera containing an array of
selenium cells, each wired to a light bulb in a matching array in a receiver. All this happened
before Marconi sent the first radio signal, even before Alexander Graham Bell patented his
telephone.

English, Italian, German, French, Russian, and American inventors all tried to find the means of
transmitting a picture from one place to another. By 1907 a Russian scientist, Boris Rosing, had
designed an electronic system of wireless transmission using a cathode ray tube. Because of
the turmoil in the years leading up to the Russian Revolution, Rosing, who disappeared during
the revolution, was unable to develop television beyond the laboratory, but two young men
familiar with his work continued along the path. Vladimir Zworykin had been Rosing's assistant.

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Philo Farnsworth, an Idaho teenager, never came within a continent of Rosing, but read about
his work in a popular science magazine. And unknown to Rosing in Russia, an English scientist,
A.A. Campbell Swinton, was following the same electronic path, which started still other
scientists to work on television in their laboratories. When he was still a high school student,
Farnsworth described his idea of electronic television to his chemistry teacher. Encouraged, he
began experimenting. By the time he was 19, supported by some California investors,
Farnsworth acquired the first of many patents and was able to demonstrate a crude image
dissector, the heart of his electronic system. The sensitivity of the image remained rough
compared with the device that Zworykin, who came as an immigrant to the United States, was
constructing at Westinghouse. In 1923, he gave a television demonstration using a camera tube
to transmit a still image to the face of a cathode ray tube. The invention of television is often
dated from Zworykin's 1923 demonstration.

In the 1930’s little by little technical problems were overcome. Television signals and receivers
were improved. This was the time when the excitement of communication inventions was in the
air: the typewriter, the telephone, the motion picture, the phonograph, radio --all developed to a
usable level within a few years of each other. Rapid strides were being made at the same time
in photography and printing.

Television and Radio Programming

In the 1920s, neighbors gathered around the first radio on the block. As television sets were
sold across America in the late 1940s and '50s, people without sets would crowd into a
neighbor's home or stand in front of radio shop window displays to watch. Major studios at first
saw television as a threat to the motion picture industry, not as an additional distribution
channel. In time, television and movies learned to coexist.

With the rapid spread of television, another medium was threatened. Radio broadcasting
seemed on a one-way road to ruin. Station and network assets fled eagerly to the new medium,
taking staff, talent, and energy with it. In the home, the old radio set in the living room is
replaced by the television set. Realizing that the valuable evening hours or prime time, was lost
to television, radio stations focused on drive time or the morning and afternoon hours when
most listeners were on their way to and from work. Radio also came up with a new kind of
programming. The concept of narrowcasting. Each station, instead of reaching for the greatest
possible audience by trying to program for everyone, sought niche markets or just a segment of

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a larger market. This is done by identifying themselves with a unique sound that would
distinguish them from their competitors. A specific sound for a specific target group of audience.
That sound derived not only from the type of music they played, but from the patter of the disk
jockeys, the items chosen for the newscasts, and the types of commercials.

"The Living Room War"

Vietnam war was called "the living room war," when for the first time in history those who lived
far from the scenes of conflict could see the face of war in color, in moving images with sound.
Television brought the reality of war evening after evening into American living rooms, to the
kitchen tables at dinner time, at bedside as citizens woke in the morning or tried to drowse off at
night. Most of the scenes were not ugly, but rather of routine military activity. Still, bringing them
almost every night for years to the family living room must have raised questions in many
families about the need for American troops fighting a war so far away. The purpose it served
became less and less clear. As the war dragged on, pictures landed a harder emotional punch.
Seeing fresh young American faces arriving in Vietnam and rows of body bags awaiting the
return trip was clear evidence to viewers at home that the Vietnam War was not a John Wayne
or Tom Cruise movie. Images of pathetic villagers caught in the midst of carnage, their huts set
ablaze, gave impetus to the anti-war movement. The coverage polarized the public. Many
viewers who strongly supported the war found in the television pictures even more reason for
their support, but those who strongly opposed it were being joined by members of that large
majority of Americans with fairly neutral opinions. Opponents in growing numbers took to the
streets and to the airwaves demanding an end of American military involvement there.
Gradually national sentiment shifted against the Vietnam War. Television coverage was
credited—or blamed, depending on one's point of view—with forcing the war to its end without
the victory that Americans had come to expect of their wars.

CABLE TELEVISION

In the late 1940s Cable tv started as a Community Antenna Television (CATV) system. Many
small communities at this time were too small to support or build and run a television station.
Thus, a CATV system was built merely as retransmission systems that provided clear television
pictures to communities with poor reception. The system received broadcast tv signals off the
air and distributed them over coaxial cable to subscriber’s television receivers for a monthly fee.
The industry grew and evolved into a strong competitor of television.

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And now comes the streaming TV with the likes of Netflix and Amazon! What is in store for
Television in the coming generations?

HOME VIDEO CASSETTE RECORDER (VCR)

Mid 70s the VCR came to our homes. It is more convenient to watch a motion picture at home
than to go to a movie theater. There is no need to dress up. We can stretch out on the sofa. We
can talk to a pal on the phone or leaf through a magazine while the tape rolls. We can stop the
tape to go to the kitchen or the bathroom. We can put the baby to bed and later check the crib.
Stop the movie, start it, back up, and not miss a syllable. Once or twice a week, and especially
on the weekend, we can go to the neighborhood video rental shop to pick up a film or two.

As a result of the appeal of this easygoing lifestyle, we as a society leave the house less often,
socialize less. A pattern of alienation continues that began with our first purchase of a television
set. Our pattern of life is marked by less reading of books, and fewer visits to friends and family.
When adult friends or relatives drop by for an evening, we can fill the hours pleasantly with a
rented movie. When the friends of a son or daughter visit the house, the social activity may be
Nintendo accompanied by a minimum of conversation as each participant is glued to the game
on the television screen. We can keep our own library of movies, just like books, in our
bookcase. This is the toolshed home.

CULTURAL IMPERIALISM

Cultural imperialism is the practice of promoting and imposing a culture, usually that of a
powerful nation over a less powerful society. Government officials in many countries for
example, will not be pleased that their populations have easy access to non-approved
information and culturally unacceptable values, among them consumerism. Among other
problems, poor people who see richness beyond their grasp can become even more dissatisfied
with their own lot, and that is fuel for crime and even revolution. Western movies are seen
privately throughout much of the world where governments limit such imports in their effort to
promote their own national cultures. Among these Western films, pornography is sneaked into
private homes in places where the government forbids such programs. Pirated tapes of the
latest movies pop up everywhere. Videotape flows across the world in a floodtide that
governments and the most powerful entertainment industry corporations seem helpless to stop.

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The United States has been accused of practicing "cultural imperialism" by bringing American
culture and American values into other countries. These nations cannot counter American
movies and television programs with what they can produce themselves because they cannot
afford to make movies that are as attractive as the American product. The remedy of censorship
has been widely attempted, but with only limited effect. Such Western films as Gandhi (India),
Sadat (Egypt), and Missing (Chile) were banned in the countries where their stories unfold, but
nevertheless have been widely seen there on tape.

ACTIVITY:

1. Name other inventions during this period (not mentioned here) that further made the
home, a toolshed one.
2. Give 3 examples of cultural imperialism. Explain briefly

LESSON 6: THE SIXTH REVOLUTION – THE HIGHWAY

Information highway is a buzzword to describe the Internet, online service and other services
that enable people to obtain information from telecommunications networks. It is a platform
where we can get any information about any possible thing going on in the world.

The Information Highway extends communication in three important areas:

1. It provides new media and more communication options, which increase our choices, and
those choices separate us from family and community.

2. It is interactive, which gives users more control of the information and entertainment being
transmitted. Interactivity allows "upstream" requests for "downstream" data feeds. Interactivity
also connects people who will forever remain unseen, unheard, disembodied writers to one
another via e-mail, bulletin boards and other means.

3. It makes distant connections into personal activities. More than ever before, people can work
from home, learn from home, shop from home, and bring distant entertainment into the home,

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all of which has the potential for shaking up society much as the Industrial Revolution did, but in
opposite directions.

Choices

As many means of communication spread through a free and open society, what followed was
greater diversity of channels, of sources, of voices, of content, and of audience. More producers
transmit more material of greater variety to more receivers. This happened because the volume
of material, the pressure of competition, and the desires and needs of the receivers cannot be
accommodated by the existing channels.

What the nineteenth century Industrial Revolution massified, the Information Highway
demassified. Massification was a natural product of the Industrial Revolution. It is a
characteristic of a society engaged in mass production aimed at a mass market with not much
of a variety. Demassification is when the media shifts their products to appeal to certain
audiences, and the largest audiences possible.

Consider for example motion pictures. Only a few major studios controlled the fabrication of this
product. MGM, Warner Bros., Paramount, Columbia, 20th Century Fox, Universal, and a few
others produced movies almost like an assembly line for distribution through fixed channels. A
few other nations had even more controlled production. Today, production companies are
everywhere in the world, forming, dissolving, and reforming. New communication technologies
have created both new ways to make films and new distribution channels undreamed of during
the heyday of the studio system.

Or consider books. When production was limited to what monks copied or what early printing
methods could manage, there was relatively little variety. Well into the nineteenth century there
were people who said the only books necessary to read were the Bible and the Farmer's
Almanac. Now, in libraries and bookstores unfettered by censorship, the problem is abundance,
what to keep on the crowded shelves and which of the new titles to choose from publishing
houses pouring them out like dozens of sorcerer's apprentices.

Because of the popularity of television, radio stations had to target people through their music
preferences. Radio broadcasting became NARROWCASTING, as stations targeted audiences
segmented along age, ethnic, educational, and cultural lines

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Computers

Mass communication was not a consideration during most of the history of the computer, which
can be traced to the ancient abacus used across the Mediterranean civilizations, Asia, and
Africa as a calculating device. Leonardo DaVinci drew a design for a computing machine, and
two seventeenth century philosophers, Blaise Pascal, and Gottfried Leibniz, built working
models.

In the 19th century, a 20-year-old math student at Cambridge University, Charles Babbage,
designed an "engine" to figure tables of numbers that were needed in banking, navigation,
surveying, mathematics, and the sciences. Babbage derived his notion of punch cards to feed
numbers into his engine from their use in the weaving industry, where cards forced threads into
complex patterns on a loom. He designed the Analytical Engine and it was this design that the
basic framework o the computers of today are based on.

