TI 01/2010

TECHNICAL INSTRUCTIONS

ON

DISINFECTION OF WATER SUPPLY

BY
DTE OF WORKS
ENGINEER-IN-CHIEF’S BRANCH
MILITARY ENGINEER SERVICES
INTEGRATED HQ OF MOD (ARMY)

1
 FOREWORD

MES plays a vital role in providing portable water to the armed forces and
its allied organizations. Disinfection is unquestionably the most important
step in the treatment of water for drinking. The microbiological quality of
drinking water is of paramount importance and must receive priority over
any other considerations in relation to drinking water treatment.

These technical instructions (TI) have been drafted to provide all inputs
required for planning, execution and subsequent maintenance and operation
of disinfected water supply. The main objective of this TI is not only to
create technical awareness of various aspects but also to update the
information and role of MES and users. Overall this TI is an informative
compendium and will be helpful and useful to the planners and ground
engineers to maintain the system in healthy state for 24x7 hours effectively
and efficiently.

I am confident that this TI will contribute to develop MES into a technology

savvy, efficient and cost effective construction agency in creation of military
infrastructure. It will also help to deliver drinking water and develop
confidence level that a reasonable and informed person would feel safe
while drinking water supplied by this organization

I am sanguine that this TI will provide an effective tool for professionals in

the field to evaluate the system and arrive at innovative and workable
solution.

New Delhi (A K NANDA)

Sep 10 Lt Gen
E-in-C

2
 PREFACE
MES plays a vital role in providing portable water to the armed forces and
its allied organizations. The link between water quality and health has been
known since the early ages. Waterborne diseases were a major threat to
public health prior to the introduction of disinfection treatment of drinking
water in the early 20th century. Disinfection is unquestionably the most
important step in the treatment of water for drinking-water supplies. The
microbiological quality of drinking-water is of paramount importance and
must receive priority over any other considerations in relation to drinking-
water treatment.

With various disinfection technologies, emerging contaminants, and new

regulations to consider, choosing the right drinking water disinfection
method can be an overwhelming task. Disinfection of drinking water
continues to be important to the protection of troops health. Selection of the
appropriate method of disinfection for a particular system should be based
on site specific considerations, such as quality of the source water and
economics of the project.

TI 01/2010 has been drafted to provide all inputs required for planning,
execution and subsequent maintenance and operation of disinfectant . The
main objective of this TI is not only to create technical awareness of various
aspects but also to update the information and role of MES and users.
Overall this TI is informative compendium and will be helpful and useful to
the planners and ground engineers to maintain the system in healthy state for
24x7 hours effectively and efficiently.

I am sanguine that this TI will provide an effective tool for professionals in

the field to evaluate the system and arrive at innovative and workable
solution.

New Delhi (Brajesh Kumar)

Sep 10 Maj Gen
DG (Works)

3
 CONTENTS – DISINFECTION OF WATER SUPPLY

TOPIC PAGE NOs

1. INTRODUCTION 6

2. OBJECTIVE OF DISINFECTION 6-7

3. CRITERIA FOR A GOOD DISINFECTANT 7

4. MECHANISMS OF DISINFECTION 7

5. FACTORS AFFECTING EFFICIENCY 7

6. DESIRABLE LIMITS 8

7. RECOMMENDED TREATMENT 8-9

8. TESTING REQUIREMENT 9

9. METHODS OF DISINFECTION 9

10. CHLORINATION 9-23

A. GENERAL
B. CHLORINATION CHEMISTRY

C. EFFICIENCY

D. ESTIMATION OF CHLORINE

E.CHLORINATION PRACTICE

F. APPLICATION OF CHLORINE

G. HAZARDS ASSOCIATED
H. LEGISLATION FOR CHLORINE
J. SAFETY CONSIDERATION
K. PERSONNEL TRAINING
L. EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT
M. TESTING OF CHLORINE WATER

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11. IONIZATION 23-25
A. INTRODUCTION
B. CHEMISTRY
C. LIMITATIONS
D. LEGISLATION
E. ADVANTAGES
F. DISADVANTAGES
12. OZONIZATION 25-27
A. INTRODUCTION
B. : MECHANISMS
C. ADVANTAGE
D.DISADVANTAGES

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1. INTRODUCTION

Many often think that the taste of the water determines its purity, not knowing that even
the best tasting water could contain disease-causing organisms. The fact that disease
could be spread through drinking water was not commonly known until the latter part of
the 1800.With this knowledge came an awareness of the need to treat water. Water
treatment process such as storage, coagulation, flocculation, sedimentation, filtration,
aeration and water softening are specifically designed to produce water that is
aesthetically acceptable and economical to use, but cannot be relied upon to provide safe
water. For utmost safety of water for drinking purposes, disinfection of water has to be
carried out for killing of disease producing organisms.

