Measurement and Sensors

Unit 1
Measurement system
 Measurement
Measurement is the assignment of a number to a physical quantity or
characteristic of an object or event, which can be compared with other
objects or events.

METHODS OF MEASUREMENT
(i) Direct method of measurement - In this method the value of a quantity
is obtained directly by comparing the unknown with the standard. Direct
methods are common for the measurement of physical quantities such
as length, mass and time. It involves no mathematical calculations

(ii) Indirect method of measurement - In this method several parameters

(to which the quantity to be measured is linked with) are measured
directly and then the value is determined by mathematical relationship.
For example, measurement of density by measuring mass and
geometrical dimensions.
 CLASSIFICATION OF INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

• Basic Classification:

• 1. Mechanical Instruments:- They are very reliable for static and stable
conditions. The disadvantage is they are unable to respond rapidly to
measurement of dynamic and transient conditions.

• 2. Electrical Instruments:- Electrical methods of indicating the output of

detectors are more rapid than mechanical methods. The electrical system
normally depends upon a mechanical meter movement as indicating
device

• 3. Electronic Instruments:- These instruments have very fast response. For

example a cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO) is capable to follow dynamic and
transient changes of the order of few nano second
 Absolute instruments or Primary Instruments

• These instruments gives the magnitude of quantity under measurement in terms

of physical constants of the instrument e.g. Tangent Galvanometer. These
instruments do not require comparison with any other standard instrument
• These instruments give the value of the electrical quantity in terms of absolute
quantities (or some constants) of the instruments and their deflections.
• In this type of instruments no calibration or comparison with other instruments is
necessary.
• They are generally not used in laboratories and are seldom used in practice by
electricians and engineers. They are mostly used as means of standard
measurements and are maintained in national laboratories and similar institutions.
Examples of absolute instruments are: Tangent galvanometer, Raleigh current
balance, Absolute electrometer

• Working with absolute instruments for routine work is time consuming since every
time a measurement is made, it takes a lot of time to compute the magnitude of
quantity under measurement.
 Secondary instruments

• Secondary instruments are most commonly used.

• These instruments are so constructed that the quantity being measured
can only be determined by the output indicated by the instrument. These
instruments are calibrated by comparison with an absolute.
• They are direct reading instruments. The quantity to be measured by
these instruments can be determined from the deflection of the
instruments.
• These instruments are used in general for all laboratory purposes.
• Some of the very widely used secondary instruments are: ammeters,
voltmeter, wattmeter, energy meter (watt-hour meter), ampere-hour
meters etc.
Classification of Secondary Instruments

Classification based on the way they present the results of

measurements

• Deflection type: Deflection of the instrument provides a basis for

determining the quantity under measurement. The measured
quantity produces some physical effect which deflects or produces
a mechanical displacement of the moving system of the instrument.

• Null Type: In a null type instrument, a zero or null indication leads

to determination of the magnitude of measured quantity.
 Secondary Instruments

Classification based on the various effects of electric current (or voltage)

upon which their operation depend. They are:
• Magnetic effect: Used in ammeters, voltmeters, watt-meters, integrating
meters etc.
• Heating effect: Used in ammeters and voltmeters.
• Chemical effect: Used in dc ampere hour meters.
• Electrostatic effect: Used in voltmeters.
• Electromagnetic induction effect: Used in ac ammeters, voltmeters, watt
meters and integrating meters.
• Generally the magnetic effect and the electromagnetic induction effect
are utilized for the construction of the commercial instruments. Some of
the instruments are also named based on the above effect such as
electrostatic voltmeter, induction instruments, etc.
 Secondary Instruments
• Classification based on the Nature of their Operations

We have the following instruments.