Internet

The internet started in the 1960s as a way for government researchers to share information. In
the efforts to build and interconnect computer networks that arose from research and
development in the United States in collaboration with researches in the United Kingdom and
France, the Internet was born.

Today, great quantities of information are uploaded and downloaded over this medium. The
content may even be our own. In the past we read and watch other people’s work. But today,
we are all commentators, publishers, and creators. We can send information from one end of
the world to the other in a few seconds or live in parallel “game worlds”. Personal stories go
public and local issues can even become global at a click of a finger. The sixth information
revolution, the Information Highway, is constructed out of the convergence of computer,
broadcasting, satellite, and visual technologies. Right now, the revolution continues. Who
knows? There may be somebody out there, developing the next tool that will change our day to
day life once again. Maybe tomorrow something radically new will emerge ones more. The
future is brimming with opportunities.

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 Activity:

Name/describe 3 possible inventions or communication technology that may emerge in the

coming decades that may profoundly influence our daily lives.

References

“Camera Obscura Photography.” Getty Images, www.gettyimages.com/photos/camera-obscura.

Fang, Irving E. A History of Mass Communication: Six Information Revolutions. Focal Press,
1997.

Meghanorr. Meghanorr, 6 Nov. 2014, meghanorr.wordpress.com/.

Morse's Telegraph Key,

bnrg.cs.berkeley.edu/~randy/Courses/CS39C.S97/telegraph/morse1.html.

Μαργαλιά, AuthorΚωνσταντίνα. “Eadweard Muybridge – The Horse in Motion.” Ακαδημία

Δημιουργικής Φωτογραφίας, 25 Mar. 2020, leica-academy.gr/en/eadweard-muybridge-
the-horse-in-motion/.

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 MODULE 6: MEDIA
Prepared by Dr. Maria Lourdes D.P. Garcia
Prof. Milagros Dela Costa
Prof. Arapia Ariraya

Overview:
Everyday our lives are touched by media that pervades our society and every social setting
there is today. Module 6 centers of the features and nature of the different media mainly, print,
radio, television, film and emerging media. It includes discussions on the latest trends and
current use of these media including the internet, social media, video games and other
applications. This module will provide awareness and understanding of the different forms of
media as instruments for communication by delivering information and data reaching the
general public.

Learning Objectives:
Learn the nature, history in print, radio television film and emerging media their development,
functions, features, forms, general issues and latest trends. Understand the media potentials
and considering comparative effects.

LESSON 1. PRINT
Print media is any written or pictorial form of communication produced mechanically or
electronically using printing, photocopying, or digital methods from which multiple copies can be
made through automated processes. Narrowly speaking though, print media is any form of ink
and paper communication. Of the various types of print media (brochures, posters, memos etc)
to the reading public, the popular ones are newspapers, books and magazines.

But the Advertising world on the other hand utilizes a variety of print medium because of the
credibility it gives. Investing in printed material signals to customers that you are serious about
your business and that you offer a worthwhile product or service. The printed materials can also
create engagement between the customer and the brand. Print media advertising is a form of
advertising that uses physically printed media, such as magazines and newspapers,
digital media, such as banner ads, mobile advertising, and advertising in social media, in order
to reach its target audiences.

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Local history of Philippine press as well as its current state will be discussed in this lesson as
well as the various types of print media.

Philippine Press: Early Beginnings

The first Philippine newspaper was established in 1811. Del Superior Govierno was published
with the Spanish Governor General himself as editor. Its intended readers were the local
Spaniards and therefore the content was primarily news from Spain. The first daily
newspaper, La Esperanza (1846), also catered to the Spanish elite. It dealt with non-
controversial subjects such as religion, science, and history. The best edited newspaper, Diario
de Manila, was suppressed by the Governor General after 38 years of publication, allegedly for
inciting the Filipinos to rebel against the Spaniards. Meanwhile, the first local publication was El
Ilocano which started in 1893 while the first publication for and by women, El Hogar was
published in 1893.

The history of the free press in the Philippines has its roots in nationalistic newspapers
published in Europe and in the Philippines during the Spanish colonial rule. The aim was to
raise the level of consciousness with respect to oppressive conditions prevailing in the country
then. These newspapers were mainly published and written by the so-called ilustrados.

Foremost among the nationalistic newspapers was the La Solidaridad, the mouthpiece of the
revolution and the fortnightly organ of the Propaganda Movement. Published in Spain, it first
appeared in 1889 with the policy “to work peacefully for social and economic reforms, to expose
the real plight of the Philippines, and to champion liberalism and democracy.”

Other newspapers which advocated for political reforms included Kalayaan (Liberty), the only
issue of which was published 1898. Kalayaan served as the official organ of the
revolutionaries. La Independencia (1898), was the most widely read newspaper of the
revolution. Other newspapers were La Libertad (1898), and El Heraldo de Iloilo (1898).

The use of the power of the pen by the early heroes proved the feasibility of using non-violent
strategies for social and political reforms, a lesson well imbibed by Filipino journalists even
today.

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The American regime saw the introduction of new newspapers published mostly by American
journalists: The Manila Times (1898), The Bounding Billow and Official Gazette (1898), Manila
Daily Bulletin (1900), and the Philippine Free Press (1908). Some of these publications are still
with us today. In 1920, The Philippine Herald, a pro-Filipino newspaper, came out.

When World War II broke out, all publications except those used by the Japanese were
disbanded. Only the Manila Tribune, Taliba, and La Vanguardia were allowed to publish under
regular censorship by the Japanese Imperial Army. However, Filipinos during the period were
not left without an “alternative” media. Underground “newspapers”, mostly typewritten or
mimeographed, proliferated to provide the people with counter information.

The Golden Age of Philippine Journalism

The post-war era to pre-martial law period (1945-1972) is called the golden age of Philippine
journalism. The Philippine press began to be known as “the freest in Asia.” The press functioned
as a real watchdog of the government. It was sensitive to national issues and critical of
government mistakes and abuses.

The press during the period was forced into a “marriage of convenience” with large business
enterprises and political groups. Most of the newspapers were wholly or partly owned by large
business complexes. Some newspapers had control and interest in other media particularly
radio and television.

When martial law was declared on September 21, 1972, the first order issued by the late
President Ferdinand E. Marcos was the “take over and control of all privately owned
newspapers, magazines, radio and television facilities and all other media communications.

To counter propaganda churned out by the pro-government private media and the government’s
own media infrastructure, the so-called alternative press emerged in the 1980s. These were a
handful of tabloid newspapers and some radio stations which defied government instructions on
how to handle news stories.

Newspaper today

Perhaps because it gives priority on its watchdog function, newspaper content tends to be
dominated by government issues and events, inevitably involving government officials a.k.a.

110
politicians. This has resulted in frequent misunderstanding between the “rulers” and the fourth
estate. Government officials often criticize newspapers for inaccurate and sloppy reporting and
even for having a “hidden agenda,” leading to the filing of multi-million libel cases against editors
and journalists. The press regard negative reportage as part of their “watchdog function” and
consider libel suits (and ad boycott) as serious threats to press freedom.

Newspaper pages have served as an effective forum for dialogue (and even debate) on national
and local issues — constitutional amendments or cha cha, Visiting Forces Agreement (VFA),
death penalty, among others. It has succeeded in ventilating local issues into national
consciousness. Another good news is the increasing number of investigative stories focusing on
diverse issues — graft and corruption in government (and business), environment, human
rights, agrarian and urban land reform. Many of these articles had led to investigations by
Congress and other appropriate government agencies. Investigative stories have significantly
enhanced transparency in governance and may have reduced if not prevented abuses and
corruption.

Although our so-called national dailies are still Manila-centric in terms of content, there are now
serious efforts to feature more diverse stories from the regions beyond the traditional natural
and man-made calamities.

A common complaint against the press is its alleged tendency to sensationalize and to focus on
or foment conflict situations. Sensationalism is defined as exaggerating a non-issue/event or a
“minor” one so as to create a startling or scandalous effect.

Critics say that the press resort to this unwritten “editorial policy” in order to “sell” or increase
circulation and of course, attract more advertisers.

Journalists themselves acknowledge that one of their serious problems is “envelopmental

journalism” practiced by some of their colleagues. This refers to envelopes with some money
distributed to journalists in return for a favor — a positive media coverage or an end to negative
publicity. Some unscrupulous journalists have shifted to ATM cards to make the transaction less
obvious.

The other issues often raised focused on the quality of newspaper coverage of specific sectors
— women, children, cultural communities, among others. Women and child rights advocates
have noted a significant increase in the coverage of women’s and children’s issues over the

111
past decade. While this has succeeded in integrating such issues into the mainstream of
national agenda, they also lament the tendency of mass media, including newspapers, to prefer
stories which easily lend to a sensational and controversial slant — child abuse, prostitution,
child labor, and similar stories. On the other hand, equally important but less controversial
stories on malnutrition, lack of access to pre-school and primary health care still need wider and
more sustained coverage.

Although regional news stories have increased, media coverage of the country’s 120 ethnic
groups and cultural communities are still wanting. The limited coverage tend to focus on conflict
situations (tribal wars), calamities, drought and hunger, etc. Stories about their way of life is
almost nil although there is a continuing attempt at preservation of their dances, songs and
ethnographic materials. The more “visible” cultural communities like the Igorots and various
Muslim tribes are most apt to be stereotyped (e.g. tattooed Igorots and fierce-tempered Muslim
tribes).

Computer Age: A Challenge for the Print Media

How are newspapers coping with the advent of new information technology? National dailies
have integrated computers in their operations from news sourcing, gathering, editing, layout and
design to production. Will newspapers be eventually replaced by other new media (e.g., cable
TV and Internet) as main source of news?

Not necessarily, according to the World Trends in the Newspaper Industry as reported in a
national daily recently. The report noted that newspapers have a number of advantages: (1)
strong relationship with readers and advertisers, and (2) high degree of credibility. Online
services are regarded not as replacement but as a supplement to newspapers.

But the newspaper industry will continue to compete with television, cable TV, radio and other
media channels for advertising revenue. This would require more creative news packaging
amidst threats of declining readers in favor of the visual media.

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Advantages and Disadvantages of Print Media

The table 2. below shows the advantages and disadvantages of print media. Compared to
electronic media, mainly the internet, print media does not have a global reach.

