OAV PITATALI CHIKITI

ODISHA
Class- XI
Subject- Physics
Topic- Mechanical Properties of Fluids

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LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
Students
• will gain knowledge regarding Pascal’s law,Surface tension, capillary action.
• will able to understand various phenomenon based on capillary action.
• can calculate terminal velocity, pressure difference in liquid drop and soap bubble and
analyse the principle lying behind the working of Mercury barometer.
• can calculate Gauge pressure and absolute pressure.
• can calculate the height through which liquid can rise in a capillary tube.
• can use the knowledge of viscosity for selecting lubricants,preparing antiseptic cream.
• will understand and apply Bernoulli’s principle to calculate the velocity of flow of
liquid from a small opening on the wall of a container.
• can able to explain the working of Atomizer or spray and Venturimeter.
• will understand Magnus effect, Dynamic lift.
PRESSURE
● Pressure exerted by solid depends on
Area of contact
Force acting perpendicularly on the surface.(thrust)
P = F/A
UNIT IN S.I SYSTEM
Pascal (pa)
When a force of 1N acts perpendicularly on a surface of area 1m2
,then pressure on the surface is 1pa.
1Pa = 1N/1m2

● PRESSURE EXERTED BY LIQUID:

When an object is immersed in liquid at rest,it experience force of
liquid perpendicularly in all possible directions.
● Pressure exerted by liquid depends on :Density of the liquid

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Height of the liquid column
PASCAL’S LAW: Statement can be given in number of ways.
(i) The pressure exerted at any point on an enclosed incompressible liquid is transmitted equally in
all possible directions.
(ii) A change in pressure applied to an enclosed incompressible fluid is transmitted undiminished
to every poit of the fluid and the wall of the containing vessel.
(iii) The pressure in a fluid at rest is same at every point if we ignore gravity.

Blaise Pascal(born June 19,1623,Clermont-Ferrand France

Died on August 19,1662) 5
I In the above arrangement left tube is having cross sectional area A 1 = A
Second tube is having cross sectional area A2 = 2A
Force provided on left piston = F its to keep the right piston in
Force required to keep the right piston in position is measured to be = 2F. Because
pressure at left piston = F1/A1 = Pressure created at right piston =F2/A2

APPLICATION OF (HYDRAULIC LIFT) Two cylinders are fitted with air

PASCAL ‘s LAW: tight ,frictionless piston.
They are connected by a tube filled
with incompressible liquid .
f = force given at narrow surface
a= surface area of narrow surface
p= pressure at narrow surface =f/a
A = surface area of wider surface
F = force generated at wider
surface =PA =(f/a)A
It is large enough to raise the car in
upward direction. 6
HYDRAULIC BRAKE:

When the pedal is pressed ,its lever system

pushes the piston into the master
cylinder.Pressure is transmitted through the
incompressible oil to the piston P1 and P2 in the
wheel cylinder, in accordance with Pascal’s
law.
The pistons P1 and P2 are pushed outward.
Brake shoe gets pressed against the inner rim
of the wheel, retarding the motion of the
wheel.

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PRESSURE EXERTED BY LIQUID COLUMN:

Consider a vessel of cross sectional area A ,containing liquid column

of height H, density ρ .
Pressure exerted by liquid column on the bottom of container
=force exerted by liquid column per unit area
= Weight exerted by liquid column per unit surface area
=(Volume x density x g)/Area
=Ahρg/A
=hρg

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EFFECT OF GRAVITY ON FLUID PRESSURE:
Consider liquid at rest in the container.
Imagine a cylindrical element of the liquid of cross-
sectional area A and height h
P₁and P₂ be the liquid pressure at the top and bottom
surface respectively
As the liquid is at rest,Resultant horizontal force
should be zero.
Various forces acting in vertical directions are:
1.Force due to liquid pressure at the top, F1 = P1 .A
acting downward
2.Force due to liquid pressure at the bottom F2 = P2. A
acting Upward
As the liquid cylinder is at rest,Total
3. W= weight of the liquid cylinder acting downward upward force = total downward
= volume x density x Acceleration due to force
gravity F1 +W = F2
= F2-F1 = W
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P2 -P1 = h
Water /liquid pressure depends only on
depth of liquid column not on the shape of
the containing vessel.
In the given case all the three vessels have
same base area.Also height of liquid is
same.Hence pressure exerted in ll the three
cases will be same in spite of different
amount of liquid in different container.

