20EC001- Electron Devices

Module-2

PN Junction Diodes

Ms.J.Shiny Christobel
Assistant Professor
Department of ECE
 Diode
❖Diode is a circuit element.
❖The diode is our first semiconductor device.
❖Diode, an electrical component that allows
the flow of current in only one direction.

Types of Diode
❖PN Junction Diode

❖Zener Diode
PN Junction diode
 PN Junction Diode
❖When a p-type semiconductor is suitably
joined to n-type semiconductor, the contact
 surface is called PN junction.
❖Most semiconductor devices contain one or
more pn junction.
❖In pn junction consists of two types of materials.
They are p-type and n-type.
❖The p-type material has holes while the n-type
material has free electrons.
PN junction Diode
PN Junction
 P-type N-type

Pn junction

PN junction is formed, free electrons and holes cross through

the junction by the process of Diffusion
During this process, Electrons near the junction jump from N to P
region, recombine with the holes in the P region very close to the
junction
Acceptor atom

PN Junction P-type N-type Pn junction Donor atom

Similarly Holes near the junction jump from P

to N region, recombine with the holes in the N
region very close to the junction
PN Junction
 P-type N-type

Depletion Region

These two layers of positive and negative charges

form the depletion region, as the region near the
junction is depleted of charge carriers.
PN Junction
Space Charge Region
 P-type N-type

Electric Field

An Electric field is created in this space charge

region because of movement of the holes and
electrons
PN Junction
❖An electric field is setup, between donor and
 acceptor ions in the depletion region
❖The potential at the N-side is higher then the
potential at P-side.
❖Therefore, electrons in the N-side are
prevented to go to the lower potential of P-side
❖Similarly, holes in the P-side find themselves at
a lower potential and are prevented to cross to
the N-side
PN Junction
Space Charge Region
 P-type N-type

Depletion Region

Electric Field

PN Junction
❖The electric field formed in the depletion region acts
as a barrier.
❖External energy must be applied to get the electrons to
move across the barrier of the electric field.
❖The potential difference required to move the
electrons through the electric field is called the barrier
potential.
❖Barrier potential of a PN junction depends on the type
of semiconductor material, amount of doping and
temperature.
❖This is approximately 0.7V for silicon and 0.3V for
germanium.
PN Junction Forward bias
PN Junction Forward bias
 P-type N-type

+
_

Positive terminal of Negative terminal of battery to P region

battery to N region
PN Junction Forward bias
Positive terminal Repels the holes
P-type N-type

+
_

Negative terminal Repels the electrons

towards the junction

PN Junction Forward bias

Due to this repulsion, the depletion region disappears
and also potential barrier also disappears.

P-type N-type

+
_

Hence under this action of the forward potential difference, the majority
charge carriers flow across the junction in opposite direction and constitute
current flow in the forward direction. This is called Forward current IF .
• Current increase very slowly with
respect to voltage. The curve is
nonlinear.
• When the external voltage
exceeds the potential barrier
voltage the Junction behaves as
ordinary conductor.
• Hence, current rises sharply with
increase in external voltage, now
the curve is almost linear.
PN Junction Reverse bias
 P-type N-type

_
+

Battery is connected with negative terminal to N region and

positive terminal to P region
 PN Junction Reverse bias

_ +P-type N-type

_
+
Holes get attracted to the negative terminal of the
battery

PN Junction Reverse bias

 _ +P-type N-type

_
+
Electrons get attracted to the Positive terminal of the
battery

PN Junction Reverse bias

 _ +P-type N-type

_
+

This results in the increase of the depletion region

PN Junction Reverse bias
 _ +P-type N-type

_
+

Due to this attraction, the depletion region is increased and

hence there is no current flow through this junction.

PN Junction Reverse bias

 Reverse bias characteristics
❖A small µA(microampere)
flows
under reverse bias and hence it is
called as Reverse current or
Leakage current.
❖Leakage current occurs due to
minority charge carriers which
depends on junction temperature.
❖When the high value of external voltage is
applied and this value exceeds the Break
down voltage the Junction behaves as
ordinary conductor.
❖Hence,current rises sharply due to junction
breakdown , now the curve is almost linear.
V-I Characteristics of PN Diode
 VB

Rectifiers
Introduction to Rectifiers
 A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating

current (AC), which periodically reverses direction, to direct

current (DC), which is in only one direction, a process

known as rectification.