Table 2. Advantages and Disavantages of Print Media

ADVANTAGES DISAVANTAGES
Higher frequency of Minimal interaction
viewing Lower accessibility and
Control over appearance ineffective marketing
Holds readers' attention Dullness
Encourage action Lead time
Flexibility Distribution
More accurate targeting Waste
Credibility increases
reader loyalty
Sensory experience

Examples of Print Media

Newspapers and articles are delivered in a frequent and regular manner, and they can be
presented attractively to create interest in the reader. This form also provides accurate and
authentic information about current events locally and worldwide, related to various human-
interest topics like health or entertainment.

To the advertiser, he can choose from a daily newspaper to a weekly tabloid. Different types of
newspaper cater to various audiences and one can select the particular category accordingly.
Advertisers then design press advertisements wherein the size is decided as per the budget of
the client.

Magazines and catalogs go deeper into a particular topic. They can feature stories, interviews,
research or analysis to provide the reader with more details about a specific topic. Unlike
newspapers which provide information on several topics and categories, magazines focus all
their content on something specific and provide in-depth research and information about it.
Some topic examples include fashion, technology, gaming, interior design and fitness.

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To the advertiser, Magazines offer an opportunity to incorporate various techniques and ideas.
Magazines are one such form of print media that give a more specific target group to the client.
The client can make a choice of the particular magazine as per the product.

Books. Print media can come in the form of books. This can be considered a form of cultural
heritage, encompassing scientific reports, history, and literature. Whether it comes in the form
of textbooks, adult literature, or storybooks, this form of print media is a great way to target
people who still enjoy taking their time and going through an entire book about a topic.
Biographies, history and self-help are some of the categories of this type of print media.

Newsletters - also form an important part of print media. These target a specific group of
audience and give information on the product.

Brochures - give detailed information about the product. These are mainly distributed at events
or even at the main outlet when a consumer needs to read in detail about the product.

Posters - are forms of outdoor advertising. The message in a poster has to be brief and eye
catching as it targets a person on the move.

Flyer (pamphlet) - also called a circular, handbill or leaflet, is a form of paper advertisement
intended for wide distribution and typically posted or distributed in a public place. Flyers may be
used by individuals, businesses, or organizations to:

Activity:

Will the newspaper industry as we know it survive the internet age?

References:
Maslog, Crispin. Philippine Communication: An Introduction, 2001
Malinao, Alipio. Journalism for Filipinos
https://mediastudiespressbooks.com/chapter/print-historicaldev/

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https://ncca.gov.ph/ The Print Media: A Tradition of Freedom. RAMON R. TUAZON
disseminationscd/communication/the-print-media-a-tradition-of-
freedom/#:~:text=The%20first%20Philippine%20newspaper%20was,Governor%20General%20
himself%20as%20editor.&text=The%20history%20of%20the%20free,during%20the%20Spanis
h%20colonial%20rule.
https://www.quora.com.What-are-the-different-forms-of-print-media
Turow, Joseph. Media Today: An Introduction to Mass Communication,2014

LESSON 2. RADIO
Radio is the most immediate medium it is a technology using radio waves to carry information,
such as sound, by modulating properties of electromagnetic energy waves transmitted through
space, such as their amplitude, frequency, phase, or pulse width.

Advances in technology have given people more ways to access an increasing amount of
information. However, radio still plays a vital role in today’s world. Radio is more than just
announcers, news and songs. Radio is about companionship and the emotional connection with
the listener.

Radio broadcasts provide real-time information, and some that broadcast 24 hours a day, can
provide the most recent updates to listeners. Radio has the ability to reach across borders and
can become a valuable source of information where reliable news is scarce.

Radio has proved its worth in times of emergency such as when access to the mobile network is
down as a result of an overload, or phone lines are cut. Even when there is no electricity, most
radio sets can be battery operated or have the ability to be hand cranked. Radio is not just
important for reception of emergency announcements and communications during disasters.

Radio is a sightless or a viewless medium. In radio, either the performer or listener cannot see
each other. Therefore, it is called blind medium. Since it is a blind or sightless medium, the
performer as well as listener has to creatively imagine each other

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Radio waves are a type of electromagnetic radiation best-known for their use in communication
technologies, such as television, mobile phones and radios. These devices receive radio waves
and convert them to mechanical vibrations in
the speaker to create sound waves. Table 3. Summary of Band and Frequency
Band Frequency Wavelength
range range
The radio-frequency spectrum is a relatively
small part of the electromagnetic (EM) Extremely Low
Frequency <3 kHz >100 km
spectrum. The EM spectrum is generally (ELF)
divided into seven regions in order of Very Low
Frequency 3 to 30 kHz 10 to 100 km
decreasing wavelength and increasing (VLF)
energy and frequency, according to Low Frequency
30 to 300 kHz 1 m to 10 km
the University of Rochester. The common (LF)

designations are radio Medium

Frequency 300 kHz to 3 MHz 100 m to 1 km
waves, microwaves, infrared (IR), visible (MF)
light, ultraviolet (UV), X-rays and gamma- High
Frequency 3 to 30 MHz 10 to 100 m
rays. (HF)
Very High
Frequency 30 to 300 MHz 1 to 10 m
Radio waves have the longest wavelengths (VHF)
in the EM spectrum, according to NASA, Ultra High
Frequency 300 MHz to 3 GHz 10 cm to 1 m
ranging from about 0.04 inches (1 millimeter) (UHF)
to more than 62 miles (100 kilometers). They Super High
also have the lowest frequencies, from about Frequency 3 to 30 GHz 1 to 1 cm
(SHF)
3,000 cycles per second, or 3 kilohertz, up to Extremely High
about 300 billion hertz, or 300 gigahertz. Frequency 30 to 300 GHz 1 mm to 1 cm
(EHF)

The radio spectrum is a limited resource and is often compared to farmland. Just as farmers
must organize their land to achieve the best harvest regarding quantity and variety, the radio
spectrum must be split among users in the most efficient way, according to the British
Broadcasting Corp. (BBC). In the U.S., the National Telecommunications and Information
Administration within the United States Department of Commerce manages the frequency
allocations along the radio spectrum.

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Discovery
Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell, who developed a unified theory of electromagnetism in
the 1870s, predicted the existence of radio waves, according to the National Library of Scotland.
In 1886, Heinrich Hertz, a German physicist, applied Maxwell's theories to the production and
reception of radio waves. Hertz used simple homemade tools, including an induction coil and a
Leyden jar (an early type of capacitor consisting of a glass jar with foil layers both inside and
out) to create electromagnetic waves. Hertz became the first person to transmit and receive
controlled radio waves. The unit of frequency of an EM wave — one cycle per second — is
called a hertz, in his honor, according to the American Association for the Advancement of
Science.

Low to Medium Frequencies

ELF radio waves, the lowest of all radio frequencies, have a long range and are useful in
penetrating water and rock for communication with submarines and inside mines and caves.
The most powerful natural source of ELF/VLF waves is lightning, according to the Stanford VLF
Group. Waves produced by lightning strikes can bounce back and forth between Earth and the
ionosphere (the atmosphere layer with a high concentration of ions and free electrons),
according to Phys.org. These lightning disturbances can distort important radio signals traveling
to satellites.

Higher frequencies
HF, VHF and UHF bands include FM radio, broadcast television sound, public service radio,
cellphones and GPS (global positioning system). These bands typically use “frequency
modulation” (FM) to encode, or impress, an audio or data signal onto the carrier wave. In
frequency modulation, the amplitude (maximum extent) of the signal remains constant while the
frequency is varied higher or lower at a rate and magnitude corresponding to the audio or data
signal.

Shortwave radio
Shortwave radio uses frequencies in the HF band, from about 1.7 megahertz to 30 megahertz,
according to the National Association of Shortwave Broadcasters (NASB). Within that range, the
shortwave spectrum is divided into several segments, some of which are dedicated to regular
broadcasting stations, such as the Voice of America, the British Broadcasting Corp. and the
Voice of Russia. Throughout the world, there are hundreds of shortwave stations, according to

117
the NASB. Shortwave stations can be heard for thousands of miles because the signals bounce
off the ionosphere, and rebound back hundreds or thousands of miles from their point of origin.

Highest frequencies
SHF and EHF represent the highest frequencies in the radio band and are sometimes
considered to be part of the microwave band. Molecules in the air tend to absorb these
frequencies, which limits their range and applications. However, their short wavelengths allow
signals to be directed in narrow beams by parabolic dish antennas (satellite dish antennas).
This allows for short-range high-bandwidth communications to occur between fixed locations.

SHF, which is affected less by the air than EHF, is used for short-range applications such as Wi-
Fi, Bluetooth and wireless USB (universal serial bus). SHF can work only in line-of-sight paths
as the waves tend to bounce off objects like cars, boats and aircraft, according to the RF Page.
And because the waves bounce off objects, SHF can also be used for radar.

Astronomical sources
Outer space is teeming with sources of radio waves: planets, stars, gas and dust clouds,
galaxies, pulsars and even black holes. By studying these, astronomers can learn about the
motion and chemical composition of these cosmic sources as well as the processes that cause
these emissions.

A radio telescope "sees" the sky very differently than it appears in visible light. Instead of seeing
point-like stars, a radio telescope picks up distant pulsars, star-forming regions
and supernova remnants. Radio telescopes can also detect quasars, which is short for quasi-
stellar radio source. A quasar is an incredibly bright galactic core powered by a supermassive
black hole. Quasars radiate energy broadly across the EM spectrum, but the name comes from
the fact that the first quasars to be identified emit mostly radio energy. Quasars are highly
energetic; some emit 1,000 times as much energy as the entire Milky Way.

Radio astronomers often combine several smaller telescopes, or receiving dishes, into an array
in order to make a clearer, or higher-resolution, radio image, according to the University of
Vienna. For example, the Very Large Array (VLA) radio telescope in New Mexico consists of 27
antennas arranged in a huge "Y" pattern that's 22 miles (36 kilometers) across.

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Radio Timeline

1892 to 1893
Nikola Tesla wirelessly transmitted electromagnetic energy. He made the first public
demonstration of radio in St. Louis in 1893.

1896 to 1897
Guglielmo Marconi filed for patent protection of his radio apparatus. He established the Wireless
Telegraph and Signal Company in 1897.

1901
First Trans-atlantic signal sent-by Marconi from Ireland to Canada.

1902
Amateur (today known as “ham”) radio introduced to the U.S. via a Scientific American article on
“How to Construct an Efficient Wireless Telegraphy Apparatus at Small Cost.”