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ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE:
The pressure exerted by atmosphere is called atmospheric pressure.
The force exerted by air column of air on unit area of the earth's surface is called
atmospheric pressure.
The atmospheric pressure at se level is 1.013 x 10⁵Pa

MERCURY BAROMETER:

It is the device used to measure atmospheric pressure.

A 1 m long glass tube closed at one end is filled with clean
and dry mercury. After closing the end of the tube with
thumb ,the tube is inverted into a dish of mercury.As the
thumb is removed ,the mercury level in the tube falls
down little and comes to rest at a vertical height 76cm.
Pressure at point 1= pressure at point 2
Atmospheric pressure = pressure exerted by 76 cm of
mercury column =0 .76 x 13.6 x 10³ x9.8 =1.013x10⁵ Pa
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 OPEN TUBE MANOMETER:

It is a simple device used to measure the pressure of a gas enclosed in a vessel.It consist
of a U tube containing some liquid. One end of the tube is open to the atmosphere and
the other end is connected to the vessel.

Pressure P of the gas = pressure at point3

= pressure at point 1
=pressure at point 2 +h ρg

ABSOLUTE PRESSURE:The total or actual pressure at

a point is called absolute pressure.
GAUGE PRESSURE:The difference between the
absolute pressure and atmospheric pressure at the point
is called gauge pressure.
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SURFACE TENSION: It is the property of liquid by virtue of which the free surface of
liquid at rest behaves like an elastic stretched rubber membrane tending to contract so
as to occupy minimum surface area.
AB is the imaginary line drawn on liquid surface. The small elements of
the surface on this line are in equilibrium because they are acted upon
by equal and opposite forces ,acting perpendicular to the line from
either side.
Suppose the force acting on the line is F and length of the line is L.
Then surface tension = F/L
Unit in S.I System= N/m
Molecules present on the top surface experience net
downward force.Due to this downward force ,the
potential energy is more than the molecules lying
inside it.Hence the surface tries to minimise its
surface area so that number of molecules on the
surface will be less.Potential energy will be
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less.Surface will be stable.
SOME PHENOMENA BASED ON SURFACE TENSION:
(1) NEEDLE SUPPORTED ON WATER SURFACE:
(2)

Floating needle cause little

depression.The force due to
surface tension of the
curved surface acts
tangential to the
surface.Whose vertical
component balance the
weght of the needle.
Rain drops are spherical because
of surface tension. 14
 SURFACE ENERGY: The extra energy possessed by molecules of surface film of
unit area compared to molecules of interior is called surface energy.

It is also equal to the work done in increasing the area of surface by unit amount.
Surface energy and surface tension are numerically equal.

Pressure on both Pressure on vapour side is

the side of the Pressure on liquid more than that on liquid 15
surface is same side is more side.
EXPRESSION FOR EXCESS PRESSURE INSIDE A LIQUID DROP:
r = radius of the liquid drop
T = surface tension of the liquid drop
Due to sphericl shape there is an excess pressure p inside the drop.
Under the excess pressure radius increases from R to R+dR
Initial surface area = 4πR²
Final surface area = 4π(R+dR)²= 4π(R²+dR²+2RdR)
= 4πR²+8πRdR
dR² is neglected
Increase in surface area = 4πR²+ 8πRdR-4πR²
=8πR dR
Work done in enlarging the drop = increase in surface area ×surface
tension = 8πR dR T
Work done = force x distance = pressure x area x distance
=P× 4πR² ×dR
P4πR²dR = 8πR dR T
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P = 2T/R
 Excess pressure inside a soap bubble = 4T/R
Because it has two free surfaces.
ANGLE OF CONTACT

ANGLE OF CONTACT:

Angle of contact is defined as the angle between the tangent to the liquid surface and solid
surface inside the liquid.
The value of angle of contact depends on :(i) Nature solid and liquid in contact.
(ii) Cleanliness of the surface in contact.
(iii) Medium above free surface of the liquid.
(iv) Temperature of the liquid. 17
ADHESIVE FORCE AND COHESIVE FORCE:

FORCE OF COHESION
Force of attraction
between two
molecules of same
substance.
Mercury kept in a tube, its meniscus is
FORCE OF ADHESION convex. Here force of cohesion is
It is the force of greater than force of adhesion.
attraction between That is why Mercury does not wet
two different glass.
substance. In second figure water is kept in a glass
tube. Here force of adhesion(between
water molecule and glass molecule) is
greater than the force of cohesion
between water molecule. Hence water
wets the surface.
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A tube of very fine bore is called
capillary tube.

