A Ventilation System for Large Block Cave Mines

F Calizaya1, T A Sutra2 and M Stephens2

ABSTRACT planning stage by taking into account several factors including

the size and depth of the orebody. Today many of the block cave
Currently, there are several open pit mines with production rates of about
200 000 tpd of ore that are reaching the end of their economic lives. In
mines are highly mechanised with diesel powered units.
most cases, the remaining orebody extends to depths greater than 300 m Although electrical machines are available, diesel powered units
below the pit limit, leaving hundreds of millions of tons of reserves that are preferred because of their flexibility to adjust to unusual
can only be recovered by means of an underground mining method. One conditions. In block cave mines, diesel powered units are used on
such method used for mass production is block caving. three levels: undercut, production and reduction. At present,
This paper presents a ventilation system for a four-zone block cave there is a strong tendency to use block caving in order to deal
mine operation developed on a footprint 1000 m wide and 1200 m long. with stronger rocks that often result in poor fragmentation at the
The system is designed for a mine with a nominal production rate of draw points. Under these conditions, load-haul-dump units
120 000 tpd of ore using diesel powered units on the production and (LHDs) are more effective than grizzlies and slushers on the
reduction levels. It discusses the air quantity requirements for the worst production level. On the haulage level, trucks are preferred over
case scenario, which is anticipated to occur five years after the mine has trains, especially when underground crushers are used.
reached its full production capacity. Finally, it summarises the results of Alternatively, gathering conveyors may be used. However, one
computer modelling exercises that were carried out to determine an major disadvantage is that they require either rock breakers or
economic ventilation infrastructure that includes shafts, drifts, main fans, another means of size reduction on the production level. This
and ventilation control devices. becomes a bottleneck for high production rates. Due to this,
conveyors are now restricted to primary transportation between
INTRODUCTION the underground crusher and the processing plant.
Implementing the mining method that will yield the highest In this study, the following mine characteristics were assumed:
production rate has always been lucrative in the mining industry. • mining method: panel caving with advance undercutting;
This is intended mainly to shorten the investment return periods
and to minimise operating costs. Once the ‘easy’ ore reserves are • footprint of orebody: 1200 m × 1000 m;
mined out by surface mining, companies are faced with two • undercut level: 1400 m below surface;
alternatives: to reclaim and leave the property, or to continue • ore production rate: 120 000 tpd;
mining, extracting the ore from below the pit limit using an
underground mining method. • mining equipment: LHDs, trucks and conveyors;
As long as the ore and rock characteristics are appropriate, • heat loads: machine heat only, heat from rock is neglected;
block cave mining is a viable alternative. Experience has shown and
that block caving is the highest production method for
underground mining. For this reason, block caving is usually • underground water: greater than 0.63 m3/s.
considered as an alternative when a mine has to make the The information above is used to determine the airflow
transition from surface to underground operations. Indeed several requirements and to size the ventilation infrastructure for a large
companies have transitioned from open pit operations to block cave mine.
block cave mining successfully (Bartlett, 2000; Moss, 2004).
At present, there are three large open pit mines where a transition
to block cave mining is being assessed. In each case, the ore
VENTILATION PLANNING
production rate would be in the order of 100 000 tons per day Once the mining method is defined, the next step is to estimate
(tpd). Table 1 shows a brief summary of the technical the amount of air contaminants added to the work environment.
information considered at these mines (Arancibia, 2004; Block cave mining involves a number of activities where air
Brannon, 2004; Carter, 2000). contaminants are generated. Fortunately, these are concentrated
To achieve ‘safe-production’ rates without compromising the at only a few places. This is an advantage in ventilation planning
health and safety of the mine workers, large airflow rates will be since it allows the construction of permanent ventilation
required, especially when diesel powered units are utilised. structures equipped with flow control devices that can be
These requirements could be as high as 0.025 m3/s of air per adjusted as mining progresses. Today, underground mines are
daily tonnage. To handle large volumes of air, the mine will experiencing difficult situations complicated by low ore grades
require several ventilation shafts and drifts equipped with large and deep ore reserves. To remain competitive, mine operators are
capacity fans and numerous control devices. This paper presents being forced to adapt mining methods that yield large production
a summary of vent requirements for a 120 000 tpd block cave rates and to pursue cost reduction programs aggressively. For
mine. It also describes the means used to achieve these block cave mining this means adopting higher block columns,
requirements. reducing undercut drilling, utilising large capacity machines, and
minimising the lag time between development and production.
MINING METHOD AND BASIC ASSUMPTIONS From a planning point of view this implies providing the mine
with an efficient ventilation system. This can be accomplished by
Based on economic considerations, production often starts at a developing airways to the economic diameter, implementing a
small section of an orebody. Then it gradually expands to reach a competent maintenance program, and striving for a vent system
predefined production target. This target is determined at the that minimises the leakage flow.

