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1.1 (Identified the materials used for structural elements)

(1) Steel structure
(2) Reinforced concrete
(3) Masonry
(4) Structural timber

Steel structure
Steel structure is a metal structure which is made of structural steel components
connect with each other to carry loads and provide full rigidity. Because of the high strength
grade of steel, this structure is reliable and requires less raw materials than other types of
structure like concrete structure and timber structure.
Steel structures are used for almost every type of structure including heavy industrial
building, high-rise building, equipment support system, infrastructure, bridge, tower, airport
terminal, heavy industrial plant, pipe rack, etc.
Structural steel is steel construction material which fabricated with a specific shape
and chemical composition to suit a project’s applicable specifications. Depending on each
project’s applicable specifications, the steel sections might have various shapes, sizes and
gauges made by hot or cold rolling, others are made by welding together flat or bent plates.
Common shapes include the I-beam, HSS, Channels, L-Angles and Plate. I-beam, HSS,
Channels and L-Angles of structural steel are shown in Figure (1.1).

Figure (1.1) I-beam, HSS, Channels and L-Angles of Structural steel

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Reinforced concrete
Reinforced concrete is used for construction on a large scale, such as bridges, dams,
piers, tall buildings and stadiums. It is most commonly used in domestic construction for the
footings and foundations of smaller everyday dwellings. It’s compressive and tensile strength
means it can withstand the weight of a house being built upon it, and the forces exerted by the
weight of the house. Here, the reasons for reinforced concrete’s widespread use:
• Reinforced concrete has high fire and weather resistance.
• Reinforced concrete is versatile and can be formed into almost any shape
required for construction
• Reinforced concrete has very low maintenance costs
• Reinforced concrete is weather treated and resistant to damp conditions; this is
why it is the material of choice for dams, piers and footings
• Reinforced concrete is more cost effective than equivalent steel structures
• Reinforced concrete requires less skilled labour when erecting a large structure
There are few potential disadvantages when using reinforced concrete and every
measure is taken to minimize them. Most only apply to building large structures, but here are
the few that might be of interest:
• When using reinforced concrete, the relatively low ratio of tensile strength to
compressive strength must be thoroughly considered
• Columns built using reinforced concrete have a larger construction footprint
than their steel counterparts
• Shrinkage of the concrete can cause cracks that are not structural problems but
are aesthetically displeasing
• Weather treatment is a necessity to avoid the concrete absorbing too much
water
Reinforced concrete is clearly at an advantage compared to other materials. Its cost-
effective, easy to work, versatile nature means that every quality concrete supplier has a
wealth of knowledge and experience working with this composite material.

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Figure (1.2) Reinforced concrete

Masonry
Masonry is commonly used as structural elements in building construction. Load-
bearing masonry walls are commonly used in buildings for transferring loads to the
foundation. Ther are other different forms of masonry structural elements such as vaults,
domes, arches, piers, buttress etc. All these elements define the mechanism of load transfer in
a building. They mainly follow geometrical rules and resist compressive forces.
Masonry construction practices are often used in low-rise commercial and residential
buildings. A large part of building stock comprises of masonry structures. Adobe,
unreinforced masonry, masonry reinforcement and confined masonry construction are shown
in Figure (1.3).

Figure (1.3) Adobe, Unreinforced masonry, Masonry reinforcement and Confined

masonry Construction

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Structural timber
Structural timber offers numerous project benefit, from environmental credentials and
design flexibility to long-term cost efficiencies. Multiple options within the timber
technology portfolio can deliver high-performance building envelopes, dramatically reduce
site time and vehicle movements, and relieve issues of skill shortages.
• Low embodied carbon
• High levels of offsite construction offering pre-manufacture value
• Proven systems through research and testin
• Reduced vulnerability to skill shortage
• Sustainable managed resource
• Systems offer design flexibility and versatility
• Quicker build times mean faster return on investment
From large-scale projects to residential self-builds, structural timber is one of the most
versatile and efficient building materials available. Timber’s popularity can be attributed to
many factors, undoubtedly the most important to construction professionals and end-users are
the two fundamental elements of sustainability and durability.
• Sustainability – Responsible harvested timber, sourced from managed forests,
offers a renewable building material that ensures zero impact on the natural
environment. Timber carries a significantly lower carbon footprint than
alternative traditional construction materials as it simply sequestrates carbon
during its early life as trees, locking in carbon. As a recyclable, reusable
resource, timber is suitable for other purposes at the end of the structure’s life.
• Durability – Durability is one of timber’s most attractive and valuable natural
qualities. In use for hundreds of years, structural timber offers many diverse
applications for construction while remaining a natural, attractive, and
adaptable material. The durability of timber is well-documented with sound
design being the key to enhancing its strength and longevity.