2. OBJECTIVE OF DISINFECTION
Disinfection is the process of selectively destroying or inactivating pathogenic organisms
in water, usually by chemical means The objective of water treatment is to produce and
store water that is hygienically safe, aesthetically attractive and palatable, in an
economical manner. Though the treatment of water would achieve the desired quality,
the evaluation of its quality should not be confined to the end of the treatment facilities
but also be extended to the point of consumer use. The following are the main objectives
of disinfection :-
(a) Destruction of bacteria which cause water borne diseases.
(b) Control taste and odour.
(c) Prevents algal growth.
(d) To remove organic matter, iron and manganese from water for industrial use.
(e) To reduce Biological Oxygen Demand (B.O.D.) in waste water treatment.
(f) To control taste, odour and eliminate algal growth in the water.
The table below shows some common water related diseases –

Group Diseases
Water borne
Diseases transmitted by water where water
Cholera, typhoid, bacillary dysentery, viral
acts as a passive vehicle for infecting agent.
hepatitis, leptospirosis, giardiasis, gastroenteritis
All these depend also on poor sanitation
Water washed Scabies, skin sepsis & ulcers, yaws, leprosy, lice,
Diseases due to lack of water. Poor personal typhus, trachoma, conjunctivitis, bacillary and
hugiene favours spread. Intestinal infections amoebic dysentery, salmonellosis, worm
depend on lack of proper human waste infestations
disposal.

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Water based Schistosomiasis, dracunculiasis
Infecting agents spread by contact or
ingestion water. An essential part of life
cycle of agent takes place in aquatic animal.
Water related Yellow fever, dengue, encephalitides, filariasis,
Transmitted by insects living close to water. malaria, onchocerciasis, sleeping sickness.
Faecal disposal s Clonorchiasis, diphyllobothriasis,
Caused by infecting agents- by eating fasciolopsiasis, paragonimiasis.
uncooked fish and other food.

3. CRITERIA FOR A GOOD DISINFECTANT

For a chemical or an agent to be potentially useful as a disinfectant in water supplies, it
has to satisfy the following criteria:
(a) Be capable of destroying the pathogenic organisms present, within the contact
time available and not unduly influenced by the range of physical and chemical
properties of water encountered particularly temperature, pH and mineral
constituents;
(b) Should not leave products of reaction which render the water toxic or impart
colour or otherwise make it unpotable.
(c) Possess the property of leaving residual concentrations to deal with possible
recontamination;
(d) Be amendable to detection by practical, rapid and simple analytical techniques in the
small concentration ranges to permit the control of disinfection process.
(e) A disinfectant should function properly regardless of any fluctuations in the composition
or condition of the water.
(f) A disinfectant should be safe and easy to handle

4. MECHANISMS OF DISINFECTION
The mechanism of killing the pathogens depends largely on the nature of the disinfectant
and on the type of micro-organisms. In general four mechanisms are proposed to explain
the destruction or inactivation of organisms.
(i) Damage to cell wall.
(ii) Alteration of cell permeability.
(iii) Changing the colloidal nature of the cell protoplasm.
(iv) Inactivation of critical enzyme systems responsible for metabolic activities.

5. FACTORS AFFCTING EFFICIENCY OF DISINFECTION

The efficiency of chemical disinfection is influenced by the following factors:-
(a) Type, condition, concentration and distribution of organisms to be destroyed
(b) Type and concentration of disinfectant.
(c) Chemical and physical characteristics of water to be treated.
(d) Contact time available for disinfection.
(e) Temperature of water.

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 6. DESIRABLE LIMITS FOR IMPORTANT PHYSICAL
CHEMICAL AND BACTERIOLOGICAL PARAMETERS

Sl. Characteristics IS:10500-1991- Central Public Health WHO Guidelines

No. Drinking Water Environmental
Specifications Engineering
Organisation
(CPHEEO) Manual
1. Turbidity (NTU) 5 1 0.1
2. pH 6.5to8.5 7.0 to 8.5 6.5 to 8.0
3. Total hardness (as 300 200 200
CaCO3)((mg/l)
4. Sulphates (as SO4) 200 200 200
(mg/l)
5. Iron (as Fe) (mg/l) 0.3 0.1 0.3

6. Magnesium (as Mg) 30 30 30

(mg/l)
7. E.coli or Must not be Must not be Must not be detectable
thermotolerant detectable in detectable in any in any 100-
coliform bacteria any 100-ml sample ml sample
100-ml sample

7. RECOMMENDED TREATMENT FOR DIFFERENT WATER

SOURCES
TYPE OF SOURCE RECOMMENDED TREATMENT
Protected, deep wells; essentially free of faecal Disinfection
contamination
Unprotected, shallow wells; faecally contaminated Filtration and disinfection.