1906
Reginald Fessenden is the 1st to transmit a program of speech and music.

1910
First radio transmission from an airplane.

1917
All U.S. radio stations not needed by the government are closed as WWI begins.

1922
The first on-air advertisement was carried by a New York station.

1926
The first permanent national network, NBC, was formed. CBS followed a year later.

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1927
The Federal Radio Commission established to bring order to chaotic airwaves.

1933
FDR broadcast the first of his 30 “fireside chats”

1938
CBS Radio broadcasts H.G. Wells' classic The War of the Worlds. Although most listeners
understood that the program was a radio drama, the next day's headlines reported that
thousands of others -- perhaps a million or more -- plunged into panic, convinced that America
was under a deadly Martian attack.

1947
Cellular radio telephony, with call handoff and frequency reuse, was conceived at Bell
Laboratories

1954
Texas Instruments produces the first commercial transistor radio, launching the portable
electronic age.

2001
XM Radio

History of Philippine Radio

Radio in the Philippines started in 1924 with the establishment of KZKZ (AM)
in Manila, Philippines by Henry Herman Sr., owner of the Electrical Supply Company in Manila.
This test is possibly the first radio broadcast in Asia. Henry Herman's station
originally broadcast using a 5-watt transmitter.

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PBS – BBS History
During World War II, the U.S Office of War Information set up a radio station with call letters
KZSO inside a US navy submarine with the intention of sending messages and updated
information on the progress of the war against Japan. The station played a vital role and
contributed largely to the early occupation of the Philippines by the US armed forces.

This 50-watt portable radio station later found its way to the Philippines when USAFFE soldiers
landed in Lingayen Gulf during the first week of February 1945. KZSO was alongside the
American soldiers as they reached Manila. A makeshift studio was constructed in an old
warehouse of Carmelo and Bauermann on Azcarraga St. (now Claro M. Recto), beside the Far
Eastern University. The following year, KZSO renamed KZFM–temporarily moved to the Ramon
Roces Building on Soler St. in Sta. Cruz, Manila until it was turned over to the Philippine
Government– under the Department of Foreign Affairs–in September 1946.

The Radio Broadcasting Board, created on September 12, 1947, took charge of the
administration and operation of KZFM, which moved its studios to the fourth floor of the Manila
City Hall building on Taft Avenue. On January 1, 1952, the Board was abolished. In its place
was established the Philippine Information Council. In compliance with a resolution approved in
the International Telecommunication Conference in Atlantic City, U.S.A., all radio stations in the
Philippines would adopt the letter “D” as the first letter of its call letters. Thus, KZRM became
DZFM. On July 1, 1952, the Philippine Information Council was abolished and consequently,
DZFM was placed under the Office of The President in Malacañang.

DZFM acquired a new 10-kilowatt transmitter in 1958. The old 5-Kilowatter was used to
establish a sister station, later known as DZRM, together with the short-wave stations DUH2
and DUB4. Thereafter, it was therefore necessary to adopt a new name for the mother entity of
the radio stations, which gave birth to the umbrella organization called the Philippine
Broadcasting Service (PBS).

In the 60’s, provincial stations were established to augment the operational coverage of PBS.
During this period, DZEQ Baguio, DYMR Cebu, and DXRP Davao came into being, together
with other relay stations including DZMQ Dagupan. Other AM stations were likewise established
in Manila including DZCP, where the entire congressional deliberations were aired. The mid-

121
60’s also saw the establishment of a television station under PBS using channel 10 for its
telecast.

When martial law was declared in 1972, PBS was abolished. On January 1, 1973, it was
resurrected as Bureau of Broadcast (BB) under the Department of Public Information.

Meanwhile, another government entity–the National Media Production Center (NMPC)-acquired

the facilities of the Voice of America in Malolos, Bulacan in 1969. The NMPC operated the
“Voice of the Philippines” (VOP) on both medium wave-918 Khz and short-wave 9,910 mhz
transmissions. In 1980 the NMPC obtained DWIM-FM (presently DWBR) 104.3 Mhz.

The BB and the NMPC were brought under one administrative roof in 1980 when the Office of
Media Affairs (OMA) was created to provide a loose union for both networks within the ABS-
CBN complex in Bohol Avenue, Quezon City.

After the peaceful 1986 EDSA Revolution, the OMA, NMPC and BB were abolished. In their
stead came the Bureau of Broadcast Services (BBS).

At present, PBS-BBS owns and operates radio stations nationwide with DZRB Radyo ng Bayan
Manila as its flagship station.
Table 4. Strengths and Weaknesses of Radio
Radio has its own characteristics. STRENGTHS WEAKNESSES
It has imaginative It requires a fully developed
UNESCO has enumerated the following potential to listener to radio network.
add his/her own visual
strengths and weaknesses of radio: interpretation

Receivers are relatively It is a non-visual medium

The prime purpose of radio is to convey cheap and portable

information from one place to another It is relatively inexpensive Trained personnel are required.
through the intervening media (i.e., air, in production terms

space, nonconducting materials) without As an entertainment Knowledge of local languages is

medium, it is essential
wires. Besides being used for transmitting psychologically
acceptable
sound and television signals, radio is used
As a major news source,
for the transmission of data in coded form. it is widely heard and
accepted. It has
massive, immediate
distribution.

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Radio Writing
The information in the waves can be extracted and transformed back into its original form.

Radio News Scripts Format

BASIC NEWS SCRIPT FORMATS FOR RADIO:
1. Script-Only - The Script-Only is an equivalent to the News Item
(N.I.) format or Read-Only format for TV news script. The whole
script is to be read by the news anchor without any voice clips.
2. Script Clip - has a voice clip anywhere in the script where it
shall be appropriate.
3. Wrap/Voiceover - format includes the lead paragraph which shall
introduce the voiceover report (canned or live) of the reporter.

While no dogmatic instructions can be laid down for the selection and writing of radio programs,
certain factors should be kept in mind by the programmer or broadcaster. Radio audiences are
not attracted by the idea of learning; they prefer a program that develops an idea or an
atmosphere. The more universal the theme, the greater the audience.

The theme with the greatest appeal is the one that touches the interests, the experiences of the
greatest number of listeners. Radio is like a monster that eats up programs very fast and always
wants novelty.

A radio writer or a broadcaster must study what has been accepted for radio (in his own locality
or country). He must be an analytic listener first of all. He must have showmanship, an indefinite
term that includes a feeling for dramatic, knowledge of what appeals to the public and how to
make that appeal through one single sense (audio). He must be able to write, not only to portray
live people accurately and to write realistic conversations but also to develop a theme, a plot.

He must write and write, for while he may follow all the instructions for writing the radio play as
set forth in numerous texts, it is experience that will be his best teacher.

Types of Programs:
I) News Broadcast -this is broadcast journalism
2) Music Program -performance, participation, dedication, song analysis for appreciation.
3) Children's program -children's participation, educational, stage play adapted for radio.

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4) Instructional -school broadcast (Physics, Language)
5) Radio drama, soap opera (5 min., 15 mine, 30 mine)
6) Radio serial drama -daily or weekly for a long period
7) Magazine or montage -combination of some of these program types
8) Public Service -phone-in or radio mobile, etc.
9) Personality, advice program -example: "Fr. Jim's Phone' in"
10) Amateur program (which usually gives out prizes) -search for
talent, contest, competition, games.
II) Sports broadcast -can be as news and reports or sports coverage
12) Talks -address, unwritten speeches, campaign
14) Special features -medical and health programs, travelogue
15) Interview- great and known personages, or people in the
streets
16) Round Table discussion -group discussion
17) Educational- farm program, home makers, skills development,
foreign language
18) Religious -broadcast Mass or any ceremony with or without audience participation or a
coverage of ceremony or celebration. Ex. Blessings/Ordinations

A radio writer must have something to share and a story to tell. He must understand the use of
microphone narration, dialogue, music, and sound effects; must understand the psychology of
listeners must have the knowledge ow what has been accepted for radio.

Radio playwright is generally said to be writing for audience that is blind. It has mental images
built upon remembrances of scenes and experiences which help to visualize and create
scenery. He is writing for an armchair audience (therefore, no cerebral production), using a
single sense (audio). Radio is truly a form of relaxation (not a problem solving). It deals with
human interest and mental conflicts with adequate action.

Study the lives of your audience. In preparing to write in radio. Find out what they have that
can constitute a conflict, a problem a goal to develop an ability to write a dialogue while listening
to their conversation. A good radio script must have: purpose -to justify listening familiarity -to
make a true or setting.

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Activity:
1. Listen to one AM Station and give critical analysis of the radio program. You can write it in an
essay form;
2. Listen to one FM station and give your observation in terms of dialogue, narration of the DJ
Announcer the use of music and sounds. You can write your answer in essay format.
3. Give your one ICON or radio personality you admire in the broadcasting industry and
explain why?

References:
Maslog, Crispin. Philippine Communication: An Introduction, 2001
Malinao, Alipio. Journalism for Filipinos
Turow, Joseph. Media Today: An Introduction to Mass Communication,2014
Deopante, Daniel lectures
Federal Communications Commission. (2004). A short history of radio with an inside focus on
mobileradio.Retrieved
form https://transition.fcc.gov/omd/history/radio/documents/short_history.pdf
https://bizfluent.com/list-6140483-advantages-disadvantages-radio-advertising.html
https://pbs.gov.ph/history/

LESSON 3. TELEVISION

Overview:
Today information can be easily be accessed. But television somehow has certain authority
and popularity. If you see something on TV, you know that millions of others are also seeing it,
and that it has been verified, produced, and created by professionals. This is the reason why
television remains the most popular and trusted platform for news, culture, sports, and
entertainment. As a result, Television has become so ingrained in our society that finding a
home without access to TV is rare.

Despite its popularity, the debate whether or not television is good for us continues. Some
people believe there is nothing wrong with it, while others think otherwise. This lesson will cover

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Philippine television’s growth, identify various types of television available locally, as well as
discuss the boon and bane of this medium.

Learning Objectives
1. To have a clear understanding of the development of Philippine television.
2. To be cognizant of the favorable and unfavorable ramifications of television on its
viewers.

Brief History of Television in the Philippines

During the 1950s, the University of Santo Tomas and FEATI University were experimenting with
television. UST demonstrated its home-made receiver, while FEATI opened an experimental
television station two years later. On October 23, 1953, the Alto Broadcasting System (ABS),
the forerunner of ABS-CBN, made its first telecast as DZAQ-TV Channel 3. ABS was owned by
Judge Antonio Quirino. For the country’s first television broadcast, it was decided that it would
be held at Judge Quirino’s residence. The event will be a garden party with Tony’s brother,
President Quirino himself as guest of honor who was facing reelection prospects that same
year.