Types of Rectifiers

 Half wave Rectifier

 Full wave Rectifier

Half wave rectifier
 In half wave rectifier acts as a single crystal diode.  The
a.c. supply to be rectified is applied in series with the diode

and load resistance RL

 The a.c. supply is given through a transformer. The use of

transformer permits two advantage.

 Firstly, it allows us to step up or step down the a.c. input

voltage.Secondly the transformer isolates the rectifier
circuits from power line and thus reduces the risk of
electric shock.
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Half wave rectifier operation

❖The a.c. voltage across the secondary winding AB
changes polarity after every half cycle.

❖During the positive half cycle of input a.c. voltage,

end A becomes positive w.r.t. end B. This makes the
diode forward biased and hence it conducts current.

❖ During the negative half cycle of input a.c.

voltage, end A becomes negative w.r.t. end B. Under
this condition, the diode is reverse biased and hence
it conducts no current. 5/15/2023 31

Half wave rectifier

5/15/2023 32
Half wave rectifier working

animation
 Parameters of Half Wave
Rectifier ❖ DC output voltage
❖ DC output current
❖ R.M.S Voltage
❖ R.M.S Current
❖ Rectifier Efficiency(ɳ)
❖ Ripple Factor(ϒ)
❖ Regulation
❖ Transformer Utilization Factor(TUF)
❖ Peak Inverse Voltage
❖ Form Factor
❖ Peak Factor
5/15/2023 34

Contd…
❖Let a sinusoidal voltage Vi be applied to the input of the
rectifier.
❖Then V=Vm sinωt
❖Where Vm is the maximum value of the secondary
voltage.
Let the diode resistance Rfin the forward a direction i.e.,
in the ON state and Rr(=infinite) in the reverse direction
i.e., in the OFF state
Now the current ‘i’ in the diode is given by
i = Im sinωt for 0≤ ωt ≤ π
i = 0 for π ≤ ωt ≤ 2π
where Im= Vm
Rf+RL
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Average (or) DC output voltage (Vav or Vdc)

❖The average voltage of a periodic function is

 defined as the areas of one cycle of the curve
divided by the base

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Average (or) DC output current (Iav or Idc)

Iav = Im/ π
=0.318 Im
substituting the value of Im ,we get
Iav= Vm = Vm = 0.318 Vm
π (Rf+RL) π RL RL
When compared with RL , the value of Rf is very less.So it is negligible

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RMS output voltage(Vrms)

❖RMS current squared of a periodic function of
time is given by the area of one cycle of the curve
 which represents the square of the function divided
by the base

5/15/2023 38

RMS output current(I rms)

❖RMS current squared of a periodic function of time is
given by the area of one cycle of the curve which
 represents the square of the function divided by the
base

Irms= Im
2

5/15/2023 39

Efficiency of Half-Wave Rectifier ❖The

ratio of d.c. power output to the applied input a.c.
power is known as rectifier efficiency.

Rectifier efficiency ɳ= d.c. power output Input

a.c. power η%=PDC /
PAC×100

ɳ= 40.6%

5/15/2023 40

Ripple Factor of Half-Wave Rectifier

❖It is defined as the ratio of RMS value of a.c.

component to the d.c. components in the output is
called as Ripple factor.
 = 1.211

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Regulation of Half-Wave Rectifier

❖The variation of the d.c. output voltage as a

function of d.c. load current is called regulation.

% Regulation = Vno-load – Vfull-load x 100

 Vfull-load
Where Vno-load = Vm /π, Vfull-load =[ (Vm /π) – (Idc*Rf)]

5/15/2023 42

Transformer Utilization Factor(TUF) of

Half-Wave Rectifier
❖Transformer Utilization Factor is defined as the ratio of
DC power output of a rectifier to the effective
Transformer VA rating used in the same rectifier TUF =
DC Power Output(Pdc)

Effective VA Rating of Transformer

TUF = 0.287

5/15/2023 43

Peak Inverse Voltage(PIV)

❖It is defined as the maximum reverse voltage that a

diode can withstand destroying the junction.
❖The peak reverse voltage across a diode is the peak of
the negative half-cycle.