Protected, impounded upland water essentially free Disinfection

of faecal contamination
Unprotected impounded water or upland river; Filtration and disinfection.
faecal contaminated
Unprotected lowland rivers; faecal contamination Pre-disinfection or storage, filtration,
disinfection
Unprotected watershed; heavy faecal contamination Pre-disinfection or storage, filtration,

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 additional treatment and disinfection
Unprotected watershed; gross faecal contamination Not recommended for Drinking water supply
Water with dissolved solid/Brackish Reverse osmosis

8. TESTING REQUIREMENT
The goal of disinfection is to remove or inactivate all disease-causing organisms in
water. However, testing for each type of pathogen individually would be costly and
inefficient. Total coliform, is the most frequently used indicator of disinfection
efficiency. It is relatively simple to test for the number of coliform bacteria found in
water, and their presence indicates that other pathogenic bacteria are also likely to be
present. If disinfection removes all of the coliforms from the water, then it can be safely
assumed that the other disease-causing microorganisms have also been removed.

9. METHODS OF DISINFECTION
There are several different disinfectants, which either kill or deactivate pathogenic
microorganisms. All disinfectants have benefits and drawbacks and can be used for water
disinfection depending on the circumstances. For chemical disinfection of water, the
following disinfectants are commonly used-
- Chlorine (Cl2)
- Chlorine dioxide (ClO2)
-Hypo chlorite (OCl-)
-Ozone (O3)
- Halogens: bromine(Br2), iodene (I)
- Metals:copper(Cu2+),silver(Ag+)

10.CHLORINATION
A. GENERAL

Chlorination is the application of chlorine to water to accomplish some definite purpose.

Chlorination is currently the most frequently used form of disinfection in the water
treatment field. However, other disinfection processes have been developed. Chlorine is
only slightly soluble in water. Its maximum solubility is about 1% at 10oC. Below
10oC, it combines with water, forming crystalline chlorine hydrate (Cl2H2O), commonly
known as “Chlorine Ice”. In cold weather, this may cause blockage in pipe and pipe
fittings.

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B. CHLORINATION CHEMISTRY
When chlorine is added to water, a variety of chemical processes take place. The
chlorine reacts with compounds in the water and with the water itself. Some of the
results of these reactions (known as the chlorine residual) are able to kill
microorganisms in the water.

 CHLORINE DEMAND

When chlorine enters water, it immediately begins to react with compounds found in the
water. The chlorine will react with organic compounds and form trihalomethanes. It will
also react with reducing agents such as hydrogen sulfide, ferrous ions, manganous ions,
and nitrite ions.Two different reactions can occur:

H2S + Cl2 + O2- S + H2O + 2Cl-

H2S + 4Cl2 + 4 H2O H2SO4 + 8 HCl

In the first reaction, hydrogen sulfide reacts with chlorine and oxygen to create elemental
sulfur, water, and chloride ions. The elemental sulfur precipitates out of the water and
can cause odor problems. In the second reaction, hydrogen sulfide reacts with chlorine
and water to create sulfuric acid and hydrochloric acid.

Each of these reactions uses up the chlorine in the water, producing chloride ions or
hydrochloric acid which have no disinfecting properties. The total amount of chlorine
which is used up in reactions with compounds in the water is known as the chlorine
demand. A sufficient quantity of chlorine must be added to the water so that, after the
chlorine demand is met, there is still some chlorine left to kill microorganisms in the
water.

 REACTION OF CHLORINE GAS WITH WATER

At the same time that chlorine is being used up by compounds in the water, some of the
chlorine reacts with the water itself. The reaction depends on what type of chlorine is
added to the water as well as on the the pH of the water itself. Chlorine may be added to
water in the form of chlorine gas, hypochlorite, or chlorine dioxide. When chlorine gas
enters the water, the following reaction occurs:

Cl2 + H2O HOCl + HCl

HOCl ↔ H+ + OCl-

The concentration of hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ions in chlorinated water will
depend on the water's pH. A higher pH facilitates the formation of more hypochlorite
ions and results in less hypochlorous acid in the water. This is an important reaction to
understand because hypochlorous acid is the most effective form of free chlorine

10
residual, meaning that it is chlorine available to kill microorganisms in the water.
Hypochlorite ions are much less efficient disinfectants. So disinfection is more efficient
at a low pH.

C. EFFICIENCY

 RESIDUAL AND DOSAGE

The chlorine residual in the clearwell should be at least 0.5 mg/L. This residual,
consisting of hypochlorous acid and/or chloramines, must kill microorganisms already
present in the water and must also kill any pathogens which may enter the distribution
system through cross-connections or leakage. In order to ensure that the water is free of
microorganisms when it reaches the customer, the chlorine residual should be about 0.2
mg/L at the extreme ends of the distribution system.

