6.6 What are the four main chemical compounds in portland cement?

-The four main chemical compounds in Portland Cement are Tricalcium silicate, Dicalcium
silicate, Tricalcium aluminate, Tetracalcium aluminoferrite.

6.7 What chemical compounds contribute to early strength gain?

Basically, each compound contributes to the strength in cement. Tricalcium silicate and
Dicalcium silicate provides the most of concrete strength, Tricalcium aluminate and Tetracalcium
aluminoferrite also contributes but both are considerably low at early strength. Only Tricalcium silicate
provides high early strength gain to concrete.

6.8 Define

a. interlayer hydration space

- A type of void that occurs between the layers in the calcium-silicate-hydrate (C-S-H).
The space thickness is between 0.5 and 2.5 nm, which is too small to affect the strength. It can,
however, contribute 28% to the porosity of the paste

b. capillary voids

- Capillary voids are the result of the hydrated cement paste having a lower bulk specific
gravity than the cement particles. Its space depends on the initial separation of the cement
particles, which is largely controlled by the ratio of water to cement paste. Capillary voids will be
on the order of 10 to 50 nm for a highly hydrated cement paste in which a minimum amount of
water was used and an order of 3 to 5 μm for a poorly hydrated cement. Capillary voids greater
than 50 nm decrease strength and increase permeability and removal of water from it will not
cause shrinkage, whereas removal of water from the smaller voids causes shrinkage.

c. entrained air

- Air entrainers produce tiny air bubbles in the hardened concrete to provide space for
water to expand upon freezing. Used to mitigate the impact of internal stresses, which causes
the reduce in durability of hardened concrete, by providing a network of tiny air voids in the
hardened concrete. Entrained air voids have diameters that range from 0.01 to 1 mm, with the
majority being less than 0.1 mm. The entrained air voids are not connected and have a total
volume between 1% and 7.5% of the concrete volume.

d. entrapped air

All concrete contains entrapped air voids, which have diameters of 1 mm or larger and
which represent approximately 0.2% to 3% of the concrete volume.

6.9 Define initial set and final set. Briefly discuss one method used to determine them.

- Using a Vicat Apparatus, the initial set is the time when a penetration of 25 mm or less is
obtained while the final set is when the needle does not penetrate visibly into the cement paste. Using
Vicat apparatus in getting the initial and final setting time of cement, the amount of water required for
normal consistency in cement is used. Also, thick and thin needles are used. Using thin needle, the
procedure in releasing the needle was repeated every 15 minutes until you get 25mm penetration or
less. Then the thick needle is replaced to the thin needle. Using it, the procedure is also repeated every
15 minutes until the needle fails to penetrate the cement paste.

6.10 The following laboratory tests are performed:

a. Setting time test of cement paste samples (refer to chapter 6.7.1, page 235)

b. Compressive strength of mortar cubes (refer to chapter 6.7.3, page 238

What are the significance and use of each of these tests?

6.11 What is a false set of portland cement? State one reason for false set. If false set is encountered at
the job site, what would you do?

- False set can occur if the cement is exposed to humidity during storage, in which cement
stiffens within a few minutes of being mixed, without the evolution of much heat. A false set is
encountered, it can be remedied by remixing the cement paste without adding water in order to restore
the plasticity of the paste and to allow it to set in a normal manner without losing strength.

6.12 You are an engineer in charge of mixing concrete in an undeveloped area where no potable water
is available for mixing concrete. A source of water is available that has some impurities. What tests
would you run to evaluate the suitability of this water for concrete mixing? What criteria would you
use?

6.13 The water–cement ratio is important because it influences all of the desirable qualities of concrete.

a. Referring to Figure 6.10, which portion of water is used to calculate the water–cement ratio?

b. What is a typical water–cement ratio for normal strength concrete?

c. What is the water–cement ratio needed for hydration only when concrete is in the plastic
state?

d. Why is the extra water necessary?

e. Briefly describe how super high strength concrete (fc′ = 15,000 psi) can be made.

6.14 Discuss the effect of water–cement ratio on the quality of hardened concrete. Explain why this
effect happens.

6.15 Draw a graph to show the general relationship between the compressive strength of the concrete
and the water–cement ratio for different curing times. Label all axes and curves.

6.16 Students in the materials class prepared three mortar mixes with water to cement ratios of 0.50,
0.55, and 0.60. Three 50-mm mortar cubes were prepared for each mix. The cubes were cured for 7 days
and then tested for compressive strength. The test results were as shown in Table P6.16.

Determine the following:

a. The compressive strength of each cube.

b. The average compressive strength for each mix.

d. Comment on the effect of increasing w/c ratio on the compressive strength of the cubes.

6.17 Students in the materials class prepared three mortar mixes with water to cement ratios of 0.50,
0.55, and 0.60. Three 2-in. mortar cubes were prepared for each mix. The cubes were cured for 7 days
and then tested for compressive strength. The test results were as shown in Table P6.17. Determine the
following:

a. The compressive strength of each cube.

b. The average compressive strength for each mix.

c. Plot the average compressive strength versus w/c ratios for all mixes.

d. Comment on the effect of increasing w/c ratio on the compressive strength of the cubes.

6.18 Two batches of cement mortar with properties as shown in Table P6.18. If mortar cubes are made
from these batches, which batch do you expect to have larger compressive strength? Why?

6.19 What are the five primary types and functions of portland cement? Describe an application for each
type.

6.20 Why isn’t pozzolan used with Type III cement?

6.21 What type of cement would you use in each of the following cases? Why?

a. Construction of a large pier

b. Construction in cold weather

c. Construction in a warm climate region such as the Phoenix area

d. Concrete structure without any specific exposure condition e. Building foundation in a soil with severe
sulfate exposure

6.22 In order to evaluate the suitability of nonpotable water available at the job site for mixing concrete,
six standard mortar cubes were made using that water and six others using potable water. The cubes
were tested for compressive strength after 7 days of curing and produced the loads to failure (in
pounds) shown in Table P6.22.

a. Based on these results only, would you accept that water for mixing concrete according to ASTM C94?
b. According to ASTM C94, are there other tests to be performed to evaluate the suitability of that
water? Discuss briefly.

6.23 Three standard mortar cubes were made using nonpotable water available at the job site, and
three others were made using potable water. The cubes were tested for compressive strength after 7
days of curing and produced the failure loads in kips shown in Table P6.23. The Vicat test was conducted
on the cement paste made with the questionable water and showed that the set time was 45 minutes
more than the set time of paste made with potable water. Based on these results, would you accept that
water for mixing concrete according to ASTM standards? Explain why.