LEARNING THEORIES

Learning is a process that results in a change in knowledge or behavior as a result of

experience. Thus, learning is the acquisition of new behaviors. It is agreed that learning
involves changes in the behavior that we practice in our daily lives and which becomes a
permanent part of our existing set of behaviors.
If there is no change in behavior in relation to your daily life then learning has not taken
place. According to Driscoll (2002), Learning is a relatively permanent change in the
behaviour potentially as a result of the learner’s experiences and interactions with the world.

Three key concepts in the definition of learning

1. Learning is indexed (demonstrated) by a change in behaviour.
2. Learning is caused by experience and interaction with one’s environment.
3. The change in behaviour is not always permanent
CHARACTERISTICS OF LEARNING
The below are some of the characteristics of learning:
1. Learning involves change.
2. All learning involves activities.
3. Learning Requires Interaction.

4. Learning is a lifelong process.

5. Learning Occurs Randomly Throughout Life.
6. Learning Involves Problems Solving.
7. Learning is the process of Acquiring Information.
8. Learning involves far more than thinking.
9. Experience is Necessary for Learning.

PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING
Below are some of the principles of learning:
1. Participation.
2. Repetition.

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 3. Relevance.
4. Transference.
5. Feedback.
Participation
Learning should permit and encourage active participation of the learner.
Participation improves motivation and apparently engages more senses that reinforce the
learning process. As a result, or participation, people learn more quickly and retain that
learning longer. For example, most people never forget how to ride a bicycle because they
actively participated in the learning process.
The learning activities should be experiential rather than just informational.
Therefore, the trainers should arrange the physical surroundings to facilitate small group
interaction and promote the sharing of ideas.

Repetition
An important principle of learning is to provide the learner with the opportunity for practice
and repetition. To gain the full benefit of training learned behaviors must be over learned to
ensure smooth performance and minimum of forgetting at a later date. Proficiency in learning
and retaining new skills is improved when individuals visualize themselves performing the
new behavior.
Relevance
Learning is helpful when the material to be learned is meaningful. The learning should be
problem-centered rather than content centered. People are motivated to learn when training is
immediately relevant to help them solve a current problem. Learning something just because
someone says “it is important” is not as motivating.
Transference
Because the training occurs in a special environment, an important question to ask is whether
learning will transfer to the actual job situation. Transfer of training occurs when trainees can
apply the knowledge and skills learned in training course to their jobs. If the learning in one
setting does not transfer to the actual job situation, then the training has failed. Three
transfers training situations are possible:
1) Positive transfer of training when the training activities enhance performance
in the new situation;
2) Negative transfer of training, when the training activities inhibit performance
in a new situation; and
3) No observable effect of training.
Feedback

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Feedback gives learners information on their progress. Performance feedback is a necessary
prerequisite for learning. Feedback improves performance not only by helping learners
correct their mistakes but also by providing reinforcement for learning. Knowledge of results
is a positive reinforcement in itself. Learning activities have more intrinsic interest if the
feedback is available.
Nevertheless, performance feedback should do more than inform learners whether they were
right or wrong.
Merely informing the trainees that they were wrong is not as effective as telling them why
they were wrong and how they can avoid making mistakes in the future. In general,
knowledge of results is an essential feature of learning, and this knowledge comes after the
learner’s response

Definition of theory
A theory is a set of concepts that seek to explain and predict a phenomenon
A learning theory therefore is a set of concepts that explain how leaning occurs and also
predict how learning can occur.

How learning occurs

1. BEHAVIORAL APPROACH
Behaviorism also known as behavioral psychology is a theory or learning base on the idea
that all behavior is acquired through conditioning. Conditioning occurs through interaction
with the environment. Behaviorists believe that our response to environment stimuli shape
our actions.
Behaviorism is of the view that behavior should be explained by observable experience, not
by mental processes. For the behaviorism, behavior is everything that we do that can be
directly observed, a child creating a poster, a teacher smiling at a child and so on, it emphasis
on experience, especially reinforcement and punishment as determinants of learning and
behavior. Mental processes are the thoughts, feelings and motives that each of us experience
but cannot be observed by others. For the behaviorism, these thoughts, feelings and motive
are not appropriate subject matter for a science of behavior because they cannot be directly
observed.
2. Cognitive approach
Cognitivism is a learning theory that focus on the process involved in learning rather than on
the observed behavior. Knowledge can be seen as scheme or symbolic mental constructions
and learning is defined as change in a learner’s schemata.

