Anatomy & Physiology - Laboratory

STUDENT ACTIVITY SHEET BS NURSING / FIRST YEAR

Session # 20

LESSON TITLE: NERVOUS SYSTEM (Part 1) Materials:

Pen and notebook
LEARNING TARGETS:

Upon completion of this lesson, you can:

1. Identify divisions of the nervous system;
2. Describe the structure of neurons and its functions;
3. Define and describe structure of a nucleus, a ganglion, a Reference:
nerve tract, and a nerve;
4. Explain how an action potential is generated and VanPutte, C., Regan, J., & Russo, A. (2019). Seeley’s
propagated; and, essentials of anatomy & physiology (10th ed.). New
5. Describe the role of summation in neural pathways. York, NY: McGraw-Hill Education.

LESSON PREVIEW/REVIEW
Answer the following questions by writing T if the statement is true and F is the statement is False. This is a preview of this
session’s topic.

T 1. The Peripheral Nervous System consists of the brain and the spinal cord
T 2. Skeletal muscles normally contract only when stimulated by nervous system
T 3. The brain and spinal cord are the major organs for processing sensory input and initiating response
T 4. The Autonomic Nervous System transmits action potential from the CNS to skeletal muscles
F 5. The Enteric Nervous System can function without input from CNS

MAIN LESSON
You will study and read their book, if available, about this lesson.

NERVOUS SYSTEM

DIVISIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

Central Nervous System (CNS)

-Consists of the brain and spinal cord.

□  Processes incoming sensory information.

□ Stimulate muscles to contract and glands to secrete.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Consists of the following:
■ Nerves – bundles of axons that lie outside the brain and spinal cord. o
Cranial nerves x 12 (from brain)
o Spinal nerves x 31 (spinal cord)
 Ganglion (Ganglia) – masses of nervous tissue consisting of neuron cell bodies.
 Enteric plexuses – neurons on the walls of organs of the gastrointestinal tract.
 Sensory receptors – monitors changes of the internal and external environment.

1. Somatic Nervous System (SNS) (Voluntary)

□ Convey information to the CNS from somatic receptors in the head, body wall, limbs, and receptors.
□ Conduct impulses to skeletal muscles.
2. Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) (Involuntary)

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 Convey information from autonomic sensory receptors i.e. stomach, lungs.
 Conduct impulses to smooth muscles, cardiac muscles, and glands.
 Sympathetic Division is for “fight-or-flight” responses.
 Parasympathetic Division is for “rest-and-digest” activities.

3. Enteric Nervous System (ENS) (Involuntary)

 Monitor chemical changes in the gastrointestinal tract (GI tract), as well as stretching.
 Govern contractions of the GI tract for substance movement.

CELLS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

TWO TYPES OF CELLS THAT MAKE UP NERVOUS SYSTEM:

1. NEURONS
2. GLIAL CELLS

Neurons or (nerve cells)

- receive stimuli, conduct action potentials, and transmit signals to other neurons or effector organs.

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3 PARTS OF NEURON:
1. Cell Body
- contains a single nucleus.
The nucleus of the neuron is the source of information for gene expression.
2. Dendrites
- short, often highly branching cytoplasmic extensions that are tapered from their bases at the neuron
cell body to their tips.
- usually receives information from other neurons or from sensory receptors and transmit the
information toward the neuron cell body.
3. Axon
- a single long cell process extending from the neuron cell body.
- sensory neurons that conduct action potentials toward the CNS, and axons of motor neurons conduct action
potentials away from the CNS.
Axon may remain branched or unbranched to form Collateral Axons. Axon
Hillock - the area where the axon leaves the neuron cell body.

TYPES OF NEURONS:

1. Multipolar Neurons
- have many dendrites and a single axon.
- most of the neurons within the CNS and nearly all motor neurons are multipolar

2. Bipolar Neurons
- have two processes: one axon and one dendrite.
- located in some sensory organs, such as in the retina of the eye and in the nasal cavity.