1. Associate Professor, Mining Engineering, University of Utah, 135 S AIRFLOW DISTRIBUTION

1460 E #313, Salt Lake City UT 84112, USA. In block cave mines, the workings with large airflow
2. Graduate Student, Mining Engineering, University of Utah, 135 S requirements are concentrated on four levels: undercut,
1460 E #313, Salt Lake City UT 84112, USA. production, reduction, and haulage. The number of workings

Eighth International Mine Ventilation Congress Brisbane, QLD, 6 - 8 July 2005 457
F CALIZAYA, T A SUTRA and M STEPHENS

TABLE 1
Technical information for three large open pit mines.

Mine Pit dimensions (km) Reserves below pit limit

Length Width Depth Reserves (Mt) Grade (% Cu) Height (m)
Bingham Canyon, USA 4.0 2.7 .83 321 0.7 274
Chuquicamata, Chile 4.5 2.7 .85 1500 0.65 250
Grasberg, Indonesia 3.5 3.0 .83 874 1.0 275

varies with the ore production rate, and the types and sizes of the once pulled from the draw points, is transported by diesel LHDs
equipment utilised. Although each mine has its own unique to tipping points. In the process, large amounts of air
ventilation system, the basic design does not vary greatly contaminants such as rock dust and smoke are generated, thus
between block cave mines. Some unique features applicable to requiring large volumes of air for dilution. For long panel drifts,
the ventilation of large block cave mines are highlighted below. it is recommended to divide the vent system into zones, each
equipped with dedicated intakes and returns. This setup allows
Undercut level the utilisation of two or more loaders in one drift without raising
environmental concerns in other drifts. This study includes
Drilling and blasting are two major activities carried out on the 16 panel drifts each divided into four working zones. The fresh
undercut level. As mining goes deeper the trend is to use either
air is drawn from the main intake shafts, circulated through the
an advance undercutting or a pre-undercutting method (instead of
active workings, downcast to ventilation drifts, and returned to
post-undercutting). Both methods will require the removal of the
the surface through exhaust shafts. Figure 2 shows a vent
swell muck from the face, which is carried out using low profile
loaders. The undercut initiation is dictated by several factors schematic for a four-zone panel drift. It includes three intakes
such as geotechnical aspects and ore grade. In this study, it is and two returns. The central raises (one intake and two returns)
assumed that undercutting commences at the central part of the are sized and equipped to support two working areas. The
orebody and progresses outwards. This arrangement allows the contaminated air is collected on a vent level through a series of
mine operator to have more working places than other raises and directed to exhaust shafts. The intake and return shafts
alternatives, a requirement to achieve high production rates. The are located on opposite sides of the orebody. The main reason for
undercut drifts are ventilated as blind headings using auxiliary this setup is to reduce the number of doors and bulkheads
fan systems. Figure 1 shows the design concepts used to ventilate between the main intakes and returns.
two adjacent drifts. The same concepts can be expanded for other
alternatives where undercutting commences at one side of the Haulage/reduction level
orebody.
On this level, the air contaminants are generated at transfer
chutes, haulage trucks, and crushers. The ore, once drawn from
Production level the chutes, is transported by trucks to an underground crusher
The panel drifts are the most congested working areas in a block where it is reduced to small fragments (less than 0.2 m diameter).
cave mine. In addition to loaders and rock breakers, heavy The size reduction is carried out under dry conditions, thus
equipment is used to clear and maintain panel drifts. The ore, generating substantial amounts of dust. Sometimes water sprays
are used to suppress the dust. However, this method has limited
application. In general, all air contaminants of this level are
1200 m Exhaust controlled by means of primary ventilation.
Orebody raise