Determining the correct dosage of chlorine to add to water will depend on the quantity
and type of substances in the water creating a chlorine demand. The chlorine dose is
calculated as follows:

Chlorine Dose = Chlorine Demand + Chlorine Residual

 CONTACT TIME

Contact time is the amount of time which the chlorine has to react with the
microorganisms in the water, which will equal the time between the moment when
chlorine is added to the water and the moment when that water is used by the customer.
The longer the contact time, the more efficient the disinfection process is. When using
chlorine for disinfection a minimum contact time of 30 minutes is required for adequate
disinfection.

The CT value is used as a measurement of the degree of pathogen inactivation due to

chlorination. The CT value is calculated as follows:

CT VALUE = (Chlorine residual, mg/L) (Contact time, minutes)

The CT is the Concentration multiplied by the Time. As the formula suggests, a reduced
chlorine residual can still provide adequate kill of microorganisms if a long contact time
is provided. The minimum CT value for the effective chlorination is 6.

 OTHER INFLUENCING FACTORS

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Within the disinfection process, efficiency is influenced by the chlorine residual, the type
of chemical used for chlorination, the contact time, the initial mixing of chlorine into the
water, and the location of chlorination within the treatment process. The most efficient
process will have a high chlorine residual, a long contact time, and thorough mixing.

Temperature influences chlorination just as it does any other chemical reaction. Warmer
water can be treated more efficiently since the reactions occur more quickly. At a lower
water temperature, longer contact times or higher concentrations of chemicals must be
used to ensure adequate disinfection.

Turbidity of the water influences disinfection primarily through influencing the chlorine
demand. Turbid water tends to contain particles which react with chlorine, reducing the
concentration of chlorine residual which is formed. Finally, and most intuitively, the
number and type of microorganisms in the water will influence chlorination efficiency.

D. ESTIMATION OF CHLORINE
The usual tests practiced for estimating the residual chlorine in water are the
orthotoulidine test (OT) and orthotoulidine arsenite test (OTA), the former used for total
residual chlorine concentration and the later for free available chlorine. When
orthotoulidine reagent is added to water containing chlorine; a greenish yellow colour
develops, the intensity of which is proportional to the amount of residual chlorine
present. The orthotoulidine test procedure does not overcome errors caused by the
presence of nitrates, iron and manganese, all of which produce a yellow colour with
orthotoulidine nor is it able to discriminate between “Free Chlorine” and “Combined
Chlorine”. The O.T.A. reagent overcomes this drawback and hance gives better
determination of free and combined chlorine separately.

E. CHLORINATION PRACTICES

(a) FREE AVAILABLE RESIDUAL CHLORINATION

The type of available chlorine residual required and the characteristics of the water being
treated determine the process of disinfection to be employed

(ai)PLAIN OR SIMPLE CHLORINATION

This involves the application of chlorine to water as the only type of treatment to afford the
necessary public health protection. Plain chlorination can be carried out in situation where:
(i) Turbidity and colour of the raw water is low, turbidty not exceeding 5 to
100 NTU;
(ii) Raw water is drawn from relatively unpolluted sources;
(iii) Water contains little organic matter and iron and manganese do not exceed
0.3 mg/1; or
(iv) Sufficient contact period between the point of chlorination and the
consumer end is available.

(aii) SUPER- CHLORINATION

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This is adopted in case of an emergency like a break down or in case of waters which are
heavily polluted or fluctuate rapidly in quality. It can give excellent results in waters
where:
(i) Plain chlorination produces taste and odour;
(ii) The water is coloured; or
(iii) Iron and manganese have to be oxidised.
(aiii) DECHLORINATION
When super chlorination is employed, the water usually contains excess of free available
chlorine which must be removed before it becomes acceptable to consumers.
Prolonged storage and absorption on charcoal, granulated carbon and activated carbon are
effective. Also reducing compounds like sulphur dioxide, sodium thiosulphate and
sodium bisulphate are frequently used as dechlorinating agents.

(aiv) BREAKPOINT CHLORINATION

The graph below shows what happens when chlorine (either chlorine gas or a
hypochlorite) is added to water. First (between points 1 and 2), the chlorine reacts with
reducing compounds in the water, such as hydrogen sulfide. These compounds use up
the chlorine, producing no chlorine residual.

Next, between points 2 and 3, the chlorine reacts with organics and ammonia naturally
found in the water. Some combined chlorine residual is formed - chloramines. The
process would be stopped at point 3.
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Between points 3 and 4, the chlorine will break down most of the chloramines in the
water, actually lowering the chlorine residual.

Finally, the water reaches the breakpoint, shown at point 4. The breakpoint is the point
at which the chlorine demand has been totally satisfied. This process, known as
breakpoint chlorination, is the most common form of chlorination, in which enough
chlorine is added to the water to bring it past the breakpoint and to create some free
chlorine residual.