3. Pseudo-unipolar
- have a single process extending from the cell body.

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- this process divides into two processes a short distance from the cell body.
- one process extends to the periphery, and the other extends to CNS.

Glial Cells or neuroglia nerve

- are the supportive cells of the CNS and PNS, these cells do not conduct action
potentials.
- carries out different functions that enhance neuron function and maintain
normal conditions within nervous tissue.
- in CNS, there are four types of glial cells.

Astrocytes
- serves as the major supporting cells in the CNS.
- they can stimulate or inhibit the signaling activity of nearby neurons.

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- it participates with the blood vessel endothelium to form a permeability barrier called blood- brain barrier.

Ependymal cells
- line the fluid-filled cavities within the CNS.
- some produces cerebrospinal fluid Microglia
- act as immune cells of the CNS.
- they help protect the brain by removing bacteria and cell debris.

Oligodendrocytes
- provide an insulating material that surrounds axons.

Myelin Sheaths
- specialized layers that wrap around axons of some neurons.
- formed by the cell processes of glial cells; specifically, myelin sheaths are formed by oligodendrocytes in the CNS Schwann
cells in the PNS

Nodes of Ranvier
- Gaps in myelin sheath
- occur about individual Schwann cells
-Myelinated axons conduct action potentials more quickly (3-15 meters/sec) than unmyelinated due to Nodes of Ranvier.

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ELECTRICAL SIGNALS

Electrical Signals & Neural Pathways (within → electrical, between → chemical)

○ Resting Membrane Potential
■ Inside of cell → negatively charged (K+)
■ Outside of cell → positively charged (Na+)
■ Uneven distribution of charge = Polarized = Resting Membrane
Potential (compared from INSIDE TO OUTSIDE)
■ Resting Membrane Potential = -70 mV

■ Generated by 3 factors:
● Higher concentration of K+ inside cell membrane
● Higher concentration of Na+ outside cell membrane
● Greater permeability for K+ than Na+
■ Leak Channels: always open; K+ channels
■ Gated Channels: closed until opened by specific signals (Na+ channels) → opened at -55 mV
● Chemically-gated (Ligand) Channels: opened by neurotransmitters
● Voltage-gated Channels: opens by change in membrane potential
● Gated channels can change membrane potential
○ Responsible for action potential!
■ Net negative charge inside (K+ and proteins), net positive charge outside (Na+)
● As K+ leaks out via leak channels, cell becomes more negative because of impermeable proteins inside that can’t exit
(decreases force of diffusion)
○ Negative charge inside cell attracts K+
■ State of equilibrium = Resting Membrane Potential
■ Sodium-Potassium Pump:
● Required to maintain greater concentration of Na+ outside cell and K+ inside cell
● Active transport of K+ into cell, Na+ out of cell
● Consumes a large amount of energy (~25% of all ATP stored in a cell, 70% in neurons)
● Counteracts the constant leak of K+ ions

○ Action Potentials
■ Muscle cells & nerve cells → excitable cells
■ Voltage-gated channels for Na+ and K+ are responsible for action potential
■ Occurs at the Axon Hillock
● At rest, voltage-gated channels are closed
● Steps:
○ Stimulus applied, neurotransmitter activate chemically-gated channels and Na+ channels allow Na+ to diffuse
into cell
■ Local current of Na+ movement causes depolarization (inside of cell become positive)
○ Depolarization causes local potential
○ If depolarization is large enough, Na+ enters until local potential reaches threshold
○ Reaching threshold results in more voltage-gated Na+ channels to open → membrane becomes permeable
to Na+
■ Voltage-gated K+ channels also open while Na+ channels are open!
○ Since inside of cell is now positively charged, Na+ channels close and more K+ channels open
■ Na+ stops entering cell
■ K+ leaves cell due to opened K+ channels
■ Repolarization
○ Depolarization and repolarization make an action potential (4 ms → 4 milliseconds)
○ At the end of repolarization, charge on cell membrane is more negative than RMP → Hyperpolarization
■ Elevated permeability to K+ lasts very briefly

