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First posting April 2020
PREFACE
About the Handbook
The Principles and Practice of Engineering (PE) Fire Protection exam is computer-based, and NCEES will supply
all the resource material that you may use during the exam. Reviewing the PE Fire Protection Reference Handbook
before exam day will help you become familiar with the charts, formulas, tables, and other reference information
provided. You will not be allowed to bring your personal copy of the PE Fire Protection Reference Handbook into
the exam room. Instead, the computer-based exam will include a PDF version of the handbook for your use. No
printed copies of the handbook will be allowed in the exam room.

The PDF version of the PE Fire Protection Reference Handbook that you use on exam day will be very similar to
this one. However, pages not needed to solve exam questions—such as the cover and introductory material—may
not be included in the exam version. In addition, NCEES will periodically revise and update the handbook, and each
PE Fire Protection exam will be administered using the updated version.

The PE Fire Protection Reference Handbook does not contain all the information required to answer every question
on the exam. Theories, conversions, formulas, and definitions that examinees are expected to know have not been
included. The handbook is intended solely for use on the NCEES PE Fire Protection exam.

Other Supplied Exam Material

In addition to the PE Fire Protection Reference Handbook, the exam will include codes and standards for your use.
A list of the material that will be included in your exam is available at ncees.org along with the exam specifications.
Any additional material required for the solution of a particular exam question will be included in the question
itself. You will not be allowed to bring personal copies of any material into the exam room.

Updates on Exam Content and Procedures

NCEES.org is our home on the web. Visit us there for updates on everything exam-related, including specifications,
exam-day policies, scoring, and practice tests.

Errata
To report errata in this book, log in to your MyNCEES account and send a message. Examinees are not penalized
for any errors in the handbook that affect an exam question.

Contributors
The PE Fire Protection Reference Handbook was developed by members of the Society of Fire Protection
Engineers.
CONTENTS
1 GENERAL ......................................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Units and Conversion Factors ............................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Nomenclature ........................................................................................................................................ 3
1.3 General Formulas .................................................................................................................................. 3
1.4 Engineering Economics ........................................................................................................................ 4

2 FIRE PROTECTION ANALYSIS .................................................................................................................... 7

2.1 General Fire Safety ............................................................................................................................... 7
2.2 Risk Analysis ........................................................................................................................................ 8
2.3 Fire Protection Management ................................................................................................................. 11
2.4 Fire Protection Analysis – Information Sources ................................................................................... 12

3 FIRE DYNAMICS FUNDAMENTALS ........................................................................................................... 14

3.1 Basics .................................................................................................................................................... 14
3.2 Fire Growth and Heat Release Rates .................................................................................................... 19
3.3 Heat Transfer ........................................................................................................................................ 21
3.4 Plumes and Flames ............................................................................................................................... 27
3.5 Flammable and Combustible Liquids Fires .......................................................................................... 32
3.6 Compartment Fires................................................................................................................................ 33

4 WATER-BASED EXTINGUISHING SYSTEMS ............................................................................................ 46

4.1 Fluid Mechanics .................................................................................................................................... 46
4.2 General Water Flow Equations ............................................................................................................. 50
4.3 Fire Hydrants ........................................................................................................................................ 51
4.4 Fire Sprinkler Systems .......................................................................................................................... 52
4.5 Hydraulic Calculations.......................................................................................................................... 52
4.6 Water Hammer ...................................................................................................................................... 58
4.7 Pressures ............................................................................................................................................... 59
4.8 Fire Pumps ............................................................................................................................................ 59
4.9 Water Mist Fire Suppression Systems .................................................................................................. 61
4.10 Water Mist System Definitions ............................................................................................................. 61
5 SPECIAL HAZARD EXTINGUISHING SYSTEMS....................................................................................... 63
5.1 Foam Agents ......................................................................................................................................... 63
5.2 Low-Expansion Foam Systems............................................................................................................. 65
5.3 High-Expansion Foam Systems ............................................................................................................ 65
5.4 Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Systems ............................................................................................................ 66
5.5 Clean Agents ......................................................................................................................................... 72

6 FIRE ALARM AND DETECTION .................................................................................................................. 78

6.1 General Information .............................................................................................................................. 78
6.2 Heat Detector RTI ................................................................................................................................. 78
6.3 Rate of Heat Release ............................................................................................................................. 78
6.4 Heat Detector Spacing .......................................................................................................................... 78
6.5 Smoke Detector Response .................................................................................................................... 79
6.6 Audibility Design .................................................................................................................................. 80
6.7 Illumination Design .............................................................................................................................. 81
6.8 Voltage Drop Calculation ..................................................................................................................... 81

7 SMOKE CONTROL .......................................................................................................................................... 82

7.1 Fundamentals ........................................................................................................................................ 82
7.2 Smoke ................................................................................................................................................... 86
7.3 Airflow .................................................................................................................................................. 95

8 HAZARDOUS MATERIALS ........................................................................................................................... 100

8.1 Flammability ......................................................................................................................................... 100
8.2 Vapor Clouds ........................................................................................................................................ 102
8.3 Explosions ............................................................................................................................................. 103
8.4 Explosion Venting ................................................................................................................................ 105
8.5 Dusts ..................................................................................................................................................... 108

9 PASSIVE BUILDING SYSTEMS .................................................................................................................... 110