The station operated on a four-hours-a-day schedule (6-10PM), covering only a 50-mile

radius. ABS was later sold to the Lopez family, who later transformed it into ABS-CBN. By
1957, the Chronicle Broadcasting Network (CBN), owned by the Lopez family, operated two TV
stations DZAQ Channel 3 and DZXL-TV Channel 9.

By 1960, a third station was in operation, DZBB-TV Channel 7, or the Republic Broadcasting
System. It was owned by Bob Stewart, a long-time American resident in the Philippines who
also started with radio in 1950.

During the Martial Law, Ferdinand Marcos ordered the closure of all but three stations: channels
9, 13 and 7 while ABS-CBN was seized from the Lopez family. It was also around this time that
the Kapisanan ng mga Broadkaster sa Pilipinas (KBP) was organized to provide mechanism for
self-regulation in the broadcast industry.

In the latter part of 1973, Channel 7 was heavily in debt and was forced to sell 70% of the
business to a group of investors, who changed the name from RBS to Greater Manila Area
(GMA) Radio Television Arts.

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Economic constraints during these early years of television forced a dependence on imported
programs from three US networks – ABC, CBS, and NBC. Importing programs was cheaper
than producing them locally. In addition, canned programs appeared to be more popular among
local audiences, even though initiatives were made in educational programming. It is said that
Philippine television’s early dependence on US programs may be partly responsible for the
“colonial mentality” that has continued to afflict Filipinos for the past generations.

Around this time commercial thrust of Philippine broadcasting has made it unique as compared
to other East Asian countries, where the electronic media are controlled and operated by the
government. While this free enterprise environment made local broadcasting globally
competitive, the same environment made it difficult to produce and broadcast public service and
development-oriented programs since it was not that lucrative commercially.

Several events of international interest followed and was thus telecast worldwide-- 1974, the
Miss Universe Pageant, the 1975 Muhammad Ali-Joe Frazier heavyweight fight and the 1981
visit of Pope John Paul II. which showed the stability that everything was doing well in the
country

In 1986, after the People Power Revolution ABS-CBN was returned to the Lopezes. While
other stations like BBC, RPN, and IBC were sequestered by the Philippine Commission on
Good Government (PCGG) under the new government. MBS Channel 4 later became PTV 4
(People's Television) after the EDSA Revolution, and in 2001, it is now known as the National
Broadcasting Network (NBN), in turn renamed back to the People's Television Network in 2011.
ABC returned to broadcast in 1992. In 2008, ABC became TV5.

During the middle 1990s to 2000s, many UHF stations were launched such as, SBN 21/ETC
21, ABS-CBN Sports+Action 23, Net 25, GMA News TV 27, RJTV 29/2nd Avenue, BEAM
31/Jack City, UNTV 37, AksyonTV 41 among others. Philippine shows began to be exported to
other Asian and non-Asian countries making our local celebrities popular abroad.

In 2006, digital cable was launched. This not only made additional channels possible but also
pre-paid cable service. Both companies also offer cable internet where cable television is

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bundled either free or at a discount. Besides cable, direct-to-home satellite also became big
business.

Programming

Advertising is broadcasting’s lifeblood which makes stations dependent on ratings for survival.
This commercial orientation of television is evident in its content, where programming consists
of musical variety shows, soap operas, and situation comedies. Today, there is a larger
percentage of domestic over imported programs with Korean dramas gaining popularity.

Over the past years, the broadcast industry has displayed sensitivity to public criticism for its
lopsided programming, as a result, there has been a discernible increase in public affairs
programming-- other than news programs -which has recently gained public following. Some of
these programs won international recognition such as The Probe Team.

Public service programs are still quite popular. Some video and television programs show the
needy being given medical and other forms of social assistance. Opportunities for the public to
seek redress for grievances through television is also available. These programs are aired
during the afternoon like “Isumbong Mo Kay Tulfo”.

Television networks have exerted considerable effort to diversify and provide balanced and
creative programming. These efforts are attributed to factors such as an increasing sense of
social responsibility among network owners; KBP’s effort to improve professionalism and
standards in broadcasting; sensitivity to public advocacy for improved programming; and
competition not only among television network or stations but also with cable television stations.

Competition and technology revolution are happening today in the television industry.
Competition not only among the VHF/UHF stations but also the cable television and direct
broadcast satellite (DBS) and the internet. All these affecting regular free tv when it comes to
audience and advertising revenue.

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Digitalization of the television industry can now be felt. This allows convergence in technology—
like broadcasting, cable, telecommunication, and computer services. Thus, on the same
monitor, the media user can watch TV or movie, send email messages, perform banking
transactions, listen to quality music, buy groceries, videoconference etc.

So, what’s next?

Advantages of Watching Television

Free entertainment. Since televisions are already in our homes, flicking it on instantly provides
us with cheap, easy entertainment and we do not even need to leave the house! Considering
how expensive going to the movies are, this lets us save some money while still providing
ample entertainment.

There are so many different channels out there that there is literally something for everyone’s
interests: food channels, reality TV channels, DIY channels, channels that play the news all day,
cartoons, history – the list goes on.

Social surrogacy. A lot of people will tell you they just play the TV to have some background
noise while they go about their daily lives of doing chores, playing with their kids etc. TV
watching can also take the place of family members or friends and fill a lonely void. That is what
social surrogacy is all about – the term psychologists use to explain this phenomenon. If you are
lonely and bored, TV can be a constant companion.

Educational channels. As we mentioned above, there are so many channels to choose from.
This means you don’t need to use the TV just to binge-watch your favourite reality show – you
can also use it as a learning tool. Put on a channel like the history channel or national
geographic and you are not just watching a mind-numbing show – you are learning something
too!

There are also many DIY channels out there that teach you how to do simple home renovations,
how to do some interior decorating, how to make some simple things out of various materials,
how to cook – the list of benefits goes on. So, in this regard, TV provides you with knowledge
that you can use and implement in your life

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Family bonding. Families have been gathering around the TV for years now. It’s a great way to
get the family together, especially in today’s world where everyone is so busy.

TV creates communities. Great television programs create communities around them. TV

shows, live events and news make animated conversation for friends, family, and colleagues.
They bind people together and trigger reactions on social networks.

TV gives a voice to good causes. Thanks to its unrivalled reach and emotional power, television
enables effective calls for action during humanitarian crises, natural disasters, and social
emergencies. It reaches out to society through programs and communication campaigns on the
environment, healthy eating, physical activity, responsible sexual attitudes and responsible
alcohol consumptions, and many others.

TV embraces the digital age. Consumers now have opportunities to enjoy television content
than ever before. Viewers can watch on multiple screens and interact within fan communities
and social platforms.

Disadvantages

Television can make you lazy. Rather than going out with friends and family, you may just want
to lounge on the couch and watch some TV instead. Or you may opt to watch TV instead of
doing homework, chores, and other things that you really should be doing.

Television can also be addictive. You may just want to go home from work or school and watch
your favorite TV shows and do nothing else

Violence and illicit content. There is an abundance of violence and illicit content on TV. This
becomes especially problematic for children. Some researchers believe that when kids see
violent acts on TV, they are more likely to re-enact the violence in real life. This issue is still up
for debate

Consumerism. TV is filled with commercials boasting the latest cool toys, electronics, clothes,
food, etc. It has been found that on average, kids see about 40,000 ads in a year with most of
them being about food and alcohol.

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Television often uses stereotypes that can warp the watcher’s perception of the world.

Health hazards. Some studies have found a correlation between TV watching and obesity. It
has also been found that watching more than three hours of TV a day can contribute to a wide
variety of health problems like behavior problems, sleep problems, and even lower grades.

Television can also make us antisocial, taking the place of family and friends

Four (4) Types of Television

The following are various ways to receive programs in your home:

• Cable TV - TV that comes through a cable wire into your home like Sky Cable

• Satellite TV – TV that is beamed down to a dish from a satellite. Cignal is an example of

direct-to-home satellite television.

• Traditional Broadcast TV – TV that comes through your antenna.

• Internet TV – TV delivered through the internet to different platforms like Netflix, Iflix,
iWantTV.

Satellite and Cable TV also known as Linear Television. Linear TV means your TV programs
run in a straight line on a schedule. Meaning the viewer must watch a scheduled TV program at
the actual time of broadcast. Although satellite and cable subscriptions have been falling off due
to other media alternatives such as Netflix, HULU and other choices, the video industry has
grown.

ACTIVITY

Kdramas have invaded not only Philippines television programming but also worldwide. Give 5
possible reasons for this unprecedented popularity in the Philippines comparing it to local
offerings.

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References

“Satellite TV, Cable, & Internet TV: Whats the Difference?” TvStartup Inc., 17 Mar. 2019,
tvstartup.com/satellite-tv-cable-internet-tv-whats-the-
difference/?fbclid=IwAR2fevsATchA_honyZn88FiOHHpFsaD186hCH6pupl26trK1sraLCm
vVjuc.

Tuazon, Ramon R. “Philippine Television: That's Entertainment.” National Commission for

Culture and the Arts, ncca.gov.ph/about-ncca-3/subcommissions/subcommission-on-
cultural-disseminationscd/communication/philippine-television-thats-
entertainment/?fbclid=IwAR2wm8hF9A18805rgkpXhkCtepUJJK_4bPFFzVOQjAztUWAY7
TBjBdQOaBk.

“Why TV?” The Global TV Group, 24 Sept. 2018, www.theglobaltvgroup.com/why-tv/.

LESSON 4. FILM

Learning Objectives:
Describe the nature and functions of films mass media and its potentials and considering its’
comparative effects.

A film, also known as a “movie” or a “motion picture” is an image shown on a screen, usually
with sound, that make up a story. We have all been watching movies since the advent of
cinema and television. Decades ago, TV channels started showing old movies on weekends.
This saved moviegoers the effort of travelling to movie houses. Cable television came next and
with it a whole lot more of movies to watch in various languages.

Films started becoming grander and technologically advanced. Careers in the film industry were
no longer a taboo and many relocated to greener pastures where filmmaking is a big industry.

Today, United States, Nigeria, Hong Kong and India are the leaders in filmmaking. In Europe,
France and the United Kingdom lead in movie production. India is the largest producer of films

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in the world. The USA has a whole district - Hollywood in Los Angeles which caters exclusively
to the movie industry.

With the grandeur of showbusiness, unfortunately not much attention was given to evaluate the
effect of movies on youth and more importantly the impact of films on society.