(b) COMBINED AVAILABLE RESIDUAL CHLORINE

This method involves the application of chlorine to water to produce with natural or
added ammonia, a combined available chlorine residual and to maintain the residual
through part or all of a water treatment plant or distribution system. They are less
effective disinfectants and oxidants than free available chlorine forms. The residual,
however, will persist much than free available chlorine which has a tendency to diffuse
and be lost.

(c) POINT OF CHLORINATION

The use of chlorine at various stages of water supply system right from raw water
collection to the distribution network is a common practice and terms like pre-post and
rechlorination have come into common usage depending upon the points at which
chlorine is applied.

(i) PRECHLORINATION

Prechlorination is the act of adding chlorine to the raw water. The residual chlorine is
useful in several stages of the treatment process - aiding in coagulation, controlling algae
problems in basins, reducing odor problems, and controlling mudball formation. In
addition, the chlorine has a much longer contact time when added at the beginning of the
treatment process, so prechlorination increases safety in disinfecting heavily
contaminated water.

(ii) POSTCHLORINATION

Postchlorination is the application of chlorine after water has been treated but before the
water reaches the distribution system. At this stage, chlorination is meant to kill
pathogens and to provide a chlorine residual in the distribution system.

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F. APPLICATION OF CHLORINE

Chlorination can be carried out by using:-

(i) Gas chlorinator – pressure type
(ii) Gas chlorinator – All Vacuum Type.
(iii) Electrolytic Type.
(iv) Bleaching Powder Dozer
(i) GAS CHLORINATOR– PRESSURE TYPE
Working Principle – The chlorine gas is drawn from cylinder and connection is
made to the chlorinator through connecting valve screwed on to the nipple of the cylinder
and a connecting tube. The other end of tube is connected to the inlet nipple of the gas
filter.
From the filter unit, chlorine gas passes to the vacuum controller, to maintain
correct conditions for accurate and stable metering. The vacuum controller incorporates
a valve to shut off the gas supply, if the water supply to the injector assembly is
interrupted. Should the vacuum created by the injector falls below the required
minimum, the inlet valve on the regulator will close and thus prevents any further flow of
gas.
The gas next flows to the gas control valve. The rate of flow required to set by
the adjustment of control valve. The gas is then supplied to the injector and thus
entrained into the water system and discharged as aqueous solution to the point of
application. There are two types of system working on above principle:-
(a) GRAVITY FEED SYSTEM: - The aqueous solution of chlorine is directly
added to water supply sump.

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 Fig-1

(b) PRESSURE FEED SYSTEM: - The chlorine solution is injected into the
rising mains, through a injector unit.

16
 Fig-2
(ii) GAS CHLORINATOR– ALL VACUUM TYPE

The most typical kind of chlorinator, a vacuum chlorinator, is shown below:

Fig-3
17
 Gas feeders are actuated by vacuum created by water or process fluid flowing
through the remote ejector. The ejector consists of a vacuum producing venturi
and a spring loaded diaphragm (or – diaphramless) check valve.
(iii) ELECTROLITE TYPE:
The chlorination is done by using either sodium or calcium hypochlorite.

Fig-4

The major advantage of this technique is the safety consideration as

transportation, storage and application of chlorine gas involves major safety
considerations to avoid hazards and fatal accidents.

(iv) BLEACHING POWER DOZER:

These are very simple in design and robust in construction. In the dozer a clear
solution of bleaching powder and soda ash is fed, which is dozed in pipe line
having flowing water by creating a differential pressure by incorporating an
orifice plate or ventury in the pipe line. This method of chlorine application has
the merits of simplicity, non requirement of electrical energy and relative safety
in operation and handling as available chlorine is either in powder or solution
form. However, the demerits include instability of bleaching powder, its
hygroscopic nature and relatively low percentage of available chlorine (25-33%).

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G. HAZARD ASSOCIATED WITH CHLORINE:
(a) Toxicity - Chlorine is not a poisonous gas, but is primarily a respiratory
irritant. The threshold limit value of chlorine accepted at present is 2.9 mg/m3 of
air. If the duration of exposure or the concentration of chlorine is excessive, it
will cause restlessness, throat irritation, sneezing and copious salivation.
(b) Fire And Explosion Hazards: -
Through Fire hazard attributable to Cl2 is only moderate, it may react to cause
fires or explosion upon contact with hydrocarbons, hydrogen, powered metals,
phosphorous etc.

(c) Volumetric Expansion:

Liquid Chlorine has a high co-efficient of thermal expansion, resulting in rapid
increase in volume, with rising temperature. This is why no chlorine container is
filled completely. In practice, containers are filled only to the extent of about
80% of the designed capacity.

