Electronic Devices

Ninth Edition

Floyd

Chapter 2
Diodes and Applications

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
Diode
• A diode consists of an n region and a p region separated by
a p-n junction.

p n

Anode (+) Cathode (-)

Wire
Metal Leads
Contacts
Diode Structure

Anode (+) Cathode (-)

Schematic Symbol

Figure: The basic structure and schematic symbol of a diode. 2

Diode

Figure: Different types of diode.

3
V-I Characteristic for Forward Bias

• To bias a diode, you apply a dc voltage across it.

• This external bias voltage is designated as VBIAS.
• The resistor limits the forward current to a value that will not damage
the diode.
• VBIAS must be greater than the barrier potential.
4
• The bias-voltage source imparts sufficient energy to the free
electrons to overcome the barrier potential of the depletion region
and move into the p region.
• Once in the p region, the conduction electrons have lost energy to
overcome the barrier potential and combine with holes in the
valence band.
• the positive side of the bias-voltage source attracts the valence
electrons toward the left end of the p region.
• The holes in the p region provide the medium or “pathway” for
these valence electrons to move through the p region.
• at the same time, these electrons become conduction electrons in
the metal conductor.
5
 Reverse Bias
• Reverse bias is the condition that essentially
prevents current through the diode.
• The resistor is used to limit the forward current to a value
that will not overheat the diode and cause damage.

Depletion region is shown much wider than in forward bias or equilibrium.

6
Reverse Bias

• bias-voltage source “pulls” the free electrons, the majority

carriers in the n region, away from the pn junction.
• As the electrons flow toward the positive side of the
voltage source, additional positive ions are created.
• This results in a widening of the depletion region and a
depletion of majority carriers.
• In the p region, electrons from the negative side of the
voltage source enter as valence electrons and move from
hole to hole toward the depletion region where they create
additional negative ions.
• The flow of valence electrons can be viewed as holes being
“pulled” toward the positive side.
7
Reverse Current

• The extremely small current that exists in reverse bias is

caused by the minority carriers in the n and p regions that
are produced by thermally generated electron-hole pairs.
• The small number of free minority electrons in the p region
are “pushed” toward the pn junction by the negative bias
voltage.

8
 Reverse Current
• The conduction band in the p region Energy

is at a higher energy level than the

conduction band in the n region. Conduction
band
• Therefore, the minority electrons
easily pass through the depletion Valence
band
region that require no additional
energy. 0
p region n region
• When these electrons reach the wide Depletion
depletion region, they “fall down the region

energy hill” and combine with the

minority holes in the n region as
valence electrons and flow toward
the positive bias voltage, creating a
small hole current.

9
Reverse Breakdown

• However, if the external reverse-bias voltage is increased

to a value called the breakdown voltage, the reverse current
will drastically increase.
• The high reverse-bias voltage imparts energy to the free
minority electrons to speed up through the p region and
collide with atoms, to knock the valence electrons out of
orbit into the conduction band.
• these high-energy electrons go through the depletion
region, they have enough energy to go through the n region
as conduction electrons.

10
Temperature Effects

• Forward-biased diode, as
temperature is increased, the
forward current increases.
• The barrier potential decreases
by 2 mV for each degree
increase in temperature.
• Reverse-biased diode, as
temperature is increased, the
reverse current increases.

11
The Ideal Diode Model

12
The Practical Diode Model

13
The Complete Diode Model

14
Example

15
16
Answer (b)

17
Rectifiers
• Since diode has the ability to conduct current in one
direction and block current in the other direction, they are
widely used in electrical circuits called rectifiers.
• Rectifiers convert ac voltage to dc voltage.

Figure: Converting alternating current to direct current.

18
 Rectifiers

The rectifier converts the ac input voltage to a pulsating dc voltage, called a half-wave
rectified voltage.
The filter eliminates the fluctuations in the rectified voltage and produces a relatively
smooth dc voltage.
The regulator is a circuit that maintains a constant dc voltage for variations in the input
line voltage or in the load.
19
 Half-wave Rectifiers
Vin Vout

Vin Vout RL
t0 t1 t2
t0 t1 t2

Figure: Half-wave rectifier circuit.

20
 Summary

Half-wave Rectifier
+ –

The diode conducts Vin + I

Vout

during the positive 0

t0 t1 t2
–
RL 0
t0 t1 t2

half cycle.
– +
It does not conduct I = 0A
– Vout
during the negative Vin
0
t0 t1 t2
RL 0
t0 t1 t2
+
half cycle.