Philippine Cinema

The first film produced by a Filipino is José Nepomuceno's Dalagang Bukid (Country Maiden) in
1919 based on a highly acclaimed musical play by Hermogenes Ilagan and León Ignacio. Early
filmmakers, even with meager capital, followed some of the genres provided by Hollywood
movies José Nepomuceno.

But it was only in 1917 when a Filipino built a motion picture company and released in 1919
what would be considered as the first Filipino-produced and written film. Dalagang Bukid (Farm
Girl), is a silent film directed and produced by José Nepomuceno, the Father of Philippine
Cinema.

History of Philippine Cinema

The Film Marketing in the Philippines

In 1912, New York and Hollywood film companies started to establish their own agencies in
Manila to distribute films. By 1915, the best films of both Europe and U.S. were being enjoyed
by Filipino audiences in Manila and the Provinces.

When World War I (1914-1918) choked off the production of European studios, Manila theater
managers turned to U.S. for new film products. With the variety they offered, American
Production-distribution-exhibition combinations quickly dominated the Philippine film market. It
has stayed that way since then– until now!

Film as an Effective Medium

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It was Jose Nepomuceno who came on the scene and realized the challenge and promise of
cinema from a different perspective. He saw cinema, not only as a profitable entertainment fare,
but as a unique medium with which to document the unfolding development of the Philippines.

It is interesting to read an observation of a film reviewer in the “The Citizen” who, after seeing
Nepomuceno’s Dalagang Bukid in 1919, was convinced that excellent local movies could
project the Philippine condition abroad as no other medium could. To quote:

“It is a sad truth to mention that our country is practically unknown in most part of the globe.
Now, more than ever, the world needs much enlightenment with regard to our situation so that
our foreign commerce may expand and tourists may visit our shores. We hope to make the
Philippines the veritable Garden of the Far East in the eyes of the commercial world, and to
enhance this idea, the motion picture is an essential factor. Pictures depicting the various
phases of Philippine life and customs, if exhibited in China, Japan, India, America, Australia and
Europe, will do much toward giving the people of these countries a fair and correct view of our
home affairs. It appears therefore, highly propitious to develop this all-important industry which,
if realized, will assist materially in putting the Philippines on the map as an enlightened,
progressive and industrious nation.”

The Golden Episodes in Philippine Cinema

In 1937, the first Filipino movie to achieve international plaudit was Zamboanga, a picture
starred in by Fernando Poe and Rosa del Rosario. Hollywood director Frank Capra praised the
film as the most exciting and beautiful picture of native life he had ever seen. Manuel
Conde’s Genghis Khan, released in 1950 was a rave at the Venice Film Festival in 1952; and
dubbed in French, it was shown in Paris in 1954. Inspired by Conde’s picture, Hollywood
remade Genghis Khan, with John Wayne as its lead actor. The people who had seen both
pictures adjudged that the latter was incomparable to the former in terms of authenticity.

Undoubtedly, the 5th and the 6th decades were the Golden age of Philippine cinema with
subsequent films making a mark in the overseas scene: Kandelerong Pilak, Ifugao, Anak
Dalita, Badjao, Anak ng Dagat, to name just a few, swept awards at the Cambodian, Asia and
Berlin Film Festivals. Even at the annual Asian Film Festival with a dozen countries taking turns
in hosting the major filmfest (now the Asia-Pacific Film Festival with 18 countries), there was a

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tacit acceptance that the Philippine cinema was, at the time, the undisputed leader in the
continents film scene.

Benefits or Advantages of Movies

• Entertainment: Movies are a source of popular entertainment. From the moment we

indulge in watching a movie, we are transformed into a new world where our mind is at
ease, it forgets everything and is concentrated at watching. Watching a film on a theatre
can be an exhilarating experience in itself. This is because a large number of people are
doing the same thing. The audience laughs together, applauds and shares almost the
same emotions. This collective effort experienced by the viewers makes the experience
more entertaining and enjoyable.

• Socialising Activators: Films are social activators, they allow even unknown people to
mingle with each other. We all see movies and it is a common factor amongst us. This
common factor can initiate and or sustain a conversation with a stranger. We have
opinions about movies and these also help in socialization through conversation and
debate. When we go to a cinema or a theatre to watch a movie we socialize with our
friends, relatives, peers etc. The movie is a social art form which brings together all
genres of people even if they have different views about the movie.

• A Lesson of Teamwork: A movie is a collaborative work; it requires actors,

cinematographers, directors, make-up artists, writers, visual effects specialists,
technicians, and others. When this movie is applauded by all is shows the power of
teamwork. It is also a lesson for all; that teamwork pays. Some films themselves are
based on the theme of ‘teamwork’. This comes across strongly across the audience as
they visually experience the lesson as compare to a bookish lesson.

• Movies Stir Our Imagination: The weirdest, the most extreme, the most unbelievable
things are shown in movies. Some films are based on comic book characters,
adaptations of novel or drama. They bring to life the inanimate and it requires
imagination. Today, we have so many techniques and instruments which show us the
unseen and unimagined. Both the viewers and the movie directors conceive ideas
towards their own personal objectives. The audience witness’s audio-video which
enhances their imagination and their feedback inspire more varied imagination.
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• Showcase of World’s Art and Culture: Many of the customs and traditions of different
parts of the world are shown in movies. While sitting at our homes we are able to travel
virtually to places where we cannot imagine, to be. Most of the movies show customs
and arts of foreign countries. They give us insights about human activities and a better
understanding of people of the world. Without movies, we wouldn’t come to know about
‘Muay Thai’ or ‘Ninjas’ or any of the things that we know today.

• Films Educate Us: Films are a platter of various disciplines, they show us history,
culture, science, technology, politics and lot more. These disciplines are not confined to
one particular region; these educate us on varying geographical regions across various
timelines. We come to know about the past, the present and the future. In fact, the visual
medium is a means of better education as we retain information for a long time when we
visually see it. The uneducated also benefit from the content of the movies as he needs
only eyes and not the skill to read or write to understand a literary classic or hi-fi flick.
They haven’t said it just like that ‘A Picture Speaks a Thousand Words’.

• Art Form: Films are a Universal Art Form, a platform where you can express and
communicate your thoughts or emotions. Just like a painter paints his imagination on a
canvas, movie makers express their emotions, views, angst, joy and so on. People have
ideas and they use films to point out their opinions or viewpoints through cinemascope.
Some want to recreate some historical event while some indulge in fantasies. In their
objective, they create beautiful scenes, thrilling moments, happy environment etc. which
become their own style and an art form. These inspire others to create their own unique
art of presentation.

• Movies are Mirrors to Society: Films are inspired from our daily lives whether partially
or fully is another story. Most of the films have a certain portion where we really get to
see what we know but don’t think deeply about it. Various films depict historical,
mythological scientific and social themes. These are reflections of society, both present,
and past. Movies show the aftermath of a war, social evils, political strategies, human
rights infringement and various other sensitive issues. A wide platform as films is most
effective in presenting these issues and sensitizing the public at large. They create
awareness, build civic sense, ensure public morality and their propagation.

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 • Films Inspire Us: Films inspire us in more than ways that we can imagine. Some
profound inspirations are given to us by inspirational movies. The old age stories of the
victory of the good over evil and the ‘never give up’ one’s are apt at towards their
objective. Films inspire us to be brave, clever, insightful, experimental, loyal, determined
and other virtues which make us positive minded. While not all movies are inspirational
but you never know what may inspire whom and through which film? Apart from this, we
get inspired by the film industry itself. Most of the stars, directors etc. have a story of
struggle, hard work and how they reached the top? These examples themselves
become a source of inspiration, though in an indirect manner. Similarly, when movies
win certain awards it arouses within us an urge to shine in our respective field of work.

• Employment and Revenue: It is not a hidden fact that movies generate a lot of
employment and revenue to the treasury, not only through the films but even through its
peripheral forms like merchandising, tourism, film training etc. As per one study, in 2009,
the global box office revenues were over US$30 billion. People go to movies, rent them,
download them and they themselves publicise them through ‘Word of Mouth’. The film
industry supports a vast array of professionals like - designers, dressmakers,
photographers, story writer, technicians, and others. Poets and authors have also
benefited from this medium as their works have been adapted to movies, fetching them
royalty and other benefits.

• Quick Fame: One movie can make you a star overnight and it happens with many of the
actors and directors. It is a matter of luck that a certain newcomer or a struggling actor
gets a movie which takes him to unscaled heights. Sometimes a small role in a movie
makes you highly popular and you adorn the magazine covers, websites, television etc.
You become a household name in an instant; you are worshipped, cheered and adored
by the masses. There is a saying that – ‘There is no business-like show business’ and all
the stars that you see will totally agree with the adage.

Disadvantages

• Movies Profess Violence: There is no denying that movies today are more violent than
ever before. And it is very clear with the shootings at schools by kid and teenagers that
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 they are being heavily influenced by violence shown is movies. To shock, the audience’s
filmmakers choose this theme. Surprisingly, these become cult movies with a fan
following of their own. Movies like these show new ways of torture and physical abuse
which inspires the young mind to indulge in these acts. Movies like Hostel, Saw, Friday
the 13th and their kin are nothing but violent movies with unnecessary blood and gore.
As per reports from Researchers followed 329 subjects over 15 years. They found that
those who as children were exposed to violent TV shows were much more likely to later
be convicted of the crime.

• Movies are made for Profit: Ever heard of a movie made for charity, hard to say? In
this cash striven lives who cares for a charity, perhaps none. The entertainment industry
is even more selfish than any industry can be. Consider, people dropping their clothes
for money just for a movie. Then we can consider the underlying motive that ‘Movies are
solely made for Profit’. This profit influences the movie makers to showcase nudity and
explicit sexual acts; there is a popular sub-industry of the latter one as well. The film
industry people are no more worried about public morality; they will show what appears
instantly to the senses.

• Establish False Notions: Some movies portray certain subjects or themes in a way
which is far from real. Such portrayals establish false notions amongst the people. Many
of the Sikhs are joked upon because of their turban and jolly nature. Their turban makes
them Taliban and their jolly nature conjure mockery. Similarly, masala dosa becomes the
identity of south Indian people and most black people are shown as gangsters. Every
community has its individuality, tastes and flaws but that alone is not their true identity.
Fools, ugly people are distributed across the communities. Establishing an opinion
based on certain aspects of a community encourages racism and other anti-social
sentiments which hinder the peace and prosperity of the world.