Temporary Intake shafts 1200 m

cross-cut

Ore boundary
Fringe drift
1000 m
Fringe drift

Intake
Cave
Fringe drift
1000 m
Fringe drift

Drill drifts
Undercut Panel
advance drifts
Exhaust
shafts
To exhaust raise
Drill drift
Exhaust Exhaust
C raise Intake raise raise
Intake from
a 300m 300m 300m 300m
extraction level
v
e
Rigid duct Booster Flexible duct
Auxiliary
fan Panel
300 m Orepass Orepass

FIG 1 - Flow distribution on undercut level. FIG 2 - Flow distribution on production level.

458 Brisbane, QLD, 6 - 8 July 2005 Eighth International Mine Ventilation Congress
 A VENTILATION SYSTEM FOR LARGE BLOCK CAVE MINES

In this study, it is assumed that the mine will require two Duckworth, 2004). In some cases, these were estimated from
underground crushers, each with a capacity of about 4200 tph. direct pressure-quantity measurements, in others they were
The crushers will be located near the periphery of the orebody. further adjusted to account for shock losses. Table 2 shows the
Twenty-six one-way trafic loops equipped with automatic friction coefficients used in this study.
controlers will be used to link the ore chutes and the crushers.
Fourteen 80 ton capacity trucks will haul the ore to the crusher.
A similar truck haulage concept has been used successfully at the TABLE 2
Henderson mine (Keskimaki, 2004). Standardised friction factors.
Figure 3 shows a ventilation schematic for the haulage/
Mine airway k-factor (kg/m3)
reduction level. As in previous cases, the fresh air is drawn from
main intake drifts and raises, circulated through the haulage Drift (arched, bolted with limited mesh) 0.0088
loops and exhausted to a return manifold. A separate airpath Ramp (arched, bolted with limited mesh) 0.0116
equipped with dust collectors ventilates each crusher. The Alimak raise (with rock bolt and mesh support) 0.0113
drainage drifts, developed underneath the haulage loops, are used
as auxiliary returns. 6 m diameter shaft (drilled and blasted) 0.0095
Bored raised 0.0047
Conveyor drift (with 2.1 m belt) 0.0120

Intake at Air velocities

vent. level
Critical air velocities are either prescribed by legislation or
Crusher
determined based on their effects on the well-being of the mine
workers. In main trafficways, low air velocities may result in
fogging and impair the workers’ visibility. On the other hand, air
Truck velocities higher than 3 m/s will pick up dust particulates, thus
movement causing physical discomfort among the workers. In mines with
Truck Downcast
Intake heavy heat loads, the air velocity should never be dropped to less
loop raises raises than 0.76 m/s. Table 3 shows the air velocities used in this study.

TABLE 3
Recommended air velocities.
Pass-through truck

Airway Velocity (m/s)

Raise to
drainage level Main intake drifts < 6.1
Back-in truck Main return drifts < 12.2
entrance Raise to main
Orepass & Service shafts < 13.3
chute return level
Development drifts > 0.76
Conveyor drifts < 3.1
FIG 3 - Flow distribution on haulage level.