○ RMP is set by activity of leak channels

○ When stimulated, chemically-gated channels open and initiate local potential
○ When strong enough, local potentials activate voltage-gated channels to initiate action potential
■ Action potential happens (4 ms) in all-or-none fashion (always same magnitude)

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 ● Stronger stimuli, however, can produce a greater frequency of action potentials (but do not increase size of
each action potential)
○ Action potential conducted slowly in unmyelinated axon, rapidly in myelinated axons
■ Unmyelinated axons have action potential conduct current along entire axon cell membrane → Continuous
Conduction
■ In myelinated axons, action potential at one node of Ranvier causes local current to flow through surrounding
extracellular fluid and through cytoplasm of axon to next node of Ranvier to stimulate the next action potential
● Action potentials “jump” from one node of Ranvier to the next
● Saltatory Conduction
■ Saltatory Conduction’ greatly increases conduction speed because nodes of Ranvier make it unnecessary for action
potential to travel across the entire cell membrane → no ion channels in axon, only at nodes of Ranvier!
● Heavier, wide-diameter myelinated axons conduct action potentials quickest!
■ Myelinated axons require less energy for sodium-potassium pump

The Synapse
■ Where an axon attaches to a muscle, gland, organ, or other neuron
■ Involved w/ release of neurotransmitters (i.e. neuromuscular junction)
● End of the axon forms the presynaptic terminal
○ Neurotransmitters are stored in synaptic vesicles in the presynaptic terminal
● Membrane of the dendrite or effector cell is the postsynaptic membrane
● Space is the synaptic cleft
■ When action potential reaches presynaptic terminal, voltage-gated Ca2+ channels open which allows Ca2+ to move into
the cell
● Causes a release in neurotransmitters via exocytosis from the presynaptic terminal
○ Neurotransmitters diffuse across synaptic cleft and bind to specific receptor molecules on
postsynaptic membrane
○ Causes chemically-gated channels for Na+, K+, and Cl- to open or close in the postsynaptic
membrane (depends on type of neurotransmitter)
■ If Na+ channels open; postsynaptic cell becomes depolarized (action potential)
■ If K+ or Cl- channels open, inside of postsynaptic cell becomes more negative (hyperpolarized) which inhibits action
potential
■ Acetylcholinesterase is located in high concentration in junctional folds (secondary synaptic cleft)
■ Neurotransmitter substances are normally broken down by enzymes within synaptic cleft or are transported back into
presynaptic terminal

Reflexes
○ Involuntary reaction in response to a stimulus applied to the periphery and transmitted to the CNS
■ Allow a person to react to stimuli more quickly than is possible if conscious thought is involved
○ Reflex Arc: neuronal pathway by which a reflex occurs
■ Has 5 components:
● Sensory Receptor → pick up stimulus in skin
○ Detection
○ Perception (involves consciousness)
● Sensory (Afferent) Neuron → sends stimulus to interneurons in spinal cord
● Interneuron (Association neuron) → in CNS, connect to motor neurons and process stimulus
● Motor (Efferent) Neuron → from CNS
● Effector Organ
■ Simple reflex arcs do not have interneurons
○ Most reflexes occur in spinal cord or brainstem (not in higher brain
centers)!

Neuronal Pathways
○ Neurons are arranged within CNS to form pathways ranging from simple to complex
○ Two pathways:
■ Converging Pathway: two or more neurons converge on the same neuron
● Allows information to be transmitted in more than one neuronal pathway to converge into a single pathway
■ Diverging Pathway: axon from one neuron divides and synapses with more than one neuron

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 ● Allows information transmitted in a single neuronal pathway to diverge into multiple pathways
○ Summation: summation of signals in neuronal pathways to reach threshold and produce an action potential
■ Allows integration of multiple subthreshold local potentials
● Summation of the local potentials can bring membrane potential to threshold (causing an action
potential)
■ Spatial Summation: local potentials originate from different locations
■ Temporal Summation: local potentials overlap in time