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1.2 (Described the sources of information that provide guidance on factors that affect
the use of materials)
National building codes have been formulated in different countries to lay down
guidelines for the design and constructions of structures. The codes have been evolved from
the collective wisdom of expert structural engineers, gained over the years.
Theses codes are periodically revised to bring them in line with current research, and
often current trends. Following are the functions of design codes:
• The design codes ensure adequate structural safety, by specifying certain essential
minimum reinforcement for design.
• They render the task of the designer relatively simple, often the result of sophisticate
analysis is made in the form of a simple formula or chart.
• The codes ensure a measure of consistency among different designers.
• They have some legal validity in that they protect the structural designer from any
liability due to structural failures that are caused by inadequate supervision and/or faulty
material and construction.

Codes for Reinforced Concrete Design of Structures

1. IS 456: 2000 – plain and reinforced concrete- code of practice (fourth revision)
2. Loading standard codes – The loads to be considered for structural design is specified
in the following loading standard: IS 875 (Part 1 to 5): 1987 – code of practice for
design loads (other than earthquake) for buildings and structures (second revision).
• Dead loads
• Imposed (Live) loads
• Wind loads
• Snow load
• Special Loads
IS 1893: 2002 – criteria for earthquake resistant design of structure (fourth revision).
IS 13920: 1993 – ductile detailing of reinforced concrete structures subject to seismic
forces.

Dead Load
Dead loads, also known as permanent or static loads, are those that remain relatively
constant over time and comprise, for example, the weight of a building’s structural elements,

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such as beams, walls, roof and structural flooring components. Dead loads may also include
permanents non-structural partitions, immovable fixtures and even built-in cupboards. Dead
loads comprise the weight of the structure or other fixed elements before any live loads are
taken into consideration. Live loads are added to the dead load to give the total loading
exerted on the structure. The calculation of dead loads of each structure is calculated by the
volume of each section and multiplied by the unit material weight.

Imposed (Live) Load

Live load is a civil engineering term that refers to a load that can change over time.
The weight of the load is variable or shifts locations, such as when people are walking around
in a building. Anything in a building that is not fixed to the structure can result in a live load
since it can be moved around. Live loads are factored into the calculation of the gravity load
of a structure. They are measured in pounds per square foot. The minimum live-load
requirements are based on the expected maximum load. A live load can be expressed either as
a uniformly distributed load (UDL) or as one acting on a concentrated area (point load). It
may eventually be factored into the calculation of gravity loads.

Wind Load
Wind loads can be applied by the movement of air relative to a structure, and analysis
draws upon an understanding of meteorology and aerodynamics as well as structures. Wind
load may not be a significant concern for small, massive, low-level buildings, but it gains
importance with height, the use of lighter materials and the use of shapes that may affect the
flow of air, typically roof forms. Where the dead weight of a structure is insufficient to resist
wind loads, additional structure and fixings may be required. Wind load is required to be
considered in structural design especially when the health of the building exceeds two times
the dimensions transverse to the exposed wind surface.

Snow Load
This load that can be imposed by the accumulation of snow and is more of a concern
in geographic regions where snowfalls can be heavy and frequent. Significant quantities of
snow can accumulate, adding a sizable load to a structure. The shape of a roof is a
particularly important factor in the magnitude of the snow load. The code IS 875 (Part-4):
1987 deals with snow loads on roofs of the building. Various design load for building and

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structure are shown in Figure (1.4). There are many variables involved in determining snow’s
weight:
• Moisture content
• Accumulation
• Distribution
• Temperature variations

Figure (1.4) Various Design load for building and structure

Special Loads
Different types of special loads are:
• Thermal load – The loads occur when the materials expand or contract with
temperature change and this can exert significant loads on a structure.
• Settlement load – When one part of a building settles more than other parts this type
of load occurs.
• Flood load – These are caused by flood and water ingress in the foundation which
results in corrosion.
• Soil and fluid load – It is caused due to excessive flow of water in the soil which
impacts the soil density.