Rise or fall of liquid in a capillary

tube in comparison to
surrounding is called capillarity.

When angle of contact is acute for

a given pair of liquid and solid,
then liquid rises inside the
cappilary tube.
If angle of contact is obtuse ,then
level of liquid is depressed in the
tube

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 SOME EXAMPLES OF CAPILLARITY IN DAILY LIFE :
A blotting paper soaks ink by capillary action.
Oil rises in the long narrow spaces between the threads of a
wick.The narrow space acts as capillary tube.

Sap rises from root of the plant to its leaves and branches by
capillary action.
In 1st case water kept in
test tube,
Angle of contact is accute.
Liquid level will rise up
In 2nd case mercury is
kept in a tube.Angle of
contact is obtuse.Liquid
level will depress down.
The tip of the nib of a pen is split to provide capillary action
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for the ink to rise.
RISE OF LIQUID IN A CAPILLARY TUBE:
r =radius of capillary tube
h= height to which the liquid rises in the tube
ρ= density of the liquid
θ = angle of contact between the liquid and glass.
R = reaction acting tangentially upward on the liquid
meniscus = T
The reaction R(=T) can be resolved into two
rectangular components:
T cosθ=Acting upward along the wall of the tube
T sin θ= acting perpendicular to the walls of the
tube.This component plays no role in raising the
liquid in the tube.
Only T cosθ is responsible for the liquid to rise up.
Total upward force acting = 2πr ×Tcosθ
Volume of liquid rising in the capillary tube = πr²h
+volume of the liquid below the meniscus
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=πr²h+πr²×r- 2πr³/3 RISE OF LIQUID IN A TUBE OF
=πr² (h+r/3) INSUFFICIENT LENGTH:
Total upward force =weight of the liquid rising up
2πrT cosθ = πr²(h+r/3)ρg r= radius of the capillary tube.
h+r/3= (2T cosθ)/rρg T = surface tension of the liquid.
h= (2T cosθ)/rρg R = radius of curvature of liquid
r/3 is neglected in comparison to h meniscus
r= Rcos θ
NOTE: hα 1/r Therefore, height of the liquid
level rising up = h=(2T cos θ)/rρg
h=(2Tcosθ)/R cosθρg
h=2T/ Rρg
hR = 2T/ ρg = constant
In a tube of insufficient length ,
liquid rises to a height h’ such that
h’R’ =hR
Where R’ is the new radius of
curvature of the liquid.
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VISCOSITY:It is the property of fluid by virtue of which an internal force of friction
comes into play ,when a fluid is in motion and which opposes the relative motion
between its different layers.
F = viscous force acting between two liquid layers.

When identical marble balls are dropped

simultaneously in the containers containing
honey, oil and water,the ball moves faster in
the drum containing liquid of less viscosity.

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 COEFFICIENT OF VISCOSITY:
P and Q are two liquid layers moving with
velocity v and v+dv respectively.
According to Newton viscous force(F)
acting between them depends on :
(i)Proportional to Area of layers in
contact
(ii)Proportional to velocity gradient dv/dx
Fα A(dv/dx)
F = ηA dv/dx
η = coefficient of viscosity of the liquid

DIMENSION OF η =[M¹ L⁻¹T⁻¹]

Unit: In S.I system it is decapoise or poiseuille

1poiseullie = 1N s m⁻² ⁼ 1 kg m⁻¹s⁻¹
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COMPARISON BETWEEN VISCOUS FORCE AND SOLID FRICTION:

SIMILARITY: Both comes into play when there is relative motion.

Both oppose the motion.
Both are due to molecular attraction.
DIFFERENCE:Viscous force is directly proportional to the area of layers in
contact whereas solid friction is independent of area of contact.
Viscous force is directly proportional to the relative velocity
between two liquid layers whereas solid friction is independent
of the relative Velocity.