What is the output if the diode is reversed? See next slide…

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Summary

Half-wave Rectifier

– +

– I
Vin Vout
0 RL 0
t0 t1 t2 t0 t1 t2
+

What is the output if the diode is reversed?

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Half-wave Rectifiers

• The average value of a half-wave rectified output voltage is

the value measured on a dc voltmeter.
Vout

Vmax

Vavg
t

Figure: Average value of the half-wave rectified signal.

(Output)
Average voltage of DC output
(Half-wave Rectifiers) Vdc =
23
Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
Effect of the Barrier Potential on
the Half-Wave Rectifier Output
Ideal : Vpeak (out) = Vp (in)
Practical : Vpeak (out) = Vpeak (in) -0.7V

25
Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV)
• The peak inverse voltage (PIV) equals the peak value of the
input voltage, and the diode must be capable of withstanding
this amount of repetitive reverse voltage.
• The peak inverse voltage rating (PIVrating) of a diode is of
primary importance in the design of rectification systems.
• PIV is the maximum allowable value of reverse voltage when
the diode is reverse-biased.

Ideal diode

Practical diode

PIV = VP (in) + 0.7V

27
 Summary

Half-wave Rectifier

PIV
The peak inverse
voltage (PIV) is – +
equal to the peak tp –
I=0
V 0
input voltage and is +
RL

the maximum
voltage across the -Vp(in)
diode when it is not
conducting.

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Transformer Coupling

p
Vp(sec) = 1.41 Vrms

Transformer coupling provides two

advantages.
•First, it allows the source voltage to be
stepped down as needed.
•Second, the ac source is electrically
isolated from the rectifier,
•thus preventing a shock hazard in the
secondary circuit.

29
Determine the Vp(sec) if
1. The transformer turn ratio (n) is 0.5 =
2. Transformer provide 12 Vrms

Vp(sec) = 0.5*120 = 60V

Vp(sec) = 1.41*Vrms = 16.92 V
30
31
 Full-wave Rectifiers
• The dc level obtained from a sinusoidal input can be
improved by 100% using a process called full-wave
rectification.
• The most familiar rectifier circuits for performing such a
function are:
• Center-tapped Rectifiers
• Bridge Rectifiers

32
 Full-wave Rectifier
(Center-tapped Rectifiers)

33
 Summary

Full-wave Rectifier
F D1
+ –

+
I
Vin
A center-tapped 0
–
Vout

0
+ +
transformer is used –
RL
–

with two diodes –

D2
+

that conduct on During the positive half-cycle, the upper diode is

forward-biased and the lower diode is reverse-biased.
alternating half- F
–
D1
+

cycles. –
Vin Vout
+
0 0
– +
RL
I –
+
+ –
D2

During the negative half-cycle, the lower diode is

forward-biased and the upper diode is reverse-biased.

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
Average voltage of DC output
(Full-wave Rectifiers: center tapped/bridge )

(output)
Vdc =

35
Effect of the Turns Ratio on the Output Voltage -
(Center-tapped Rectifiers)

In any case, the output voltage of a center-tapped full-

wave rectifier is always one-half of the total secondary
voltage less the diode drop, no matter what the turns
ratio.

Ideal

Practical

36
Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV)
(Center-tapped Rectifiers)

Ideal

Practical

37
Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
Bridge Full-Wave Rectifier Operation

The Positive Half-cycle The Negative Half-cycle

40
Bridge Full-Wave Rectifier Operation

41
Bridge Full-Wave Rectifier Operation

42
Bridge Output Voltage

Ideal

Practical

43
Peak Inverse Voltage
(Bridge Full-Wave Rectifier)

Ideal

Practical

44
 Summary

The Bridge Full-Wave Rectifier

F

The Bridge Full- I

D1
D3
Wave rectifier uses Vin
+ +

four diodes connected – –

D2 D4
RL
+
Vout 0
–
across the entire
Conduction path for the positive half-cycle.
secondary as shown.
F

I
D3 D1
– –
Vin
Ideally, what is the + +
D2 RL
+
Vout 0
D4 –
PIV equal to?
PIV = Vp(out) Conduction path for the negative half-cycle.

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Summary

The Bridge Full-Wave Rectifier

Determine the peak output voltage and current in the 3.3 kW load
resistor if Vsec = 24 Vrms. Use the practical diode model.