Airflow requirements
Conveyor and drainage drifts
This is the most empirical section of any ventilation design. Flow
The conveyor drifts consist of two openings: conveyor and requirements are determined based on several factors including:
service drifts. Two declines connect these drifts to the mill stock standards set by regulatory agencies, various types and number
pile. One of the declines, equipped with a 2.5 m-wide conveyor, of internal combustion engines used underground, the
is used to extract the crushed ore. The other is used as a service maintenance program undertaken, and finally, the air quality at
drift and as an auxiliary intake for the crusher area. To limit the the workings. Table 4 shows the flow requirements used in this
air velocity to 3 m/s, the drifts are isolated from others by means study. These were estimated primarely based on the equipment
of doors and bulkheads. Dedicated airways are used to direct the utilised. When diesel powered units were used, these quantities
contaminant air from the conveyor drifts to the exhaust level. were estimated based on either the name plate requirements, or a
The drainage drifts are equipped with drain wells, sumps, and minimum of 7.9 m3/s per 100 kW. When applicable, these
pumps. They are used to collect and dispose the mine water to quantities were adjusted by the utilisation rate. For shops and
the surface and also as auxiliary returns for the haulage loops. other fixed facilities, these quantities were estimated based on
the authors’ experience in large block cave mines.
VENTILATION DESIGN CRITERIA
ECONOMIC AIRWAY DESIGN
Three design factors are described in this section: friction
coefficients, critical velocities, and flow requirements. These The size of a mine opening is often determined based on the
factors play an important role in determining the geometry of the maximum dimension of the equipment deployed in an area.
ventilation model and the size of the main fans. However, there are some exceptions, especially when major
intake and return airways are to be developed. Theoretically, the
Friction coefficients optimum drift/shaft diameter can be determined by minimising a
cost function (capital and operating). In practice however, this is
For new projects, one way of formulating a ventilation model is limited by factors such as the availability of the mining
by utilising information gathered from past experience. equipment at the site. Further, taking into account that these
Numerous publications on friction coefficients, or k-factors, are constructions are to be completed during the development stage,
found in the ventilation literature (Prosser and Wallace, 1999; there is always the temptation of reducing costs by sacrificing the

Eighth International Mine Ventilation Congress Brisbane, QLD, 6 - 8 July 2005 459
F CALIZAYA, T A SUTRA and M STEPHENS

TABLE 4
Estimated airflow requirements.

Level Equipment description Utilisation (%) Total Power (kW) Quantity (m3/s)
Undercut Longhole drill 90 4 172 49.1
Undercut LHD (4.8 m3) 90 3 201 43.0
Subtotal 92.1
Extraction Production LHD (7.3 m3) 90 46 269 881.7
Secondary blasting drills 50 20 37 29.2
Longhole drills 90 3 172 36.8
Jumbo drill (development) 30 6 58 8.3
Development LHD (5.7 m3) 90 5 231 82.3
Development truck(40 ton) 90 2 264 37.6
Concrete/shotcrete truck 30 10 57 13.5
Rock bolter/jumbo drills 30 2/4 58 7.5
Shotcrete jumbo/sprayer 30 5 57 6.8
Scissor lift 30 12 61 17.4
LHD shop and lube bay 1 94.4
Drill shop 1 37.8
Lunch room and offices 1 47.2
Subtotal 1300.4
Truck haulage 80-ton rrucks 90 14 362 400.6
Development LHD (5.7 m3) 90 3 231 49.4
40 ton-development truck 90 1 264 18.8
Crusher 2 56.6
Lunch room 1 47.2
Truck and rebuild shop 1 75.5
Subtotal 648.1
Conveyor and drainage Main conveyors 3 51.9
LHD 50 4 201/93 22.7
Truck 50 2 157 12.4
Ore-flow shop 1 40.1
Subtotal 127.1
General Personnel 100 700 49.6
Powder magazine 2 23.6
Man haul bus/light vehicles 20 4/10 224/86 34.6
Diesel fuel truck 50 6 125 29.7
Oils fuel truck 50 3 99 11.7
Boom truck 50 4 115 18.2
Explosives truck 50 4 123 19.5
Grader 50 3 134 15.9
Subtotal 202.6
Total Qo 2370.3