H. LEGISLATION FOR CHLORINE

IS:10500-1991

To be applicable only when water is chlorinated. Tested at consumer end. When

protection against viral infection is required, it should be min 0.5 mg/l.

WHO (World Health Organisation)

For effective disinfection, there should be a residual concentration of free chlorine

of >_ mg/litre after at least 30 min contact time at pH <8.0.

USA
The national drinking water standards state that the maximum residual amount of
chlorine is 4 mg/L.

J. SAFETY CONSIDERATION
(a) Only trained personnel should be permitted to handle chlorine cylinders and
chlorinating equipment. Rubber gloves, aprons and suitable gas masks should be
provided. These should be housed in an easily accessible (unlocked) cupboard
placed outside the chlorinator room.

19
(b) When a chlorine leak occurs, the mechanical ventilation system should be opened
immediately before any person enters the chlorine room. It must be made a point
that chlorine container valves are closed first before any investigation is started.
(c) Cylinders containing chlorine should be handled gently. They should not be
bumped, dropped or rolled on the ground and no object should be allowed to
strike them with force. The protective hoods over the valve should always be
kept in place except when the cylinders are in use. Flames should never be
applied to chlorine cylinders or their valves.
(d) Cylinders should not be stored in the open or in damp places. Empty cylinders
should be stored away from full cylinders so that they do not get mixed up.
(e) In case the valve is found to be stuck, the cylinder should be immediately returned
to the supplier. No attempt should be made to a stuck valve by hammer, as this is
very dangerous.
(f) Only the spanners prescribed for use should be used as it is important not to put
too much leverage on the valves.
(g) Cylinders as well as the chlorinators must be tested at the start and end of every
shift period, for leaks, first by trying to detect the sharp irritating smell of
chlorine, then by passing over each cylinder and around each valve and pipe
connections a rod with a small cotton-wool swab tied on the end, dipped in an
aqueous solution of ammonia.
(h) Water should never be applied to a chlorine leak to stop it as it will only make it
worse. If the leak is in the chlorinator, the cylinder should be immediately shut
off until the pressure has reduced. The joint or gasket should be repaired
replacing with new packing, if necessary.
(i) Solvents such as petroleum, hydrocarbons or alcohols should not be used for
cleaning parts which come in contact with chlorine. The safe solvents are
chloroform and carbon tetrachloride. Grease should never be used where it can
come in contact with chlorine as it forms a voluminous frothy substance on
reaction with chlorine.
(j) No direct flame should be applied to a chlorine cylinder, when heating becomes
necessary, as this is hazardous. A water bath controlled not to exceed 27o C
should be used.
(k) Before disconnecting the flexible lids from containers to gas headers, the cylinder
valves should be closed first and then the gas under pressure should be drawn
from the header and flexible lids before the header valve is closed.

K. PERSONNEL TRAINING
Employee training should encompass the following:

(i) Instruction and periodic drill or quiz regarding the locations, purpose and use of
emergency fire-fighting equipment, alarms and emergency crash shut-down equipment
such as valves and switches.
(ii)Instruction and periodic drill or quiz regarding the locations, purpose and use of
personnel protective equipment.
(iii)Instruction and periodic drill or quiz regarding the locations, purpose and use of
safety showers, eye baths, bubblier drinking fountains and the closest source of water for
use in emergencies.
20
(iv)Instruction and periodic drill or quiz of selected employees regarding the locations,
purpose and use of respiratory first aid equipment.
(v)Instruction to avoid inhalation of toxic vapours and all direct contacts with corrosive
liquids.
(vi)Instruction to report to the proper authority all leaks and equipment failures.

L. EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT
Whenever chlorine is handled, a potential risk is involved, and a serious emergency may
suddenly and unexpectedly crop-up. Such eventualities should be anticipated and proper
schemes to meet them should be formulated in advance.The most common emergency
that arises during chlorine handling is through leakage.
 GENERAL CUSES OF LEAKS

Leakage of chlorine gas can occur either from the cylinder or chloronomes plant. Main
causes of leakage are as under:-
(i) Defective cylinder valves & connecting valves.
(ii) Mishandling of cylinders & chloronomes plant.
(iii) Leakage from joints in the system
(iv) Prolonged stoppage of chloronome plants without flushing the system for complete
removal of chlorine gas and without plugging of the inlet & outlet ends.