The peak output voltage is: F

Vp ( sec )  1.41Vrms  33.9 V

D3 D1

Vp ( out )  Vp ( sec ) - 1.4 V 120 V V(sec) =

24 Vrms
+
 32.5 V D2 D4
RL
3.3 k W
Vp(out )
–

Applying Ohm’s law,

Ip(out) = 9.8 mA

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
Filter and Regulation

49
 Summary

Power Supply Filters

Filtering is the process of smoothing the ripple from the rectifier.

Vin VOUT
Full-wave
0V Filter 0
rectif ier
(Ripple is exaggerated.)

The capacitor input filter is widely used. A half-wave rectifier and

capacitor-input filter are shown:

+
+
Vin VC RL
–
–

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
Full-wave Rectifier with Smoothing Capacitor
5uF Smoothing Capacitor

50uF Smoothing Capacitor

52
 Summary

Power Supply Regulators

A voltage regulator can furnish nearly constant output with excellent
ripple rejection. Three-terminal regulators are require only external
capacitors to complete the regulation portion of the circuit.

F1
T1
D3 D1
Voltage
SW1
regulator
D2 D4
+ +
C1 C2

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Summary

Power Supply Regulators

Regulation performance is specified in two ways. Line regulation
specifies how much the dc output changes for a given change in
regulator’s input voltage. The text formula is based on a dc input
voltage change to the regulator due to a change in the ac line voltage.
 VOUT 
Line regulation =  100%
  VIN 

Assume the dc input to a regulator changes by 1.0 V due to a

change in the ac line voltage. If the output changes by 1.5 mV due
to the change, what is the line regulation?

 VOUT   1.5 mV 
Line regulation =  100%   100%  0.15%
  VIN   1.0 V 

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Summary

Power Supply Regulators

Load regulation specifies how much change occurs in the output
voltage for a given range of load current values, usually from no load
(NL) to full load (FL).
 VNL - VFL 
Load regulation =  100%
 V FL 

Assume the dc output of a regulator changes from 5.00 V to 4.96 V

when the output is varies from no load to full load. What is the load
regulation?

 VNL - VFL   5.00 V - 4.96 V 

Load regulation =   100%   100%  0.8 %
 V FL   4.96 V 

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Summary
Diode Limiting Circuits
A diode limiter is a circuit that limits (or clips) either the positive or negative
part of the input voltage.
A biased limiter is one that has a bias voltage in series with the diode, so that
a specific voltage level can be selected for limiting.

RL is normally >> R1 to avoid loading effects. The output will be clipped

when the input voltage overcomes the bias voltage and the forward voltage of
the diode.
R1

Vin
VBIAS + 0.7 V
0 RL 0
+
VBIAS
–

A positive limiter is shown.© 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Electronic Devices, 9th edition
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Summary

Diode Limiting Circuits

What is the output of positive limiter shown?

R1

10 V 1.0 kW
RL 3.0 V
Vin 0 VBIAS = 0
+ 100 kW
2.3 V
–

The diode is forward-biased when the output tries to go above +3.0 V.

This causes the output to be limited to voltages less than +3.0 V.

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Summary

Diode Limiting Circuits

What happens in the previous circuit if the diode is reversed?

R1

10 V 1.0 kW
RL +1.6 V 0
Vin 0 VBIAS =
100 kW
2.3 V +
–

The diode is forward-biased when the output tries to go below +1.6 V.

This causes the output to be limited to voltages greater than +1.6 V.

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Diode Clampers
• A clamper adds a DC level to an AC voltage.
• Clampers are sometimes known as dc restorers.

Input signal Positive

Load
source clamper

20Vpp
20Vpp 0V 0V

Input signal Negative

Load
source clamper

20Vpp 0V 0V
20Vpp
70
 Summary

Diode Clamping Circuits

A clamper (dc restorer) is a circuit that adds a dc level to an ac signal. A
capacitor is in series with the load. The capacitor is charged to a voltage
that is one diode drop less than the peak voltage of the signal.

A positive clamper is shown.

Vp(in) – 0.7 V
Vp ( in ) – 0.7 V
Vp(in) – +
Vout
0 RL
0
– 0.7 V

What happens if the diode and capacitor are reversed?

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Summary

Diode Clamping Circuits

Reversing the diode and capacitor forms a negative clamper.