Viscous force is independent of the normal reaction between

two liquid layers, whereas solid friction depends on the normal
reaction .

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ENGINE OIL

Viscosity of liquid decreases with increase in

temperature.Viscosity of gas increases with increase in
SHOCK ABSORBER temperature 26
 POISEUILLE’S FORMULA:
The volume of liquid(V) flowing out per second through a horizontal capillary tube of length l,
radius r, under a pressure difference p applied across its ends is given by
Q= V/t = πpr⁴/8ηl
Where η= coefficient of viscosity of the liquid.

ASSUMPTIONS USED IN DERIVING POISEUILLE’S FORMULA:

(i) Flow of liquid is steady and parallel to the axis of the tube.
(ii) The pressure is constant over any cross-section of the tube.
(iii) The liquid velocity is zero at the walls of the tube and increases towards axis of the tube.
(iv) The tube should be held horizontally so that there will be no impact of gravity.

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STOKE’S LAW:
According to Stoke’s law the backward viscous force acting on a small spherical body of radius r
moving with uniform velocity v through fluid of viscosity is given by F=6πηrv
DERIVATION OF STOKE’S LAW:
Viscous force F acting on a sphere moving through a fluid of viscosity η may depend on
(i) coefficient of viscosity η
(ii) radius r of the spherical body
(iii) velocity v of the body
Solving dimensionally we get F = 6πηrv
CONDITION UNDER WHICH STOKE’S LAW VALID:
(i)The fluid through which the body moves has infinite extension.
(ii) The body is perfectly rigid and smooth.
(iii) There is no slip between the body and fluid.
(iv) The motion of the body does not give rise to turbulent motion and eddies.
(v) Size of the body is small but it is larger than the distance between the molecules of the
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liquid.Thus the medium is homogeneous and continuous for such body.
TERMINAL VELOCITY:
The maximum constant velocity acquired by a body while falling through a
viscous medium is called its terminal velocity.
When a smooth spherical body is dropped through a viscous medium, three
forces act on it. Those are
Gravitational force = weight of the body (acting vertically downward
=(4/3)πr³ρg
Upward thrust =(4/3)πr³σg
Viscous force = 6πηrv
Here ρ= density of the body
σ= density of the medium
η= coefficient of viscosity
R = radius of the body
v= velocity
When a body falls through a viscous fluid , it produces relative motion
between its different layers .As a result the body experience a viscous force
.At the beginning velocity of the body is zero.Hence viscous force is zero.
As the body goes down velocity started increasing.Viscous force started 29
increasing.
A stage comes where net upward force become equal to downward force. Net force on the
body become zero. Body started moving with constant velocity.Which is known as terminal
velocity (v).

(4/3)πr³ρg =(4/3)πr³σg +6πηrv NOTES:(1) terminal velocity is directly proportional to

Solving it we get v =[ (2/9)r²(ρ-σ)g]/η the square of radius of the body.
Where v is terminal velocity. (2) Terminal velocity is directly proportional to the
difference of the densities of the body and fluid.
If ρ>σ , body will attain terminal
velocity in downward direction.

If ρ< σ ,Terminal velocity will be

negative.Body will rise through the liquid.That is why
clouds in sky are seen to move in upward direction.
(3) Terminal velocity is less,if the coefficient of viscosity
of fluid is more.
(4) Terminal velocity is independent of the height
through which the body is dropped. 30
STREAMLINE FLOW: When a liquid flows such that each particle of
the liquid passing a given point moves along the same path and has
the same velocity as its predecessor,the flow is called as Streamline
flow or Steady flow.
TURBULENT FLOW: When the liquid velocity exceeds a certain
limiting value ,called critical velocity ,the liquid flow becomes zig zag
.The path and the velocity of a liquid particle change continuously,
haphazardly then the flow is called as Turbulent flow.

LAMINAR FLOW:When the velocity is less than its critical

velocity ,the liquid flows steadily .Each layer of the liquid
slides over the other layer. It appears that different layer are
sliding over one another.

CRITICAL VELOCITY: The critical velocity of a liquid is that

limiting value of velocity of flow upto which the flow is
streamline and above which the flow is terbulent.
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PROPERTIES OF STREAMLINE FLOW:
(1) In a steady flow ,no two stream line
can intersect each other.
(2) The tangent at any point on
streamline gives the direction of
velocity of fluid particle at that point.
(3) Greater the number of streamlines
passing normally through a section of
the fluid ,larger is the fluid velocity at
that point.
(4) Fluid velocity remains constant at any
point of a streamline , but it may be
different at different points of same
streamline.