 IDENTIFYING LEAKS

Presence of chlorine in the atmosphere can be easily detected by its pungent smell, in
order to ascertain the exact location of the leak, an “Ammonia Torch” is generally used.
NH4OH + Cl2 = NH4Cl + HOCl
Chlorine even in traces, combines with ammonia to form ammonium chloride, which
manifests as a white fume, pin pointing the exact location of the leaks.
“All chlorine users must ensure that they have “Ammonia Torch” ready and handy”
 PRELIMINARY MEASURES IN FACING LEAKAGES
As soon as there is any indication of chlorine leakage immediate steps should be taken to
meet the situation. It is to be realized that:-
“A chlorine leak never gets corrected by itself”.It only gets worse, if not promptly
attended to. The following action should immediately be taken:
(a)Remove all persons not directly concerned.
(b)Put on the gas mask, rubber gloves and apron.
(c) Close the cylinder valve.
(d)Disconnect the cylinder from the plant.
(e)In case of leakage from the cylinder valve, shift the cylinder to horizontal position.
(f)Place a wet empty jute bag dipped in lime slurry over the cylinder valve.
(g)Place lot of lime over the jute bag.

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(h)Report the mater to AGE (E/M)/Supdt incharge installation by telephone or through
messenger.
(j)Water should never by used on a chlorine leak.

 CONTROLLING LEAK
Most Chlorine leakages can be controlled by trained personnel, suitably equipped with
safety appliances and emergency kits. However, after controlling the leakage, it should
be the endeavour to use up the chlorine inside the container with the least possible delay.
If it is not possible to utilize the chlorine in the process itself, it should be neutralized.
“All chlorine consumers, irrespective of quantity consumed, should have emergency kits
handy and in proper working-condition, at all times. Appropriate facilities for chlorine
neutralization, if need arises should also be established and maintained.”
 EMERGENCY KITS
An emergency kit consists of various appliances and tools such as gaskets, yokes, hoods,
clamps, studs, the rods, mild steel channels, spanners, screws, chains, pins wooden pegs
etc of standard sizes, to fit chlorine cylinders.
It is very essential that these kits are always maintained properly and kept ready for use.
Only authorized and trained persons should use these kits. After every use these kits
should by thoroughly cleaned with alkaline solution and dried.
 ACTION BY EXECUTIVE STAFF
Following action should be taken by Supdt incharge installations/AGE (E/M):-
(a)On getting the report of leakage of gas, rush to the location and personally supervise
the operation till 100% gas has been discharged. The GE should also be informed at the
earliest.
(b)Ensure the 100% serviceability state of all safety devices i.e. gas mask, rubber gloves,
apron, lime solution tank, first aid box etc. A record of the same should be maintained at
each installation.

M. TESTING OF CHLORINE WATER:-

Water after chlorination should be tested for “Free residual Chlorine”. Potable water
should invariably have some “Free residual Chlorine” to ensure the complete oxidation of
impurities which require longer contact time. Too little of “Free residual Chlorine”

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makes the water unsafe for drinking and too much of it can cause throat irritation, bad
taste and odour etc. Therefore the question arises how such chlorine should be added to
the water, the answer lies in the para 862 of RMES which states ---
“ The MES will be responsible for all sedimentation, filtration and chlorinate plant
including the provision of reagents. The medical authorities will test the water
periodically and notify the MES when they consider that the water not being
adequately treated. They will also lay down the proportion of the reagents to be
used.
Where water is supplied in small service tanks, from which the water is drawn
direct by units, the medical authorities will be entirely responsible for providing the
reagents and treating the water.”
Thus medical authorities after carrying out all tests should advise MES authorities about
the amount of reagents to be added. To ensure that adequate chlorination is done,
testing should be done jointly by MES rep & medical rep and the report be submitted to
higher authorities duly signed by both the reps.

11. SILVER IONIZATION

A. INTRODUCTION
Nomads used silver coins to improve drinking water quality. Well water containing
copper and silver coins is very bright, due to the biocidal affect of these metals. The
Egyptians kept their water in silver containers to prevent contamination. The ancient
Greeks were the first to discover the sanitizing power of copper.The early American
pioneers put silver coins in large wooden water casks to provide them with safe drinking
water on their long voyage. During the plague-ridden middle ages, mothers knew that to
place a silver spoon in an infant’s mouth was a way of warding off disease. Silver has
been used as an Ayurvedic Medicine in India for well over 2500 years. It was NASA that
harnessed what nature already knew and designed an ionization system for their Apollo
flights.

B. CHEMISTRY
Silver Ions Ag2+ are produced from pure Silver Electrodes by passing a calculated
amount of current.Silver ions bond to various parts of the cell, such as the DNA and
RNA, celular proteins and respiratory enzymes, causing all life support systems in the
cell to be immobilized. As a result, there is no more cellular growth or cell division,

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causing bacteria to no longer multiply and eventually die out. The ions remain active
until they are absorbed by a microorganism.