NEUROTRANSMITTERS
Substance Site of Release Effect Clinical Example
Alzheimer disease (a type of senile dementia) is associated
CNS synapses, ANS
with a decrease in acetylcholine-secreting neurons.
Acetylcholine synapses, and Excitatory or
Myasthenia gravis (weakness of skeletal muscles)results
(ACh) neuromuscular inhibitory
from a reduction in acetylcholine
junctions receptors.
Selected CNS synapse Cocaine and amphetamines increase the release and block
Norepinephrine
and some ANS Excitatory the reuptake of norepinephrine, resulting in overstimulation
(NE)
synapses of postsynaptic neurons.
It is involved with mood, anxiety, and sleep induction.
Levels of serotonin are elevated in schizophrenia
Generally
Serotonin CNS synapses (delusions, hallucinations, and withdrawal). Drugs that
inhibitory
block serotonin transporters, such as Prozac, are used to
treat depression and anxiety disorders.
Selected CNS synaps Parkinson disease (depression of voluntary motor
Excitatory
Dopamine es and some ANS control)results from destruction of dopamine-secreting
or inhibitory
synapses neurons.

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Gamma-aminobut Drugs that increase GABA function have been used to treat
CNS synapses Inhibitory
yric acid (GABA) epilepsy (excessive discharge of neurons).
Glycine receptors are inhibited by the poison strychni ne.
Strychnine increases the excitability of certain neurons by
blocking their inhibition. Strychnine poisoning results in
Glycine CNS synapses Inhibitory
powerful muscle contractions and convulsions. Tetanus of
respiratory muscles can
cause death.
The opiates morphine and heroin bind to endorphin
Descending pain
Endorphins Inhibitory receptors on presynaptic neurons and reduce pain by
pathways
blocking the release of a neurotransmitter.

CHECK FOR UNDERSTANDING

You will answer and rationalize this by yourself. This will be recorded as your quiz. One (1) point will be given to the correct
answer and another one (1) point for the correct ratio. Superimpositions or erasures in your answer/ratio is not allowed.

Label the following parts accordingly and write your answers in the space provided.

ANSWERS:
1. INTERNEURON
2. DORSAL ROOT GANGLION
3. SENSORY NEURON
4. SENSORY RECEPTOR
5. SPINAL NERVE
6. EFFECTOR ORGAN
7. MOTOR NEURON
8. CELL BODY
9. PRESYNAPTIC AXON
10. POSTSYNAPTIC AXON

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 Substance Site of Release Effect

1. Dopamine b , c a. CNS synapse a. Excitatory

b. Selected CNS synapse and some ANS

2. Glycine a , b synapse
b. Inhibitory

3. Endorphins c , b c. Descending pain pathways c. Excitatory or Inhibitory

4. Norepinephrine b , a
5. Serotonin a , b

RATIONALIZATION ACTIVITY
The instructor will now provide you the rationalization to these questions. You can now ask questions and debate among yourselves.
Write the correct answers beside the images and table presented in the CHECK FOR UNDERSTANDING part. Make sure to use
another pen color (preferably red ink) for easy distinction.

LESSON WRAP-UP

You will now mark (encircle) the session you have finished today in the tracker below. This is simply a visual to help you track how
much work you have accomplished and how much work there is left to do.

You are done with the session! Let’s track your progress.

AL Activity: DIRECTED PARAPHRASING

You will summarize or paraphrase the concept in this topic based on your own understanding. This can be done as a written
activity in the space provided.

How an action potential is generated and propagated?

Plasma Membrane of neuron separates the extracellular space from the intracellular space. Sodium ions are found in
high concentration outside of the cell whereas Potassium ions are found in high concentration inside of the cell. Voltage-gated
sodium channel and sodium potassium pump are found embedded in the plasma membrane of the neuron. To initiate an action
potential, the stimulus causes a wave of positive charge to reach voltage-gated Na channels on the neuron membrane.
Positively charged sodium ions flood into the neuron, following their concentration gradient. Once the membrane has been
fully repolarized, the Potassium channel close.

Rating of the Output:

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