UNIT-1

#Principles and architecture of satellite Communication

A repeater is a circuit which increases the strength of the signal it receives and retransmits it. But here this
repeater works as a transponder, which changes the frequency band of the transmitted signal, from the
received one.

The frequency with which the signal is sent into the space is called Uplink frequency, while the frequency with
which it is sent by the transponder is Downlink frequency.

Ground wave propagation and skywave propagation are the two ways communication takes place for a certain
distance. The maximum distance covered by them is 1500 km, which was overcome by the introduction of
satellite communication.
The communication satellites are similar to the space mirrors that help us bounce signals such as radio,
internet data, and television from one side of the earth to another. Three stages are involved, which explain
the working of satellite communications. These are:

1. Uplink
2. Transponders
3. Downlink

Let’s consider an example of signals from a television. In the first stage, the signal from the television
broadcast on the other side of the earth is first beamed up to the satellite from the ground station on the
earth. This process is known as uplink.

The second stage involves transponders such as radio receivers, amplifiers, and transmitters. These
transponders boost the incoming signal and change its frequency so that the outgoing signals are not altered.
Depending on the incoming signal sources, the transponders vary.

The final stage involves a downlink in which the data is sent to the other end of the receiver on the earth. It is
important to understand that usually, there is one uplink and multiple downlinks.

There are two categories in which satellite communication services can be classified:

One-way satellite communication: - In one-way satellite communication, the communication usually takes
place between either one or multiple earth stations through the help of a satellite.

The communication takes place between the transmitter on the first earth satellite to the receiver which is the
second earth satellite. The transmission of the signal is unidirectional.

Two- way satellite communication: - In two-way satellite communication, the information is exchanged
between any two earth stations. It can be said that there is a point-to-point connectivity.

The signal is transmitted from the first earth station to the second earth station such that there are two uplinks
and two downlinks between the earth stations and the satellite.
# Brief history of Satellite systems

1945 – Arthur C. Clarke’s Remarkable Prescience

As early as 1945, legendary sci-fi author Arthur C. Clarke, at the time an officer in the Royal Air Force, proposed
a geostationary orbit, with three satellites providing global communications relays (scroll down for an
explanation of the different types of satellite orbits). While it would be another 20 years before this became a
reality, in some circles, the high-altitude geostationary orbit is known as the ‘Clarke Orbit’, and it is the home
of over 500 satellites in 2021.

1957 – USSR Launches Sputnik 1

Sputnik 1 was the first man-made satellite to be launched into space. The 53 cm (23 in) sphere was surrounded
by four radio antennas. Its purpose was firstly, to test that it could be done! Further, scientists hoped to
measure the density of the atmosphere, test radio and optical methods of tracking its orbit, and to see how
radio waves would behave as they passed through the atmosphere. It orbited for three weeks with battery
power, and a further two months without, before falling back into the atmosphere. It caught the United States
on the hop, and kicked off the space race.

1962 – Skynet / NASA Launch Telstar 1

Telstar 1 was the first transatlantic communications satellite, relaying a television signal from Andover Earth
Station in Maine, to the Pleumeur-Bodou Telecom Center in Brittany, France. Telstar used a low earth orbit
(LEO), and was tracked by the ground stations in Maine and Brittany. Over the course of two years, Telstar 1
transmitted over 500 telephone, telegraph, facsimile and television transmissions (source: NASA), and proved
the concept that satellites could be used for communication.

1964 – Summer Olympics is Televised Live via Satellite

A collaboration between NASA and the Japanese government saw a satellite, Syncom 3, previously intended
for telephone use, upgraded to transmit TV signals. This made it possible to transmit live coverage of the
games to over one-third of the globe (source: Olympics.com). Syncom 3 was the first satellite in geostationary
orbit.

2003 – Eutelsat Launches e-BIRD, Designed for Internet Broadband

The first successful attempt to provide broadband satellite internet was in 2003, with the launch of Eutelsat
Communication’s e-BIRD satellite. Using four ‘spot beams’ (the targeting of radio signals from the satellite to a
specific point on Earth), this provided Europe with broadband and broadcast services in areas not served by
ADSL and other terrestrial broadband technologies
#Advantages: -
1. Flexibility.
2. It is fast & reliable.
3. Ease in installing new circuits.
4. The elasticity of these circuits is excellent.
5. Distances are easily covered and cost doesn’t matter.
6. Broadcasting possibilities.
7. Each and every corner of earth is covered.
8. User can control the network.

#Disadvantages: -
1. The initial costs such as segment and launch costs are too high.
2. Congestion of frequencies.
3. There are chances of blockage of frequencies.
4. Interference and propagation.

#Applications: -

1. In Radio broadcasting.
2. In TV broadcasting such as DTH.
3. In Internet applications such as providing Internet connection for data transfer, GPS
applications, Internet surfing, etc.
4. For voice communications.
5. For research and development sector, in many areas.
6. In military applications and navigations.
7. Digital cinema
8. Amateur radio
9. Disaster Management

#Frequencies: -
Commercial satellite services primarily use three radio frequency bands:

L-band (1–2 GHz), which is used for mobile applications, such as maritime and aeronautical communications,
employing a variety of ground equipment.

S-band (2–4 GHz) Weather radar, surface ship radar, and some communications satellites, especially those of
NASA for communication with ISS and Space Shuttle. In May 2009, Inmarsat and Solaris mobile (a joint venture
between Eutelsat and Astra) were awarded each a 2×15 MHz portion of the S-band by the European
Commission.

X-band (8–12 GHz), Primarily used by the military. Used in radar applications including continuous-wave,
pulsed, single-polarization, dual- polarization, synthetic aperture radar and phased arrays. X-band radar
frequency sub-bands are used in civil, military and government institutions for weather monitoring, air traffic
control, maritime vessel traffic control, defense tracking and vehicle speed detection for law enforcement.

C-band (4–8 GHz), which provides lower transmission power over wide geographic areas and generally
requires larger ground equipment for reception.

Ku-band (12–18 GHz), which offers higher transmission power over smaller geographic areas and can be
received with smaller ground equipment.

Ka-band(26–40 GHz), which offers higher transmission power than Ku-band and generally is used for high-
bandwidth services such as high-speed internet, video conferencing and multimedia applications.
 UNIT-2

#Orbital equations

Following are the three laws of Kepler:

Kepler’s first law states that every planet revolves around the sun in an elliptical orbit, and the sun is
one of the foci.

Kepler’s second law states that for an equal interval of time, the area covered by the satellite is
equal with respect to the earth’s centre.

Kepler’s third law states that the square of the periodic time of the orbit is proportional to the cube
of the mean distance between the two bodies.