C. LIMITATIONS OF SILVER IONS AS DISINFECTANTS

 Hardness: When the hardness is high i.e., above 800mg/lit, it may tend
to scale up on the electrode surface or inside the chamber and will
hamper the ionization process.
 Chloride: When the concentration of chloride is found to be more than
about 300mg/lit, it may form silver chloride and precipitate. Hence the
action of silver ions are disturbed.
 pH: Ideal pH for Water disinfection is 5-9 . Anything below and above
this limit will slow down the disinfection.
 Turbidity: Turbidity definitely decreases the efficiency when it is more

than 10 NTU. More the turbidity more the contact time.

D.LEGISLATION
EU
Permissible limit is 100 ppb (micro grams/lit for drinking water as per EPA
and 90 ppb(micro grams/lit) as per European Union Standard.
WHO
World Health Organization (WHO) has suggested a maximum limit of silver
that may be consumed by a human being is 10gms..
USA
The United States dictates a maximum value of 0.1 mg/L of silver.

E. ADVANTAGES

 Silver ionization affectively deactivates Legionella bacteria and bio film and it
improves water quality.
 Silver ionization has a larger residual effect than most other disinfectants. Silver
ions remain in the water for a long period of time.
 Silver is effective throughout the entire water system, even in dead-end points and
parts of the system that contain slow-running water.

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  Silver use affectivity does not depend on water temperature.
 Less maintenance to the water system is required.
 Silver is non-corrosive; it causes less strain on the distribution system.
 There are no transport and storage difficulties.

F. DISADVANTAGES

 Silver affectivity depends on the pH value of the water. At a pH value of 9, only one
tenth of all Legionella bacteria are removed.
 When dissolved solid concentrations are high, silver will precipitate. This means
silver ions are no longer available for disinfection.
 Silver ions easily react with chlorines and nitrates that are present in the water,
causing them to no longer be effective.
 Some species of microorganisms can become resistant to silver ions. They can
remove metal from their systems or convert it to a less toxic product. These
microorganisms can become resistant to silver ionization

12. OZONIZATION

A. INTRODUCTION

Ozone might be called an “orphan” disinfectant since it has worldwide a very low use in water
treatment plants. Yet it has been known for over a hundred years .A disinfectant which is strong
and does produce only low levels of byproducts is the ideal choice. When compared to other
disinfectants like chlorine, chloramine and chlorine dioxide, ozone is the strongest disinfectant
and also the fastest acting. Oxygen in the air (O2) is composed of two oxygen atoms. Under
certain conditions, three oxygen atoms can be bound together instead, forming ozone (O3).

Ozone is produced when oxygen (O2) molecules are dissociated by an energy source into
oxygen atoms and subsequently collide with an oxygen molecule to form an unstable gas, ozone
(O3), which is used to disinfect water.

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 It is a faintly blue gas of pungent odour. Being unstable it breaks down to normal oxygen and nascent
oxygen. This nascent oxygen is a powerful oxidizing and germicidal agent. Ozone is produced by the corona
discharge of high voltage electricity into dry air. Ozone, being unstable, has to be produced onsite.

B. MECHANISMS :

The mechanisms of disinfection using ozone include:

• Direct oxidation/destruction of the cell wall with leakage of cellular constituents outside of the cell.
• Reactions with radical by-products of ozone decomposition.
• Damage to the constituents of the nucleic acids (purines and pyrimidines).
• Breakage of carbon-nitrogen bonds leading to depolymerization.

C.ADVANTAGES

 Ozone is more effective than chlorine in destroying viruses and bacteria.

 The ozonation process utilizes a short contact time (approximately 10 to 30 minutes).
 There are no harmful residuals that need to be removed after ozonation because ozone
decomposes rapidly.
 After ozonation, there is no regrowth of microorganisms, except for those protected
by the particulates in the wastewater stream.
 Ozone is generated onsite, and thus, there are fewer safety problems associated with
shipping and handling.
 Ozonation elevates the dissolved oxygen (DO) concentration of the effluent. The
increase in DO can eliminate the need for reaeration and also raise the level of DO in
the receiving stream.
 It kills all pathogenic organisms by a direct effect on their DNA.
 Disinfection with ozone occurs 30,000 times faster than with chlorine, so a prolonged
contact time is unnecessary.

D.DISADVANTAGES

• Low dosage may not effectively inactivate some viruses, spores, and cysts.
• Ozonation is a more complex technology than chlorine or ionization, requiring
complicated equipment and efficient contacting systems.
• Ozone is very reactive and corrosive, thus requiring corrosion-resistant material such as
stainless steel.
• Ozonation is not economical for wastewater with high levels of suspended solids
(SS),biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand, or total organic
carbon.
• Ozone is extremely irritating and possibly toxic, so off-gases from the contactor must be
destroyed to prevent worker exposure.

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• The cost of treatment can be relatively high in capital and in power intensiveness
•Ozone treatment can create undesirable byproducts that can be harmful to health if they
are not controlled (e.g., formaldehyde and bromate).
•Ozone is not effective at removing dissolved minerals and salts.

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