• Indicating instruments: Indicating instruments indicate, generally the quantity to be
measured by means of a pointer which moves on a scale. Examples are ammeter,
voltmeter, wattmeter etc.
• Recording instruments: These instruments record continuously the variation of any
electrical quantity with respect to time. In principle, these are indicating
instruments but so arranged that a permanent continuous record of the indication
is made on a chart or dial. The recording is generally made by a pen on a graph
paper which is rotated on a dice or drum at a uniform speed. The amount of the
quantity at any time (instant) may be read from the traced chart. Any variation in
the quantity with time is recorded by these instruments.
• Integrating instruments: These instruments record the consumption of the total
quantity of electricity, energy etc., during a particular period of time. That is, these
instruments totalize events over a specified period of time. No indication of the
rate or variation or the amount at a particular instant are available from them.
Some widely used integrating instruments are: Amperehour meter: kilowatthour
(kWh) meter, kilovolt-ampere-hour (kVARh) meter.
 Secondary Instruments
• Classification based on the Kind of Current that can be Measurand.

Under this heading, we have:

• Direct current (dc) instruments
• Alternating current (ac) instruments
• Both direct current and alternating current instruments (dc/ac instruments).

Classification based on the method used.

Under this category, we have:

• Direct measuring instruments: These instruments converts the energy of the
measured quantity directly into energy that actuates the instrument and the value
of the unknown quantity is measured or displayed or recorded directly. These
instruments are most widely used in engineering practice because they are simple
and inexpensive. Also, time involved in the measurement is shortest. Examples are
Ammeter, Voltmeter, Watt meter etc
• Comparison instruments: These instruments measure the unknown quantity by
comparison with a standard. Examples are dc and ac bridges and potentiometers.
They are used when a higher accuracy of measurements is desired.
FUNCTIONAL ELEMENTS OF MEASUREMENT SYSTEM
 Primary Sensing Element

• The quantity under measurement makes its first contact with primary
sensing element of measurement system.
• The quantity is first sensed or detected by primary sensor.
• Then detected physical quantity signal is converted into an electrical
signal by a transducer.
• Transducer is defined as a device which converts a physical quantity into
an electrical quantity. Sensor is act as primary element of transducer.
• In many cases the physical quantity is directly converted into an electrical
quantity by a transducer. So the first stage of a measurement system is
known as a detector transducer stage. Example, Pressure transducer with
pressure sensor, Temperature sensor etc.,
 Variable Conversion Element

• The output of primary sensing element is electrical

signal of any form like a voltage, a frequency or some
other electrical parameter.
• Sometime this output not suitable for next level of
system. So it is necessary to convert the output some
other suitable form while maintaining the original signal
to perform the desired function the system.
• For example the output primary sensing element is in
analog form of signal and next stage of system accepts
only in digital form of signal. So, we have to convert
analog signal into digital form using an A/D converter.
Here A/D converter is act as variable conversion element.
 Variable Manipulation Element

• The function of variable manipulation element is to manipulate the

signal offered but original nature of signal is maintained in same
state. Here manipulation means only change in the numerical value
of signal.

• Linear process manipulation elements: Amplification, attenuation,

integration, differentiation, addition and subtraction etc
• Nonlinear process manipulation elements: Modulation, detection,
sampling, filtering, chopping and clipping etc.,
• All these elements are performed on the signal to bring it to desired
level to be accepted by the next stage of measurement system. This
process of conversion is called signal conditioning. The combination
of variable conversion and variable manipulation elements are
called as Signal Conditioning Element.
 Data Transmission Element

• The elements of measurement system are actually

physically separated; it becomes necessary to transmit
the data from one to another.
• The element which performs this function is called as
data transmission element.
• Example, Control signals are transmitted from earth
station to Space-crafts by a telemetry system using
radio signals. Here telemetry system is act as data
transmission element.
• The combination of Signal conditioning and
transmission element is known as Intermediate Stage
of measurement system
 Data storage and playback element

• Some applications requires a separate data storage and

playback function for easily rebuild the stored data based on
the command.
• The data storage is made in the form of pen/ink and digital
recording.
• Examples, magnetic tape recorder/ reproducer, X-Y recorder,
X-t recorder, Optical Disc recording ect.,
 Data presentation Element

• The function of this element in the measurement system is to

communicate the information about the measured physical quantity to
human observer or to present it in an understandable form for
monitoring, control and analysis purposes.

• Visual display devices are required for monitoring of measured data.

• These devices may be analog or digital instruments like ammeter,

voltmeter, camera, CRT, printers, analog and digital computers.

• Computers are used for control and analysis of measured data of

measurement system.

• This Final stage of measurement system is known as Terminating stage.

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