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FIVE APPROACHES TO LEARNING
Social Cognitive Approach: It emphasis on observation learning which explains that
students learn what they observed and model after what they see others do.
Cognitive information Processing: focusing on how learners process information through
attention, memory, thinking and other cognitive process.
Cognitive Constructivism: Emphases the learner’s cognitive construction of knowledge and
understand.
Social Constructivism: emphases on collaboration with other to produce knowledge and
understands. Q
Behaviouiroral learning theory approach (B.F Skinner)

INSTRUMENTAL CONDITIONING (THORNDIKE)

In this type of learning which is also known as the trial-and-error learning, Thorndike placed
animals in problem solving situation where they manipulated their environment and thus
precede entirely new conditioned responses. Thorndike developed three laws of learning
1. The law of Reading: This law states that when the learner is physiologically
and psychologically ready for a learning task, learning is effectively
accomplished.
2. The Law of Exercise: it refers to the fact that the more frequent a learning
task is practiced the easier it is for the learner to recall or remember, the less often
the learner exercise, the more difficult it is to recall from memory.
3. The Law of Effect: It refers to the strengthening or weakening of connection
as a result of its consequence. The consequence of an action will determine
whether the action will be repeated or not. Actions with pleasurable outcome will
be repeated, while actions without pleasurable or painful outcomes will be
avoided.

OPERANT CONDITIONING
In this type of learning, B.F. Skinner (1938) demonstrated how he could increase the
frequency of any particular operant behavior by rewarding the animal for performing that
behavior. Delivery of reinforcement was made contingent on performance of the behavior so
that animal had to perform the behavior in order to get the reward.
He defined reinforce as any consequence that increases the frequency of some operant or
desirable behavior. Skimmer’s reinforcement consists of either giving the organism what he
wants or taking away what it does not want on the contrary, punishment is either giving the
organism what it does not want or taking away what it wants.

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Operant conditioning is accomplished through the following four basic mechanisms.
1. Positive reinforcement- response that are rewarded are likely to be repeated
2. Negative reinforcement – response that escape from painful or undesirable
situation are likely to be repeated.
3. Non – reinforcement – responses that are not reinforced unlikely to be
repeated ignoring students who call out answers without raising their hands will
extinguish the tendency to call out answer without being called.
4. Punishment – response that bring pain or undesirable consequences will be
suppressed, although the behavioral potential will remain and response may
reappear if reinforcement contingencies should change creating the care could
lead to resurgence of lateness to school?

Educational Implications
1. Student’s correct response should be reinforced. Reinforcement should follow
the desired responses immediately since delays render them ineffective. The
common reinforce in the classroom include praises, nodding, clapping and
awarding of grades and granting special privileges to students who provide the
required responses.
2. Break down difficult task into manageable units and provide reinforcement
after the accomplishment of each task.
3. Vary the reinforcement scheme to get behavior establishment fixed ratio and
variable ratio (number of responses).

REINFORCEMENT
It is the representation of a reinforced (positive stimulus) or the removal of a negative
(unpleasant) stimulus which increases the likelihood of a (desirable) behaviour to occur.
Reinforcement is aimed at strengthening a desirable behaviour or increasing the frequency of
a behaviour.
Reinforcement helps increase certain behaviour with the use of stimulus, which is called
reinforcer
A reinforce is any stimulus that strengthens a response by;
a. The presentation of a positive stimulus
b. The removal of a negative stimulus

Positive reinforcement-The presentation of reinforce,

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Examples of a positive reinforcement in class, students who receive grade A in a course are
more likely to choose a similar course the following semester. Again, a student who receives
praise or reward for showing a socially desirable behavior is most likely to show up that
behavior again

Negative reinforcement- The removal of a negative stimulus.

Examples of negative reinforcement include the following, removing a student from sitting
his/her best friend at the back to the front seat, to prevent him/her from not concentrating on
the classroom, i.e. removing him from the back seat in order to increase the likelihood for
him to pay attention or concentrate in class work. Note that both positive and negative
reinforcement functionally increase the occurrences of behavior

TYPES OF REINFORCEMENT
1. Primary reinforcement: They are stimulus that seeks to the desire of an
organism. For example, food, water. They are biologically important. It is also
called unconditional reinforcement; these reinforcers occur naturally without
having to make any effort and do not require any form of learning
2. Conditioned reinforcement: They are stimulus which become rewarding
when paired with another reinforcing stimulus. These reinforcers are not
important for survival like the primary reinforcers but are still vital for daily
living. These reinforcers are also known as conditioned reinforcers. For example,
money, grades and praise are conditioned reinforcers they are stimulus that
acquires reinforcing power because they have been associated with primary
reinforce. For example, praise and money, praise is also referred to as social
reinforce.

PUNISHMENT
A classroom teacher may withdraw a positive reinforce (for example say that a child cannot
or will not go to the movie or entrainment) or introduce something unpleasant (e.g. scolding).
Skinner believed that these two types of actions constitute punishment.
Note the two kinds of punishment mentioned
1. Something aversive (unpleasant) appears after a response e.g. scolding a child
for misbehavior, this is called positive punishment. Positive punishment is
therefore the presentation of an aversive stimulus (event) to reduce the frequency
of a behavior.
2. Something positive (pleasant) disappear after a response. A child who kicks
another child while playing may be kept indoor whiles his/her colleagues keep
playing outside. This is called negative punishment. It is the withdrawal of