• Wastage of Money and Time: Majority of the movies are not really worth watching but
still, we watch them. This happens because we are enticed by appealing posters,
teasing trailers, publicity and other marketing strategies. This is done to ensure that the
movie earns at least more than the cost involved. Take a look at the movies today, they
are sequels, there are aliens, vampires, werewolves and if not anything there are special
effects of all sorts. We have seen so much that there is very little left to amuse us. The

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 actual movie may not be that good but it is the package which lures us. We don’t realise
that we are wasting our money, our precious time, eyes and efforts on something
undeserving.

• Art Form of Personal Opinion: It has been truly said that ‘Movie is an Art Form’ but the
art form is many times based on one’s personal imagination. This imagination is at times
contradictory to the truth. For a filmmaker, it is his personal take on a theme, which may
not be in tandem with the truth, maybe false, disturbing or distorted. An art form to
become meaningful should be honest and true towards its representation. Certain
modifications are acceptable but modifications need to be monitored closely as to where
they are being implemented. Giving biased opinions and delving into half-baked truths
leads to controversy and conflict. One’s personal opinion may hurt sentiments of the
certain community, individual and or the society. Such a biased art form only contradicts
itself.

• Adultery and Premature Sex: Majority of the Hollywood movies have nudity and sex
scenes. And the majority of the times, there is no actual need to include such. It appears
that it has become a norm to have such scenes either as an attraction point or selling
point. Teenage movies are the ones that often show things like virginity, sexual
escapades, fantasies etc. But pornographic movies come straight to the point. Such
images and audio as found in these movies corrupt the senses, even of the adults. While
the younger generation becomes prematurely sex-conscious and imitates the scenes of
films in their real life, the adult generation is guided towards adultery. A population of
such people implies a diseased society both mentally and physically.

• Meagre or No Respect for Law and Order: Heroes shooting at cops, assassinators
killing presidents and villains raping women all have one thing in common, lawlessness.
Movies proliferate the idea that it is cool to break law or that it is not a big deal to break
law. This attitude is picked up very easily and quickly by the young of mind. Bullying,
stealing, shoplifting, threatening, gang making, verbal abuse, touting weapons etc. are
the most common effects of movies which show lawlessness. Criminal tendencies are
aggregated by movies which show violent acts against the law upholders or even a
common citizen. Movie based games do the same, thereby initiating a negative
mindset.

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• Larger than Life Characters: Once again it is the young mind which is unable to
distinguish reality from fiction. Powerful human beings, superheroes, skilled fighters,
stunts and acrobatics are surreal but not to your 4 to 5 years old kid. For him, these
larger than life characters are real than anything else. Though aping your idols is a
common thing but when it becomes an innate part of a kid, he/she will harm others and
the own self. A startling example is that of ‘Ninja Turtles’; around the time when it
became a hit, certain kids actually started living in drains. Movies show that everything is
possible but not everything, becoming spiderman through a spider bite, many of us have
actually been bitten by spiders and have often imagined of becoming a spiderman, but
we haven’t.

• Means to Propaganda: In a move to earn popularity and money, some filmmakers take
on controversial topics. It is an old formula but an existent tried and tested one. Often
such movies become a national agenda out of nowhere. It is the acts of politicians and
pressure groups who need mileage or want to distract the public attention from a certain
issue. History can be searched when movies have become a scapegoat of uproar,
agitations and protests thereby making a mountain out of ant hill. Taking care of such
situations requires capital and man force which unnecessarily puts a burden on the
national expenditure.

• Quick Downfall: Movies without movie stars is unacceptable. While stars are born
overnight, so is their downfall. The fate of an actor rests on a hit movie. It can make or
break a person. Many ambitious people have strived for this fame but have tasted the
dust. Some become desperate and will do anything. For others, it is a matter of death
and honour for others it is a life of nightmare. There are more failures than stars but
those that are stars shine like anything. The pursue this elusive sheen is sometimes
compromising on your character. Casting couches are true; though very few will come
forward, it is also a downfall of the character of a person.

• The popularity of Unideal Role Models: Films are remembered for their story,
direction etc. but mostly they are remembered by the actors. They become our role
models; we want to become like them. They are more popular than real life heroes and
get more recognition than anyone else. Let’s not forget that the heroes we applaud have

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 become heroes at our own expense and because of the marketing strategy. If real life
heroes were also marketed the same but then real-life heroes aren’t glamorous or
perform stunts. We know more entertainment celebrities than those who really make a
difference in the world. How many of us know about an ordinary man who did
extraordinary to save others? The world is full of brave, strong, handsome, innovative,
intelligent, life-saving people who carry on with their lives without expecting any applaud.
But their achievements are dwarfed by a giant poster of movies with their glamorous star
cast publicised throughout the whole world.

• Addiction to Movies: Addictions come in many forms and one of them is that of
movies. Many amongst us suffer from complexities of life and instead of finding a real-
life solution we end up finding a solution which is harmful to us, health-wise or otherwise.
The addiction to movies can be expensive if we go to malls or theatres. The addiction to
movies can affect our mental and physical health if we watch them at home. We start
paying more attention to movies than any other thing. We neglect exercise and become
couch potatoes. Our main concern becomes the release dates, the booking, the
downloading, the exchanging, the trailers, wallpapers and so on. It becomes a futile
pursuit but we keep indulging in it as it is convenient, just turn on the TV and start
watching or search the internet for it. When we have seen the best ones, what’s left?
The ordinary or useless ones amuse us because of their stupidity or nonsensical
approach. Even when we may have a sense that this film is not worth watching we
watch it because others are watching it and watching in a group is more exciting.
Sometimes we forget that we have seen a certain film, we have a hazy remembrance of
it, we watch it to actually prove ourselves wrong or right about the movie. In this effort we
don’t realise that we are getting addicted to movie watching.

• Conflicting Personalities: If actors are unideal heroes they also happen to have
unideal personas, i.e. that what they portray on cinema, they aren’t the same in real life.
Sometimes even adults have to come to terms with this reality. As humans we are
judgmental, we make opinions about someone even when we don’t know them fully. The
actors are seen as role models and they have a certain responsibility towards society.
But more often than not, we witness that our favorite hero, heroine, director etc. aren’t
the same as they appeared on-screen. Some of them are drug addicts, some indulge in
adultery, some are chain smokers, some are cowards; mostly the opposite of what they

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 have been portrayed. For them, it may not matter but for the ardent fans, it is a great
setback. They saw an amazing physique, a beautiful face and a strong character. But it
turned out that it is all fake. Their assets are fake, they are surgically or chemically
enhanced and or improved. It is a shock for them to know that the one they vouched for,
is fake, it is emotionally disturbing and creates conflict in mind. It becomes puzzling as to
what is real and what is not? It throws them off-balance of their and the views of the
world. Even adults are shocked when they come to know of a certain negative aspect of
an actor. Though, they are humans but not ordinary ones, at least for the fans.

Impact of the internet, social media and allied technologies on films and the business of
movie making.

[Tom Sherak , an actor, producer, three time President of the Academy Awards or “Oscars”
gives a clear and realistic response to this]

I believe that movies do well, and make money, by word of mouth. I know advertising is a big
part, and of course having the right movie to start with, but word of mouth is powerful. Bad word
of mouth can kill you, we all know that. Movies have the shortest marketable life of any
marketable product. Did you know that you can make a movie for $65 million, spend another
$20 million marketing it in the USA and another $30 million marketing internationally and that
movie could be gone within two weeks? No other product that I can” think of has such a short
life, with that kind of investment required.

If, for example, I created a new soap- and I put the soap on the shelf in the supermarket and it
doesn’t sell- I can move it to increase visibility- it still doesn’t sell, so I lower the price- I become
competitive in getting people to try the product- I have the time to do that. With a movie, you
have one chance. That’s why the movie business is such a dangerous game to get involved in.
You have a very strong heart and constitution to know that it can go that quickly. How many
times have you seen a movie open, and then looked to find where its playing, and see that it’s
not playing any more- it doesn’t play because if it doesn’t work immediately! they take it off the
screen. The theatres don’t own the screen, they have partners- and those partners are

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interested in making money- so what’s the sense in keeping movies on the screen if they aren’t
making money? So the word of mouth of a movie becomes very important.

In today’s world if a movie is going to reach an audience- they have to realise that their
audience, particularly younger people, spend up-to 18hrs a day connected to the internet. This
means that comments about the movie get onto sites straight away. So if someone posts, “this
is the worst movie I’ve ever seen..” and everybody feels the same way? that will kill the movie…
instantly. This happens often. If a movie goes on, and is controversial- with fifty percent loving it,
and fifty percent not liking it… that creates controversy… and it [that movie] has a chance in the
marketplace.

We have become a world that communicates via the internet. It used to be that I would pick up
the phone, or I would see you somewhere, we’d be outside! But now? all that word of mouth,
where we communicated, and movies had the chance to grow and breathe? has gone. Now it’s
a case of, “you’d better get-em, or you’re not gonna get-em”. The internet has provided the good
and bad of that because once a movie review is out- it’s out…. Don’t forget that previously, you
read a review in a paper, next day- you throw the paper away. Once a review goes on the net?
it never goes away! That’s part of how culture is now. Studios, fifteen plus years ago, tried to
figure out how to avoid the internet. Now they have to figure out ways of how to incorporate the
internet into everything they do, because it is that powerful as a tool of both selling and killing.
It’s had a direct worldwide impact- it’s a global event. People in Russia will read about what’s
happening in movie world in the USA. You will have noticed that a lot of big movies are being
released internationally before being released in the USA, it never used to be that way, ever!
The consideration was always that for movies which translated for international audiences… if it
didn’t work in the USA, it wouldn’t work internationally. Jo Lewis, the boxer, once said, when you
get into the ring there is no place to hide. When you make a movie now? there is no place to
hide. The world is gonna’ know about it the instant you show it now. Movies used to be worked
on, developed and changed. Now? Once you show it, it’s out there.