+0.7 V
Vp (in) + – 0
Vp(in)

0 RL Vout –Vp (in) + 0.7 V

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Summary

Voltage Multipliers

Voltage multipliers use clamping action to increase peak rectified

voltages. The full-wave voltage doubler works by charging a
capacitor to the positive peak voltage on one cycle of the sine wave
and a second capacitor on the negative peak voltage. The output is
(ideally) doubled by taking it across both capacitors in series.
D1 D1
+ +
+ Vp – –
I Reverse-biased
+ +
C1 Vp 0 C1 Vp
0 – –Vp –
– + +
– 2Vp
I
+
C2 C2 Vp
–
D2 D2
–
Reverse-biased

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
Voltage
Multipliers
 Summary

Diode Data Sheet

Diode data sheets include maximum ratings for current, voltage and
temperature as well as other electrical parameters. Some voltage and
current specifications are abbreviated as follows:
VRRM The maximum peak reverse voltage that can be applied repetitively
across the diode. This is the same as the PIV rating.
VR The maximum reverse dc voltage that can be applied across the diode.

VRSM The maximum peak value of nonrepetitive reverse voltage that can be
applied across the diode.

IO The maximum value of a 60 Hz rectified current.

IFSM The maximum value of a nonrepetitive (one cycle) forward surge

current.

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Selected Key Terms
Rectifier An electronic circuit that converts ac into
pulsating dc; one part of a power supply.

Filter In a power supply, the capacitor used to reduce

the variation of the output voltage from a rectifier.

Regulator An electronic device or circuit that maintains

an essentially constant output voltage for a
range of input voltage or load values; one part
of a power supply.

Ripple Voltage The small variation in dc output voltage of

a filtered rectifier caused by charging and
discharging of the filter capacitor.
Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Selected Key Terms
Line The change in output voltage of a regulator for
Regulation a given change in input voltage, normally
expressed as a percentage.

Load The change in output voltage of a regulator for a

Regulation given range of load currents, normally expressed
as a percentage.

Limiter A diode circuit that clips off or removes part of a

waveform above and/or below a specified level.

Clamper A circuit that adds a dc level to an ac voltage

using a diode and a capacitor.

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Quiz

1. For the circuit shown, the PIV will occur when the input
waveform is at point
a. A B
C
b. B
Vin
RL
c. C
A D
d. D

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Quiz

2. The circuit shown is a

F D1
a. half-wave rectifier – +

–
b. full-wave rectifier
+
– +
c. bridge rectifier RL
–
+
d. none of the above +
D2
–

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Quiz

3. The PIV for the circuit shown is equal to

F D1
a. Vp(sec)/2 – +

–
b. Vp(sec)
+
– +
c. 2Vp(sec) RL
–
+
d. none of the above +
D2
–

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Quiz

4. During the positive input cycle shown, the conduction

path is through diodes
a. D1 and D2
F

b. D3 and D4 D3 D1
+ +
c. D1 and D4 Vin
– –
d. D2 and D3 D2 D4

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Quiz

5. The formula to calculate the load regulation is,

 VNL 
a. Load regulation =  100%
 VFL 
 VOUT 
b. Load regulation =  100%
 VIN 
 VOUT 
c. Load regulation =  100%
 VOUT - VIN 
 VNL - VFL 
d. Load regulation =  100%
 VFL 

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Quiz

6. The bias voltage is set to +4.3 V. The output of the

biased limiter shown will be clipped
a. above +3.6 V R1

10 V 1.0 kW
b. below +3.6 V Vin 0 VBIAS =
RL

4.3 V + 100 kW

c. above +5.0 V –

d. below +5.0 V

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Quiz

7. The bias voltage is set to +4.3 V. The output of the

biased limiter shown will be clipped
a. above +3.6 V R1

10 V 1.0 kW
b. below +3.6 V Vin 0 VBIAS =
RL
100 kW
4.3 V +
c. above +5.0 V –

d. below +5.0 V

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Quiz

8. The circuit shown is a

a. negative clipping circuit
+ –
b. positive clipping circuit
RL

c. negative clamping circuit

d. positive clamping circuit

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Quiz

9. The circuit shown is a

a. full-wave rectifier D1

b. full-wave voltage doubler C1

c. positive clamping circuit

C2

d. negative clamping circuit D2

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Quiz

10. A diode abbreviation that means the same thing as the

PIV is the
a. VRRM
b. VRSM
c. IO
d. IFSM

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Quiz

Answers:
1. d 6. c
2. b 7. b
3. a 8. c
4. a 9. b
5. d 10. a

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.