size of these openings. Sometimes, the economic diameter is of 0.0132 kg/m3 includes shock losses for multiple 90º elbows
buried by ‘unknown’ factors such as the actual power cost or the that are considered to be part of a ventilation shaft.
real life of the project. Due to these constraints, one must weigh In this study, it is assumed that all shafts are developed in two
up all of these factors and develop openings to the best possible stages: boring to 3 m diam in the first stage, and slashing to the
diameter. required diameter in the next stage. Regardless of size, the
Although the capital costs for drifts and shafts can readily be excavation cost is kept at US$ 290/m3. Furthermore, it is
obtained from mine operators and contractors, operating costs assumed that a 1500 m long shaft is developed in three segments
are often estimated. For an economic design, operating costs are of 500 m each with their ends connected on each sublevel. Here,
estimated based on the total airpower requirement and fan the goal is to determine the number of shafts that will handle the
efficiency. Table 5 shows the parameters used to determine the required quantity of air and minimise the total cost. The analysis
economic diameter of intake and return shafts. The power and was initiated with six 5.1 m diameter shafts (three intakes and
excavation costs are estimated based on actual expenditures that three returns). For a total quantity of 2844.5 m3/s of air, this
took place in a mine between 1999 and 2001. The friction factor implies that each shaft passes 948 m3/s of air. Based on this

460 Brisbane, QLD, 6 - 8 July 2005 Eighth International Mine Ventilation Congress
 A VENTILATION SYSTEM FOR LARGE BLOCK CAVE MINES

TABLE 5
Shaft design parameters. 450-subsidence line 4.5 km x 2.9 km
Parameter Quantity Units
Power cost 7 ¢/kWh
Excavation cost 290 US$/m3
Shaft life 20 years
Interest rate 10 %
Fan efficiency 70 %
Shaft length 1500 m 1100 m
k-factor 0.0132 kg/m3
Total air quantity† 2844.5 m3/s Intake
shafts
† Includes 20 per cent increase for leakage.
Return
quantity and the parameters of Table 5, an annual cost of shafts
US$ 173 million was estimated. The procedure was repeated for
a number of shafts ranging between six and 24. In the next trial,
the shaft diameter was increased to 6.3 m and the optimisation
orebody 400 m
procedure repeated. Figure 4 shows four curves depicting the
changes of total annual cost against the number of shafts for
different shaft diameters. The graph indicates that the lowest
operating cost would be achieved by sinking six 9.5 m diameter
shafts (three intakes and three returns). With this option, the total
annual cost for primary shafts would be equal to US$ 29 million. FIG 5 - A 3D mine schematic.

190
Ventilation network
180 5.1m Dia
170 The network includes 746 branches, 578 nodes, and six surface
160 fans. Table 6 summarises the parameters used to determine the
150 airway resistances. These were estimated based on: the k-factors
6.3m Dia given in Table 2, economic considerations, and typical
Total Cost/Year ($ x Million)

140
130 cross-sections found in practice. A preliminary mine design was
120 used to estimate the airway lengths. Each active working is
110 represented by a fixed quantity branch. The model includes
100 86 branches of this type. Given this information, the task consists
90
of determining the size of the main fans to fulfill the flow
requirements.
80 7.3m Dia 9.5m Dia
70 The basic ventilation network consists of:
60 • three intake and three exhaust shafts;
50 • 14 primary ventilation drifts;
40
30 • 12 drill drifts, with two drifts under development (seven drill
20 drifts in both working zones);
10 • 12 panels in production, four panels under development or
0 construction;
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24

Number of Shafts TABLE 6

Airway resistance per 100 m.