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Av =constant =equation of continuity
Equation of continuity states
that during the streamlined flow of non-
viscous and in-compressible fluid through a
pipe of varying cross-section product of area
of cross-section and normal fluid velocity is
constant.
At wider end flow of liquid is slow and at
narrow end it is fast. 33
DIFFERENT FORMS OF ENERGY POSSESSED BY FLOWING LIQUID: A liquid in steady flow
can have three forms of energy (i) kinetic energy
(ii) potential energy
(iii) pressure energy
Kinetic Energy: The energy possessed by virtue of its motion is called its kinetic energy.
K.E =( ½)mv² Where m is the mass of the liquid and v is the v is the velocity of the liquid.
Potential Energy:The energy possessed by the liquid by virtue of its position above the earth’s
surface is called its potential energy.
P.E = mgh, Where h is the height of the liquid from the ground level.
Pressure energy: Energy possessed by liquid by virtue of its pressure (p) .
Pressure energy of volume V =pV
Pressure energy per unit volume =P =Excess pressure. 34
BERNOULLI’S PRINCIPLE:
According to this principle
the sum of pressure energy,kinetic
energy and potential energy per unit
volume of an incompressible, non-
viscous fluid in a streamlined
irrotational flow remains constant
along a streamline.
Mathematically,it can be expressed as
P+½ ρv²+ρgh=constant
ρ₁= density of liquid at left end.
Proof:non viscous and incompressible h₁=height above the ground.
fluid is considered inside the tube. A₂ v₂ ρ₂and h₂ are corresponding values at section 2.
A₁= area of cross section of the tube at AS the fluid is incompressible ρ₁= ρ₂ =ρ (suppose)
right end. m= mass of the fluid entering the pipe in ∆t second=
mass of the liquid leaving the pipe in ∆t seconds.
v₁ =velocity of the liquid at left m= A₁v₁ ∆t ρ₁ = A₂v₂∆t ρ₂
end(section 1 ). A₁v₁ = A₂ v₂ 35
Change in Kinetic energy of the fluid= K.E at section 2 - K.Eat section 1

= 1/2 m(v₂² -v₁²) = 1/2 A₁v₁∆tρ(v₂²-v₁²)

Change in potential energy =P.E at section 2 - P.E at section 1
mg(h₂ -h₁) = A₁v₁∆tρg(h₂-h₁)
Net work done on the fluid under pressure difference= p₁A₁v₁∆t - p₂A₂v₂∆t =A₁v₁∆t( p₁-p₂)
Net work done on the fluid = change in K.E + change in P.E
A₁v₁∆t( p₁-p₂) =½ A₁v₁∆tρ(v₂²-v₁²) + A₁v₁∆tρg(h₂-h₁)
p₁- p₂ = ½ ρv₂² - ½ ρv₁² +ρgh₂- ρgh₁

p₁- p₂ = ½ ρv₂² - ½ ρv₁² +ρgh₂- ρgh₁

P₁+ ½ ρ v₁²+ ρgh₁ = p₂ + ½ ρv₂² +ρgh₂
p +½ ρv² +ρgh = constant

It also can be written as p/ρg + ½ (v²/g) +h = constant

p/ρg = pressure head
½ ρv² = velocity head
h = gravitational head
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LIMITATIONS OF BERNOULLI’s EQUATION:
➢ Bernoulli’s equation ideally applies to fluids with zero viscosity.