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 positive consequence which serves to reduce the frequency of some behavior and
may serve as punishment.
CONSTRUCTIVISM
Constructivism is learning theory found in psychology which explains how people might
acquire knowledge and learn. It therefore has direct application to education. The theory
suggests that human construct knowledge and meaning from their experiences.
Constructivism’s central idea is that human learning is constructed; those learners build new
knowledge upon the foundation of previous learning.
Implication of constructivism to teaching
1. First teaching cannot be viewed as the transmission of knowledge from
enlighten to unenlightened; constructivist teacher does not take the role of the
“stage on the stage”. Rather, teacher act as ’guide on the stage’ who provides
students with opportunities to test the adequacy of their current understandings
2. Secondly, if learning is based on prior knowledge, then teachers must note that
knowledge provide learning environments that exploit inconsistencies between
learners’ current understandings and the new experiences before them. This
challenges teachers for they cannot assume that all children understand something
in the same way.
3. Thirdly, if students may apply their current understandings in new situations in
order to build new knowledge, then teachers must engage students in learning.
Bring students current understanding to the forefront.
4. Finally, if new knowledge is actively built, then time is needed to build it.
Ample time facilitates student’s reflections about new experiences, how those experiences
line up against current understandings, and how a different understanding might provide
students with and important view of the world.

HUMANISM
The founders and proponents are Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers, and others. Basically,
Learning is a personal act to fulfill one’s potential. To the humanist a learner is viewed, as
one with affected and cognitive needs. Emphasis on the freedom, dignity and potential of
humans, learning is student – centered and personal, facilitated by teachers, and with the goal
of developing self-actualized people in a cooperative and support environment.
THE CONCEPT OF REWARD AND MOTIVATION
 Defining Reward
 “Reward is the benefit received for performing a task. It is a positive stimulus or
incentive that can be presented in the process of reinforcing behavior” (Safiullah,
2014, p.23).
 Rewards can be extrinsic or intrinsic.

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  Intrinsic rewards are intangible rewards or psychological rewards which one
receives from the job itself. These are the self initiated rewards—such as—pride in
one’s work, a feeling of accomplishment, appreciation, meeting the new challenges,
positive and caring attitude from employer, participation in decision making, or
being part of a team.

 Extrinsic rewards: are the tangible rewards which one gets from the employer.
External rewards/examples can be in terms of salary/pay, incentives, bonuses,
promotions, job security, etc.
 Factors That Serve/Act as Motivators to Affect Employee Performance:
 job security
 working conditions,
 employer-employee relationship,
 autonomy, relationship with colleagues,
 training and development opportunities,
 employee recognition and company’s overall policies and procedures for rewarding
employees.
 The Meaning of Motivation
 Many contemporary authors have defined the concept of motivation differently:
 the psychological process that gives behavior purpose and direction (Kreitner, 1995)
 an internal drive to satisfy an unsatisfied need (Higgins, 1994)
 Baron (1983) describes motivation as, “an accumulation of different processes which
influence and direct our behavior to achieve some specific goal”
 a predisposition to behave in a purposive manner to achieve specific, unmet needs
(Buford, Bedeian, & Lindner, 1995)
 Baron (1983) defines motivation as “a set of processes concerned with the force that
energizes behavior and directs it towards attaining some goal.”
 Kreitner and Kinicki (1992) postulate that motivation represents “those psychological
processes that cause the arousal, direction and persistence of voluntary actions that are
goal directed.”
 Deckers (2010), Motivation is a person's internal disposition to be concerned with
and approach positive incentives and avoid negative incentives
To motivate therefore means to be moved to do something.
MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS AND ITS APPLICATION IN THE
CLASSROOM

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 1. Physiological needs: such as hunger and sleep are dominant and are the basic
of motivation, unless they are satisfied, everything else recedes, for example students
who frequently do not eat breakfast or suffer poor nutrition generally become lethargic
and non-interacting, and their learning potential is extremely sensitive to their weight.
2. Safety needs: these needs represent the importance of security, protection,
freedom from fear and anxiety. Students who are afraid of school, of peer, of a
teacher, or of a parents have their safety needs threatened and these fears can affect
classroom performance
3. Love and belongingness needs: this category refers to our needs for family
and friends. Students who feel alone, not part of a group or who lack any sense of
belonging usually have poor relationship with others and that can have effect on
classroom learning.
4. Esteem needs: These needs encompass the reactions of others towards us as
individuals and our opinion of us we want a favorable judgment from others which
should be based on honest achievement. Teachers should be sure to provide
opportunities for students to satisfy these needs.
5. Need for self-actualization: here Maslow was referring to that tendency to
feel restless unless we are being all that we can be. Encourage students to recognize
their potential and guide them into activities that will enable them to feel both
competent and fulfilling.
TECHNIQUESS OF MOTIVATING STUDENTS
1. Make students active participants in learning.
2. Tell student what they need to do to succeed in your course
3. Avoid creating intense competition among students.
4. Be enthusiastic about your students
5. Vary your teaching methods
6. Give students feedback as quickly as possible
7. Reward success
8. Avoid using abusive word on your students
Hold high but realistic expectation for your students