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2.1 (Explain how the factors affect the design of steel beams, steel columns and slabs
and built up bases)
Safety
Safety is the primary goal of any building; steel provides a majority of the safety
benefits everyone expects when they enter a structure.

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• Steel is non-combustible. It does not ignite nor spread flames.

• It is resistant to rust and corrosion when properly coated.
• It does not mold or mildew.
• It resists splintering and shattering during extreme movement.
When built to code a steel structure will protect occupants and contents from fire,
high winds and heavy snow and ice during conditions that would burn, shatter or collapse a
building constructed of concrete or wood. Reducing or eliminating onsite cutting, forming
and welding mitigates the chances for workers to suffer cuts and burns.

Reduced Construction Costs

Prefabricated building solutions provide another benefit of steel - lower costs across
the project.
• A reduced timeline results in reduced hours of paid labor.
• A prefabricated steel building solution arrives ready for assembly. Onsite cutting,
welding and fastening are not required, saving time and increasing site safety.
• When the frame and envelope are completed quickly, skilled trades can enter and
begin work more quickly.
• Stringent fabrication tolerances and a tightly controlled manufacturing environment
reduce rework from construction errors.
• A shorter schedule reduces general condition costs across the board.

Future Adaptability
Steel buildings and frames are remarkably adaptable. They are easily expanded either
upwards or to any side. Because steel is extremely strong for its weight it can support the
added weight of new stories. The overall weight of the structure is still lower than one built
with concrete or wood, so the foundation experiences less stress from the added floors.
Besides expanding the building’s size, the interior of a steel frame building can be
reconfigured with little trouble. Clear span construction provides open space without
obstruction created by columns. The area can be configured and reconfigured into a variety of
spaces with lightweight interior walls, ceiling systems and movable flooring.

High-Quality Construction
The predictable properties of steel allow designers and fabricators to meet tight
tolerances with precision and accuracy. Variation in cutting, punching and rolling that occurs
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with onsite manual processes is eliminated. Steel members have known strength and
dimensions, allowing architects and engineers to predict the feasibility of their designs
accurately.
Steel building manufacturers maintain a controlled environment with internal quality
control programs dedicated to delivering the expected product. Assembly and erection are
performed under controlled conditions at the building site, where the contractor monitors the
location and elevation of the structure as well as field bolting and welding.

Serviceability and Resilience

Usability and occupant comfort are critical elements of building operations. A steel
building can be designed to eliminate vibration from human, machine or weather movements.
Steel exhibits a predictable amount of sway in common conditions with limited movement.
Steel structures are easily repaired, even after extreme damage from high winds,
seismic activity or explosion. They resist buckling, distortion and warping under excessive
loads.

Sustainability
Steel is one of the most sustainable materials in the world. It was green before green
was a thing.
• Structural steel made in the U.S. contains 93 percent recycled material, on average.
• 98 percent of all structural steel is recycled into new products.
• Steel loses none of its strength or other physical properties even after repeated
recycling.
• The steel-making process has a 95 percent water recycling rate with no external
discharge.
• The net consumption of water per ton of steel produced in a mere 70 gallons.
The steel industry reduced its greenhouse emissions per ton by 45 percent since 1975.
Building manufacturers and contractors generate minimal waste during fabrication and
erection. All scrap is recyclable and can be resold.

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2.2 (Explain how the factors affect the design of reinforced concrete slabs, beams and
columns)
Versatility
Concrete can be placed into various shapes of shuttering or formwork configurations
to form desired shapes, form, surface, texture, and sizes at construction site. This is because
fresh concrete is flowable and is in liquid state. Therefore, it is more suitable for architectural
requirements.

Figure (2.1) Concrete versatility

Fire Resistance
The nature of concrete does not allow it to catch fire or burn. It can withstand heat for
2–6 hours enabling sufficient time for rescue operations in case of fire. Reinforced concrete
buildings are more fire resistant than other commonly used construction materials like steel
and wood. It is suitable to fireproof steel and used in high temperature and blast applications.