➢ Bernoulli’s equation has been derived on the assumption that there is no loss of
energy due to friction. But in practice ,when fluid flows some of their kinetic
energy gets converted into heat energy due to work done against friction.
➢ Bernoulli’s equation is applicable to incompressible fluid only.
➢ Bernoulli’s equation is applicable to streamline flow only.
➢ Bernoulli’s equation does not take into consideration the angular
momentum.Hence it cannot be applied when the fluid flows along the curved
path.
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A₁ and A₂ are the cross sectional area of the side hole and the tank
respectively. v₁ and v₂ are are the liquid velocities at points 1 and
2 respectively.From equation of continuity we get
A₁v₁ = A₂ v₂ or v₂ =A₁v₁/A₂
As A₂>>A₁ so the liquid may be taken at rest at the top.
At the top v₂ = 0
Applying Bernoulli’s equation at points 1 and 2 we get
pₐ +½ ρv₁²+ ρgy₁ = p+ρgy₂
½ ρv₁² = ρgh + (p -pₐ)
v₁ = √[2gh + 2(p-pₐ)/ρ]
Special case:(i) when p>>pₐ then the term 2gh may be ignored.
v₁ = √2(p- pₐ )/ρ
(ii) When the tank is open to atmosphere then p = pₐ
v₁ = √(2gh )

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VENTURIMETER:It is a device used
to measure the rate of flow of liquid
through a pipe. It is based on
Bernoulli’s principle.
Cross Sectional area of wider opening
at1 =a₁
Cross-sectional area at the narrow
neck at 2 =a₂
These two regions are connected by a U
- tube containing liquid of density ρ₀
v₁ and v₂ are velocities of liquid at
section 1 and 2 respectively. By
equation of continuity we can write
a₁v₁ = a₂ v₂
By Bernoulli’s equation
p₁ +½ ρv₁² = p₂+ ½ ρv₂²
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 OTHER APPLICATIONS OF BERNOULLI’S
PRINCIPLE:ATOMIZER OR SPRAYER
If the liquid has density ρ and is flowing
horizontally then from Bernoulli’s equation we
can write p₁+ ½ ρv₁² = p₂ + ½ ρv₂²
p₁ - p₂ = ½ ρ(v₂² - v₁² )
=½ ρν₁²[ (v₂²/v₁²)-1]
hρ₀ g =½ ρv₁²[(a₁²/a₂²)- 1]
By solving we get :
Q = a₁v₁ = a₁ a₂√( 2hρ₀g )/ρ(a₁² - a₂² )

When the rubber bulb is pressed ,air rushes out

with very high speed.So pressure decreases. Where
as pressure in vertical tube is normal atmospheric
pressure.Hence pressure difference is created
,under which liquid rises up.When it collides with
high speed air in horizontal tube ,breaks up into
fine spray.
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 AEROFOIL: It is also based on Bernoulli’s principle.The shape
provided to the solid object so that it can get a vertical upward
force.This makes aeroplane fly.
Wing of aeroplane is so designed that its upper surface is more
curved than the lower surface and front edge is broader than the
rear edge.When the aircraft moves, air moves faster above the
upper surface than the lower surface. Hence a pressure difference
will be created.Which will help the aeroplane to rise up.

MAGNUS EFFECT: When a ball is thrown horizontally with a large

velocity and at the same time given a twisting motion to cause a spin
,it deviates from its usual parabolic trajectory of spin free
motion.When the ball moves forward ,the air ahead of it rushes
backward.The layer above the ball moves in a direction opposite to
that of the spinning ball.so the resultant velocity decreases and
pressure increases.The layer below the ball moves in the direction of
spin creating low pressure. Due to pressure difference the ball curves
downward in the direction of spin.
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LEARNING OUTCOMES:
Students
▪ gained knowledge regarding Pascal’s law, surface tension, capillary action and
Bernoulli's principle.
▪ understood the working of mercury barometer.
▪ could calculate Absolute pressure and Gauge pressure.
▪ could analyse various phenomenon based on surface tension, capillary action .
▪ could calculate the height through which liquid level rises in the capillary tube and
terminal velocity of a spherical smooth body dropped through a liquid.
▪ understood the working of the device like Atomizer or sprayer, Venturimeter,
Magnus effect, the lift of an aircraft wing.
▪ could calculate the speed of efflux from a small opening on the side of the container.
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 BASIC, STANDARD & MODEL QUESTIONS

BASIC-https://drive.google.com/file/d/1FhV08Cn5A9ELVqP8Iv-LQVX5hvkq8Zsi/view?usp=sharing

STANDARD-https://drive.google.com/file/d/1CV983s9F4pOPzbqIOD7ED05AllVSGMp8/view?usp=sharing

MODEL-https://drive.google.com/file/d/1cuvEuR3PQ-uBkpjI_xJLwSFyKhuTu_If/view?usp=sharing

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THANK YOU

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