FIG 4 - Optimum shaft size. Airway Cross-section k-factor Resistance

dimensions (m) (kg/m3) (Ns2/m8)
VENTILATION MODELLING Shaft 9.5 m diameter 0.0132 0.00011

Based on the information above, a ventilation network was Raise 1 3.0 m diameter 0.0130 0.03467
formulated to determine the pressure/quantity requirements. Due Raise 2 4.0 m diameter 0.0130 0.00823
to physical and operational restrictions, the main fans are to be Vent drift 1 6.8 × 6.0 0.0111 0.00042
located at the collar of each exhaust shaft. The network was
Vent drift 2 6.5 × 5 m 0.0111 0.00077
solved using the ventilation simulator VNETPC. Figure 5 shows
a simplified diagram of the mine workings. It also shows the Undercut drift 3.6 × 3.6 m 0.0111 0.00734
location of the main intakes and returns and the paths used to Panel drift 4.5 × 4.5 m 0.0111 0.00241
distribute the air to the workings. Considering a 45º overall Truck H drift 5.5 × 5.5 m 0.0111 0.00088
subsidence angle, the vent shafts are at approximately 1.5 km
away from the active workings. Conveyor drift 4.5 × 5.0 m 0.0120 0.00260

Eighth International Mine Ventilation Congress Brisbane, QLD, 6 - 8 July 2005 461
F CALIZAYA, T A SUTRA and M STEPHENS

• 24 active truck loops, two loops in development (13 loops for depending on how the control devices are operated and
each crusher station); and maintained, a substantial portion of the quantity of air induced by
the main fan may be short-circuited. The impact of these factors
• two declines, three conveyor drifts and one drainage drift.
on a vent system is discussed below.
An economic solution to the model Ventilation infrastructure
Again, a solution was found iteratively using VNETPC. In sizing mine airways, an excavation cost of US$ 290/m3 was
Calculations were started by assigning a fixed pressure to each used. This cost is based on actual shaft construction expenditures
fan, solving the network, and evaluating the results for unwanted that took place in a large block cave mine from 1999 - 2001. It
recirculation. For each fixed quantity branch, a parameter called included sporadic rock bolting and meshing, but no lining. Based
‘added resistance’ was first calculated using Atkinson’s equation. on this figure, a 9.5 m diameter, 1500 m long shaft would cost
Next, the resulting resistances were evaluated and the most approximately US$ 31 million, or US$ 186 million for six shafts.
negative ones determined. A negative added resistance indicates In addition to these, the ventilation infrastructure will include at
that the required quantities can only be achieved by adding a least three intermediate access drifts developed from the main
booster fan or increasing the main fan pressure. The procedure declines, over 30 km of drifts and crosscuts on the ventilation
was repeated for various fan pressures and a solution was found level, and numerous raises. Using a cost of US$ 4000/m for
using a search routine (Calizaya, 1986). An economic solution to drifting (5.5 × 6.5 m in cross-section) and US$ 2500/m for raise
the problem was found when the fan pressure was set to boring (3 m diameter), the ventilation construction costs are
5.35 kPa. Under this condition, the total flow rate was equal to estimated to be in the order of US$ 370 million.
2729 m3/s. This resulted in a 15 per cent loss of fresh air in
the form of leakage. The total fan motor power requirement
is about 14 600 kW and the annual operating power cost is
Shock losses in shafts
US$ 12.8 million. Figure 6 illustrates a pressure gradient for the Deep block cave mines will undoubtedly require long shafts for
system. The airway paths selected for the graph include an intake access and ventilation. Traditionally, these have been constructed
shaft, the most resistive panel drift, and a return shaft. and equipped by contractors. The job requires highly
sophisticated equipment and skilled labour. As such, it can be
costly. One economic alternative, still used by contractors, is to
Distance from the intake shaft (m) combine raise boring with conventional drilling and blasting
from a moving platform (Alimak). Several ventilation shafts have
500 been completed using this technique (Calizaya, 2004). Using this
method, a 7.3 m diameter, 1500 m long shaft can be developed
by dividing the shafts into three segments and constructing each
in two stages: boring to about 3 m diameter first and slashing to
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 7.3 m next. For safety reasons, the ends of each segment should
-500
Pressure relative to atmospheric (Pa)

be offset by about 50 m and interconnected by short drifts. The

Intake shaft resulting shaft would then include six 90º bends where shock
losses would take place. The shock loss for each bend can be
Primary approximated by:
-1500 intake drift
Hx = X.Hv (1)

where:
Panel intake
-2500 raise Panel Hx = shock loss, Pa
X = shock loss factor
HV = velocity pressure, Pa (= 0.5ρV2)