Figure (2.2) Fire Resistance of Concrete

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Ductility
The steel reinforcement imparts ductility to the reinforced concrete structures.
Ductility enables concrete to show sign of distress such as cracking and deflection if
reinforced concrete member experience overloading. This enables engineers to consider
suitable measures to prevent further concrete damages.

Figure (2.3) Concrete Ductility

Seismic Resistance
Properly designed reinforced concrete structures are extremely resistant to
earthquakes.

Ease of Construction
Compared to the use of steel in structure, reinforced concrete requires less skilled
labor for the erection of the structure.

Ability to Consume and Recycle Waste

Several industrial wastes and by-products such as fly ash, slag also known as ground
granulated blast-furnaces slag (GGBFS), waste glass, and even ground vehicle tires can be
recycled as a substitute for cement or aggregate or supplementary materials. As a result,
concrete production reduces environmental impacts due to industrial waste, and improves
the characteristics of concrete and consequently quality of the structure is not compromised.

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2.3 (Explain the factors that affect the design of masonry walls)
Stronger Walls
When you build with brick or stone, you get stronger walls than using wood. Brick and
stone are durable materials that will stand up to any kind of weather.

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Better Insulation
Masons use special techniques when they build their walls. These techniques help them
create better insulation. We need as much heating or cooling energy to keep your home
comfortable.

Lower Maintenance Costs

We know how expensive it can be to heat your home during the winter months. With
masonry construction, we can save on heating costs because your walls are made of stone or
bricks.

Less Noise
We may not realize it, but the sound produced by brick and stone buildings is quieter
than the noise created by wooden structures. Because of this, we can sleep easier at night.

Long-Lasting Building Materials

Brick and stone are long-lasting materials. They will never rot, decay, crack, or fade
away. We home will look great for decades to come.

Easy To Clean
Masonry walls are easy to clean. Dirt doesn’t stick to them, and they don’t attract pests.
As a result, they are less likely to cause health problems.

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2.4 (Explain the factors that affect the design of timber beams and columns)
Moisture Content
Timbers are hygroscopic and gain water from nature (atmosphere). The absorption of
water or dehydration depends on atmospheric humidity. If timbers moisture content is high
that means the timber quality is low. Water content is the risk of fungal attack.

Grain
Several types of grain arrangement found. On the grain structure quality of timber
varies. Grains remain closely related.

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1. Straight grain: Arrangement of vascular tissue (xylem and phloem) is important which
grow parallel to the length of the timber that is termed as straight grain.
2. Coarse grain: vascular tissue and fibre arranged broadly and widely.
3. Interlocked grain: Instead of parallel arrangement twisted, a spiral arrangement may
be found.

Shrinkage and Swelling

The percentage of shrinkage and swelling varies from plant to plant. Some give higher
percentage after drying. Shrinkage starts when cell walls of timber start to release water. In
moisture atmosphere timber swells when cell walls absorb water. Good quality timbers swell
less. Timbers having thicker wall swell more than a thinner one.

Density
Timber having higher density have a thicker wall. An important property that quality
of timber. Moisture content: Presence of defects: There may be some of the natural and
artificial defects in timber such as cross-grain, knots, and shakes, etc. All of them cause a
decrease in the strength of the timber.

Toughness
Timber has to have the capability to bear shocks, jerk. Anti-bending and ant splitting
characteristic is needed. Old timbers have annual rings which indicate their age is a good
indicator.

Durability
A good quality timber has the property to resist the attack the infection of fungus or
other insects. This resistance quality makes timber better.

Workability
A good timber is always easy to work on it. Easy to drag using saw on good timber.
The finishing can be done well.

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Links:
https://insights.globalspec.com>7 Benefits of Using Structural Steel for Your Building
https://theconstructor.org/concrete/reinforced-concrete-uses-benefits-
advantages/35796/?amp=1
https://imperiallm.com/strength-and-durability-the-many-benefits-of-masonry-construction
https://civiltoday.com/civil-engineering-materials/timber/182-properties-of-timber

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