❖For the half wave rectifier PIV is Vm

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Form Factor

The Form Factor F is defined as

F= rms value / average value

F = Im/2
Im/π
F = 1.57

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Peak Factor

The Peak Factor P is defined as

P= Peak value / rms value

P = Vm
Vm/2
P=2

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Advantage of Half-Wave Rectifier

❖It is cheap and requires a very few number of

components to construct.
 ❖It is simple as its circuit design is easy to construct.

5/15/2023 47

Disadvantage of Half-Wave Rectifier

❖Power is delivered only during one half of the cycle of
 the input alternating voltage, therefore, its power
output and rectification frequency is low

❖Transformer utilization factor is also low

❖The DC output power produced from the half wave

rectifier is not satisfactory to make a general power
supply

5/15/2023 48

Applications of Half-Wave Rectifier

❖Half wave rectifier is used for rectification purpose ❖It

is used for signal demodulation purpose and signal peak
detection

5/15/2023 49

Full Wave Rectifier

 In Full wave rectifier, current flows through the load

in the same direction for both half cycles of input

 a.c. voltage, this can be achieved with two diodes

working alternately.

 The positive half cycle of input voltage, one diode

supplies current to the load and for the negative half

cycle,the other diode does so.

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Full wave rectifier

The current being always in the same direction through

the load.
Therefore, Full wave rectifier utilises both half cycles of

input a.c. voltage to produce the d.c. output. Two types

of Full wave rectifier

1. Center-tap full wave rectifier

2. Full wave bridge rectifier

5/15/2023 51

Center-Tap Full Wave Rectifier

 5/15/2023 52

Center-Tap Full Wave Rectifier

❖A centre tapped secondary winding AB is used with

diodes connected so that each uses half-cycle of input
 a.c. voltage

❖Diode D1 utilises the a.c. voltage appearing across the

upper half of secondary winding for rectification while
diode D2 utilises the lower half winding

5/15/2023 53

Operation of Center-Tap FWR

❖During the positive half cycle of secondary voltage, the
end A of the secondary winding becomes positive and
end B negative, this makes the diode D1 forward
 biased and diode D2 reverse biased

❖Therefore, diode D1 conducts while diode D2 does not.

❖During the negative half cycle of secondary voltage, the
end A of the secondary winding becomes negative and
end B positive.

❖Therefore, diode D2 conducts while diode D1 does not.

5/15/2023 54

Advantage of Center-Tap FWR

❖The rectification efficiency of full-wave

rectifier is double of that of a half-wave
rectifier.

❖The ripple voltage is low and of higher

frequency in case of full-wave rectifier so
simple filtering circuit is required.

❖Higher output voltage, higher output

power 5/15/2023 55

Disadvantage of Center-Tap FWR

❖It is difficult to locate the centre tap on the

secondary winding

❖The d.c. output is small as each diode utilises only

one half of the transformer secondary voltage.

❖The diodes used must have high peak inverse

voltage 5/15/2023 56
Full wave bridge rectifier
 5/15/2023 57

Full wave bridge rectifier

❖In full wave bridge rectifier contains four diodes

D1,D2,D3 and D4 connected to form bridge.
❖The a.c. supply to be rectified is applied to the
diagonally opposite ends of the bridge through the
transformer

❖RLis connected between the four bridges

5/15/2023 58

Operation of Full wave bridge

rectifier

❖During the positive half cycle of secondary

voltage, the end A of the secondary winding
becomes positive and end B negative, this makes
the diode D1 and D3 forward biased while diode D2
and D4 are reverse biased

❖Therefore, only diode D1 and D3 conducts

❖The two diodes will be in series through the load

RL 5/15/2023 59

Operation of Full wave bridge

rectifier
5/15/2023 60

Operation of Full wave bridge

rectifier
❖During the negative half cycle of secondary
voltage, the end A of the secondary winding
becomes negative and end B positive, this makes
the diode D2 and D4 forward biased while diode D1
and D3 are reverse biased, therefore, only diode D2
and D4 conducts