-3500 Primary For a 7.3 m diameter shaft, air velocity of 11.3 m/s (flow rate
exhaust drift = 472 m3/s), air density of 1.2 kg/m3, and a shock loss factor of
1.4, Equation 1 yields a pressure drop of 108 Pa. For six elbows
this yields a total shock loss of 650 Pa. Furthermore, if
k = 0.0095 kg/m3, Atkinson’s equation (Square Law) yields a
-4500 frictional pressure drop of 993 Pa. A comparison of these two
figures shows that the shock loss could be as high as 40 per cent
of the total pressure drop in the shaft.

Exhaust Leakage flow

-5500 shaft In underground mines, bulkheads, doors, and overcasts are used
to separate intakes and returns. A block cave vent system may
FIG 6 - Pressure gradient profile. include hundreds of these constructions. From a ventilation point
of view, these are all considered leakage paths through which
part of the fresh air is short circuited. The problem can be greater
DISCUSSIONS when the main intake and return shafts/drifts are located near one
another. In operating mines these constructions are subject to
In addition to shafts, drifts, raises and fans, a vent system physical damage caused by external forces such as rock blasting
includes numerous control devices such as regulators, doors and and ground movement, which will ultimately increase the
bulkheads. It also includes airway obstructions such as bends, leakage quantity. During the design, these are represented by
splits and sudden contractions and expansions. Depending on leakage paths whose resistances are estimated from standardised
how the airways are constructed, significant amounts of fan tables and graphs. Sometimes, these are adjusted to account for
energy may be wasted in the form of shock losses. Furthermore, local conditions (eg presence of drainage holes). However, there

462 Brisbane, QLD, 6 - 8 July 2005 Eighth International Mine Ventilation Congress
 A VENTILATION SYSTEM FOR LARGE BLOCK CAVE MINES

is considerable uncertainty on how these figures are determined. the system, and mined out areas are isolated by means of
Some typical leakage path resistance values are presented below bulkheads and doors. These constructions do not remain air-tight
(Deglon, 1992; Calizaya, 2004): over time, but are subject to wear and tear. Due to this, the
• hollow concrete brick bulkhead: 356 Ns2/m8; leakage quantity is likely to increase. In large block cave mines,
this quantity could be as high as 30 per cent of the total flow rate
• double airlock doors (4 m × 4 m): 138.8 Ns2/m8; and induced by the main fans.
• walls for standard overcasts: 1780 - 2220 Ns2/m8.
Once these resistances are accounted for in the model, the total REFERENCES
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long shafts (three intakes and three returns). The number and size for selecting the optimum combination of main and booster fans in
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The proposed ventilation system will require six fans to Moss, A, Russell, F and Jones, C, 2004. Caving and fragmentation at
exhaust 2729 m3/s of air at 5.35 kPa of static pressure. Of this, Palabora: prediction to production in Proceedings MassMin 2004
2.6 kPa (50 per cent of the total) is dissipated at the main intake (ed: A Karzulovic), pp 585-590 (Mineria Chilena: Santiago, Chile).
and return shafts. This pressure is substantially higher than that Prosser, B S and Wallace, K G, 1999. Practical values of friction factors
found in operating mines. Methods of lowering this pressure in Proceedings Eighth US Mine Ventilation Symposium (ed: J C
Tien), pp 3-13 (University of Missouri-Rolla).
include: adding several underground booster fans, increasing the
Ray, R E, 1997. Design considerations for main exhaust fan systems at
shaft diameter or increasing the number of shafts.
underground coal mines, in Proceedings 6th International Mine
For an initial model, a leakage quantity of 15 per cent was Ventilation Congress (ed: R Ramani), pp 513-518 (The Pennsylvania
estimated. As mining progresses, new workings are added onto State University, SME: Littleton, Colorado).

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