Activity:
Acclaimed director Erik Matti once posted that the local film landscape is in a state of coma
since there are no” game-changers looming in the horizon” and that most local films have
rehashed concepts. Give 3 possible reasons for the industry’s so-called deterioration. Explain
briefly. 143
References:
Maslog, Crispin. Philippine Communication: An Introduction, 2001
Malinao, Alipio. Journalism for Filipinos
https://ncca.gov.ph/about-ncca-3/subcommissions/subcommission-on-the-arts-
sca/cinema/history-of-philippine-cinema/
Turow, Joseph. Media Today: An Introduction to Mass Communication,2014
Geetha Bakilapadavu Film Language: Film Form and Meaning
https://targetstudy.com/articles/advantages-and-disadvantages-of-movies.html

LESSON 5. EMERGING MEDIA

The most commonly applied, ‘shorthand description’ of emerging media is that it is

communications – of all types – based on digital technologies, and increasingly with interactive
components. American Journal of Business defines that any definition of emerging media is
difficult while Neuman (1991) has defined the concept of emerging media more than a decade
ago. He argued that what we define as emerging media will a) alter the influence of distance; b)
increase the volume and speed of communications; c) enable interactive communications and
permit the merging of media forms. Emerging Media is media used to share and exchange
information with the use of emergent digital technologies having the feature of interactivity, on-
demand and faster speed. Emerging media change the landscape of tri medium which focuses
on print broadcast radio television and film. The new waves and here comes interactive media.

Interactive media is a method of communication in which the program's outputs depend on the
user's inputs, and the user's inputs, in turn, affect the program's outputs. Simply put, it refers to
the different ways in which people process and share information, or how they communicate
with one another. Interactive media which allows people to connect with others – whether that's
people or organizations – making them active participants in the media they consume.

Moreover, Interactive media is related to education specifically in developing instructional

materials. Nowadays interactive media can be seen in textbooks worksheets, 3D models
charts, infographics and others. In 1913, Thomas Edison predicted that "Books will be
obsolete in schools. Scholars will be instructed through the eye. Our school system will be
completely changed in the next 10 years through a new media. In 1910, the first catalog of
instructional films was developed to be used in the classroom, as a result, five (5) national

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professional organizations were established for visual instruction, five (5) journals began to
publish information about visual instruction, and more than 20 teacher-training institutions
began offering visual instruction courses. Between 1920s-1930s, technological advances
increased with interests in instructional media and as a result, the audiovisual instruction
movement began. It was in the year 1923 when the Association for Educational
Communications and Technology was founded and by the early 1930s people believed, that
due to the advances in radio broadcasting, that the radio would be a medium that would
revolutionize education. Unfortunately, the radio did not have as big of an impact on
instructional practices as audiovisual enthusiasts predicted.

By 1950s, computers were utilized by researchers and since then the instructional technology
field has expanded and changed. The field is constantly evolving with the introduction of new
technologies. Some technological advances have revolutionized how instructional technology is
being utilized and these modern instructional developments are: utilization of the internet,
distance education opportunities, learner centered learning environments, web 2.0 tools, virtual
environments - such as Second Life, wikis and blogs.

There was an issue of a large amount of data that cannot be stored, managed and processed
adequately by using a standard computer only (Kaisler, Amour, Espinosa, Money, 2013). This
was addressed by Big Data systems, an important tool for understanding what content and how
to serve that content to mobile users because considering, 1) affordable connectivity for
customers, 2) proliferation of devices enabling cheap accept to multimedia news and
information 3) emergence of data driven technology.

Digital Media and Design

Digital media is a digitized content that can be transmitted over the internet or computer
networks. It can also be viewed and preserved on digital electronics devices. This digitized
content includes text, audio, video, and graphics. Most digital media are based on translating
analog data and presenting it as digital data.

Digital Media: Possession and Characteristics. In creating and modifying digital media
products, one must possess these required skills:
- technical skills

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 - artistic skills
- analytical and production coordination skills

Digital Media Industry and Career Digital media can include these industries:
• Entertainment
• Technology
• eCommerce
• Non-Profit
• Health
• Education
• Government
• Sports
• Environment
• Television
• Publishing
• Marketing and advertising

Digital Media: Types

1. Owned Media are web properties such as website, mobile site, blog site, and social
media channels.

2. Paid Media are advertisements such as pay per click, display ads, retargeting, paid
influencers, paid content promotion, social media ads.

3. Earned Media are shared content, mentions, reposts, views, reviews

Owned media is any online asset that you control and direct, and which is unique to your brand.
These types of digital media platforms include your website, blogs, social media channels,
mobile site, infographics, and eBooks. The digital content strategy in this media needs to focus
on being informative, relevant and valuable to keep the interest of the audience or customers. It
can make your brand authoritative. It attracts higher engagement and shares.

Paid media involves promoting your online content to improve traffic to owned media assets,
which drives earned media. It includes display ads, paid search ads, Facebook ads, and

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commercials. 1) It can be costly. 2) It can be shared with a wider audience. 3) It has less
impact since the audience can easily overlook or block this type of advertisement, which lowers
its response rate.

Earned media is free advertising generated by your customers. It is when customers become
the channel of your marketing by word of mouth or through social media, personal blogs,
reviews, testimonials, shares, or reposts recommending your products or services. 1) It is
effective yet less expensive; 2) It needs to be tracked regularly because there is complete
control over what is being shared and said about your brand. 3) Susceptible to negative
feedbacks.

Digital media includes: a) Software (Adobe Family Software, Microsoft, Chrome) b) digital
images c) digital video (YouTube, Vimeo, Online Short Films, etc.) d) video games
(MMORPGs, PSPs, XBOXs, Local Area Network types, etc.) e) web pages and websites (gov‘t
and business websites) f) social media (Facebook, Instagram, Twitter) g) digital data and
databases digital audio such as MP3 and M4A (Spotify, SoundCloud) h)electronic books and
other PDFs (google books, researches).

Digital Media and its Impacts

People found out that storing information on a computer was convenient and provided good
structure. People began to use computers for communication, creative purposes, research,
and entertainment. People began taking to the Internet for government, commercial,
educational, social, etc. purposes giving rise to digital media. People were able to hear from
multiple sources and to make it more personal by posting their own views. Now publishing
and blogging has become so easy that millions of people are able to post onto the internet
creating a large number of websites and information.

How Digital Media Affected News Media

- Operating in real time is a huge advantage.

- View various articles to gain better understanding.

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 - Personal Opinions, Amateur Journalism, Biased Articles can be found on the
internet.

- Personalize news experience

Interactive is a type of media that responds to users input, reaction and suggestion. Since the
traditional media or broadcast media with audiences watching with no way to navigate and
participate with. Furthermore, the internet media was introduced in 1990‘s and develop a more
interactive media that has a two-way communication or audience participation, such as the
following:

• APPLICATION SOFTWARE - is a software designed as a tool for users such as

knowledge management platform

• MOBILE APPS – are application software designed as a tool for users such as
knowledge management platform

• GAMES – are online engaging software games meant to entertain and resemble the
digital world

• VR & AR - Virtual Reality and Augmented Reality are immersive digital that make the
user feel as if they are exploring the world that is digital construct or is a digital twin of
physical reality.

• PERVASIVE GAME - are games that is mix the virtual and physical environments

• INTERACTIVE VIDEO – content presented in video that has interactive features such as
streaming video that audiences help to create.

• PUBLICATION - are websites that allow user to navigate, participate and communicate.

• SOCIAL MEDIA - is the digital community that allow media to be navigated, shared,
and created.

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 • INTERACTIVE ART - is a form of art that involves the spectator in a way that allows the
art to achieve its purpose.

• ADVERTISING – are digital outdoor and in-store advertising that feature interactive
elements such as digital posters that reacts to people who are in its proximity.

Multimedia Storytelling
Often refers to a blurring of boundaries between media online: newspapers and magazines
post video, radio stations post graphics and text, TV outlets offering text along with video and
maps. Reporters are no longer bound by their medium, but can draw on the strength of all to
tell a better story.

Multimedia stories take advantage of the strengths of each medium:

• Video to show action, capture strong quotes or take viewers somewhere they
wouldn't have access to.

• Photos to capture strong emotion or a key moment in time. Pictures still are often worth
a thousand words.

• Audio to capture compelling quotes or telling “ambient‖ sound.

• Graphics to show complicated processes or complex data (employment figures,
population percentages in cities) in an easy-to-understand format.

SOCIAL MEDIA

• Social network tools afford students and institutions with multiple opportunities to
improve learning methods. Through these networks, you can incorporate social
media plugins that enable sharing and interaction. Students can benefit from online
tutorials and resources that are shared through social networks and Learning
Management Systems.

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 • Connecting with experts on topics via social media. The great thing about using social
media is that you soon learn who the experts are in particular fields and subjects.

• Institutions communicate with students via YouTube and Facebook. Learning colleges
have the ability to connect with students through social media networks such as
Facebook, Google Plus groups, and YouTube.

• It helps in research process. Social media offers audience and subject monitoring tools
that are useful and it is one of the best platforms to extract data.

• Enhanced Learning management systems. Learning management systems is a

networking software that delivers educational programs and gives institutions other
administrative activities.

WEBSITE

• A location connected to the Internet that maintains one or more pages on the
World Wide Web.

MOBILE APPS

The education research scholars are coming up with new techniques to impart knowledge
every day. This includes exposing students to the kind of activities that engage them in
learning through innovative ways. The need of the hour is to make students focus on their
subject-oriented studies.

Five advantages of using educational apps and show the important role of using mobile
apps in education:
1. Introduction of new learning method
2. Enhanced Parent Teacher Communication - Parent-teacher communication
apps help in building parent- teacher relations beyond the walls of educational
institutes.

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 3. eBooks And Online Study - These days, students are generally very fond of
online studying. This is where library apps and book search apps come into the
picture.
4. Miscellaneous Functions - Various other student-related activities, such as online
school payments and payments for other purposes, can be made through mobile
applications. It saves the effort to stand in a queue and pay the fees for various
purposes at school.
5. Decreased communication gap between students and institutions
PODCASTS

A digital audio file made available on the Internet for downloading to a computer or mobile
device, typically available as a series, new installments of which can be received by
subscribers automatically.

Podcasts can be used for several educational purposes. Here are some of them:

• Podcast are great alternatives for delivering research content or lessons to students
who need remedial or extended support

• Students can create their own podcast to share their learning experiences with each
other and also with other students from other schools

• Teachers can record audio podcast to provide additional and revision material to
students to download and review at a time that fits them the best.

• Podcast can hugely benefit auditory learners and help them in their learning.

• Creating podcast allows students to develop several important skills such as

researching, writing, speaking effectively, solving problems, managing time, grabbing
attention and improving their vocabulary

Activity:

Give your views on How Digital Media Affected the Entertainment Industry.
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References:

Ponterio, R. & LeLoup, J. W. (1999). Developing Interactive Multimedia Teaching Materials for
the Web: Language Projects at SUNY Cortland.

Carpe Diem

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