❖The two diodes will be in series through the load

RL ❖The current flows from A to B through the load
RLi.e., in the same direction as for the positive
half-cycle, therefore, d.c. output is obtained across
the load RL 5/15/2023 61

Operation of Full wave bridge

rectifier

5/15/2023 62
Full wave rectifier working
animation

5/15/2023 63

Parameters of Full Wave

 Rectifier ❖ DC output voltage
❖ DC output current
❖ R.M.S Voltage
❖ R.M.S Current
❖ Rectifier Efficiency(ɳ)
❖ Ripple Factor(ϒ)
❖ Regulation
❖ Transformer Utilization Factor(TUF)
❖ Peak Inverse Voltage
❖ Form Factor
❖ Peak Factor 5/15/2023 64

Average (or) DC output voltage (Vav or Vdc)

 ❖ The average voltage of a periodic function is defined as the
areas of one cycle of the curve divided by the base.

Vdc = 2Vm
π
5/15/2023 65

Average (or) DC output current (Iav or Idc)

❖The average current of a periodic function is defined as

the areas of one cycle of the curve divided by the base Idc

= 2Im /π

5/15/2023 66

RMS output voltage(Vrms)

❖RMS current squared of a periodic function of time is
given by the area of one cycle of the curve which
represents the square of the function divided by the
base

❖Vrms=
5/15/2023 67

RMS output current(Irms)

❖RMS current squared of a periodic function of time is
given by the area of one cycle of the curve which
represents the square of the function divided by the
base

❖Irms=

5/15/2023 68

Efficiency of Full-Wave Rectifier

❖The ratio of d.c. power output to the applied input
a.c. power is known as rectifier efficiency.

Rectifier efficiency ɳ= d.c. power output

Input a.c. power ɳ= 81.2%

5/15/2023 69

Ripple Factor
 5/15/2023 70

Regulation of Full-Wave Rectifier

❖The variation of the d.c. output voltage as a
function of d.c. load current is called regulation.

% Regulation = Vno-load – Vfull-load x 100

Vfull-load
Where Vno-load = 2Vm /π, Vfull-load =( (2Vm /π) – Idc*Rf)

5/15/2023 71

Transformer Utilization Factor(TUF) of

 Full-Wave Rectifier
❖Transformer Utilization Factor is defined as the ratio of
DC power output of a rectifier to the effective
Transformer VA rating used in the same rectifier TUF =
DC Power Output(Pdc)

Effective VA Rating of Transformer

TUF = 0.812

5/15/2023 72

Peak Inverse Voltage(PIV)

❖It is defined as the maximum reverse voltage that a
diode can withstand destroying the junction.

❖For the Full wave rectifier PIV is 2Vm

5/15/2023 73

Form Factor
The Form Factor F is defined as

F= rms value / average value

F=

2Im/π
F = 1.12

5/15/2023 74

Peak Factor
The Peak Factor P is defined as

P= Peak value / rms value

P=I m

P=

5/15/2023 75

Advantage of Full wave bridge rectifier

 ❖The need for centre tapped transformer is eliminated
❖The output is twice that of the centre-tap circuit for the
same secondary voltage

❖For the same d.c. output voltage, PIV of bridge circuit is

half that of the centre-tap circuit

5/15/2023 76

Disadvantage of Full wave bridge rectifier

❖It needs four diodes.

❖The circuit is not suitable when a small voltage is

required to be rectified. It is because, in this case, the
two diodes are connected in series and offer double
voltage drop due to their internal resistance.

5/15/2023 77

Comparison of Half wave and Full

wave rectifier
 5/15/2023 78

Zener Diode
❖ It is a properly doped Pn junction diode
❖ The arrowhead on a Zener diode symbol points in the
 direction of forward current when the diode is forward
biased.

❖ The Zener diode is normally operated in reverse

breakdown and the current direction isthen from anode to

cathode

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 Zener Diode Circuits
❖ The most basic Zener diode circuit consist of a
single Zener diode and a resister.
❖ The Zener diode provides the reference voltage, but
a series resistor must be in place to limit the
current into the diode
otherwise a large amount of
current would flow
through it and it could be
destroyed.

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