9.1 General .................................................................................................................................................. 110
9.2 Steel ...................................................................................................................................................... 114
9.3 Concrete/Masonry ................................................................................................................................. 121
9.4 Timber/Wood ........................................................................................................................................ 123
9.5 Tied Fire Walls ..................................................................................................................................... 124
10 EGRESS AND OCCUPANT MOVEMENT .................................................................................................... 125
10.1 General .................................................................................................................................................. 125
10.2 Evacuation Movement .......................................................................................................................... 126
10.3 Egress Behavior in Smoke .................................................................................................................... 135
10.4 Emergency Lights ................................................................................................................................. 139

11 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES ............................................................................................................................... 140

11.1 General .................................................................................................................................................. 140
11.2 Thermodynamics .................................................................................................................................. 143
11.3 Physical and Combustion Properties of Selected Fuels ........................................................................ 144
11.4 Heat of Combustion .............................................................................................................................. 146
11.5 Autoignition Temperatures for Liquids ................................................................................................ 156
11.6 Critical Heat Flux and Thermal Response Parameter of Materials....................................................... 157
11.7 Thermal Properties and Thermal Response Properties of Polymers ..................................................... 161
11.8 Yields of Fire Products and Heats of Combustion for Well-Ventilated Fires ...................................... 163
11.9 Combustion Properties of Fuels ............................................................................................................ 168
11.10 Flammability Limits of Premixed and Diffusion Flames ..................................................................... 172
11.11 Limiting Oxygen Concentrations .......................................................................................................... 174
11.12 Pool Burning: Thermochemical and Empirical Constants for a Number of
Common Organic Fuels ........................................................................................................................ 175
11.13 Effective Opposed-Flow Flame Spread Properties ............................................................................... 176

Additional NFPA references:

11-2016 Standard For Low-, Medium-, and High-Expansion Foam

12-2018 Standard on Carbon Dioxide Extinguishing Systems
13-2016 Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems
20-2016 Installation of Stationary Pumps for Fire Protection
25-2017 Standard for the Inspection, Testing, and Maintenance of Water-Based Fire Protection Systems
72-2016 National Fire Alarm and Signaling Code
92-2018 Standard for Smoke Control
101-2018 Life Safety Code
400-2016 Hazardous Materials Code
2001-2018 Standard on Clean Agent Fire Extinguishing Systems
1 GENERAL
Units and Conversion Factors
Many conversion factors are utilized in multiple disciplines. The unit and conversion factor listing from the NCEES FE
Reference Handbook is included in Section 1.1.8. Other conversions, not in that listing, are provided in this section.

Area
Square feet: 1 ft2 = 0.092903 m2

Constants
Quantity Symbol Value Units
gravity acceleration (standard) metric g 9.807 m/s2
gravity acceleration (standard) USCS g 32.174 ft/sec2

Flow
3
1 ft /sec = 449 gpm

Pressure
1 ft of water = 1.13 in. of mercury
1 Pa (Pascal) = 1 N/m2 = 1 J/m3 = 1 kg/(m*s2)

ft of water × 0.433 = lb/in2

lb/in2 × 2.307 = ft of water

Sound
120 dB = 20 Pa = 1 W/m2

Temperature
Fahrenheit
°F = 1.8 (°C) + 32

Celsius
°C = (°F-32)/1.8

Rankin
°R = °F + 459.69

Kelvin
K = °C + 273.15

Volume
3
1 ft = 7.4805 gal

1
FE Reference Handbook Units and Conversion Factors

poor printing quality

2
 Nomenclature
The following is general nomenclature used throughout this handbook. Additional variables are defined within specific
sections.

Symbol Quantity English Units SI Units

a area in.2 or ft2 mm2 or m2
a acceleration ft/sec2 m/sec2
bhp brake horsepower hp W (Watt)
Hazen-Williams pipe
C * *
roughness coefficient
d diameter in. or ft mm
ε pipe roughness factor ft m
f Darcy friction factor * *
lbf = slug·ft/sec2 =
F force N (Newtons)
(lbm/g)-ft/sec2
g acceleration due to gravity ft/sec2 m/sec2
h fluid height ft m
H total head ft m
L length of pipe ft m
m mass lbm kg
𝑚̇ mass flow rate lbm/sec kg/sec
n rotational speed (pumps) rpm rpm
Re Reynolds number * *
p pressure psi or lbf/in2 N/m2 or Pascal
P power ft-lb/sec W
Q volumetric flow rate gpm liter/sec
ρ density lb/ft3 g/cm3
t time sec or min sec
v velocity ft/sec m/sec
v kinematic viscosity ft2/sec cm2/sec (stoke)
V volume in.3 or ft3 liters
w weight (force) lbf N (or kgf)
Z vertical distance ft m
* Dimensionless quantities

General Formulas
Volume of a pipe
V = 0.25d 2L

Area of a circle/pipe
A = (/4)d 2

Vapor density
Vapor density = molecular weight/29

Heat
Total heat (J) = weight (kg) × Hc (J/kg)

Hc = heat of combustion

3
 Engineering Economics

General

Nomenclature and Definitions

A .............Uniform amount per interest period Subscripts
B .............Benefit
j ........... at time j
BV ...........Book value
n .......... at time n
C .............Cost
† .......... F/G = (F/A – n)/i = (F/A) × (A/G)
d .............Inflation adjusted interest rate per interest period
Dj ............Depreciation in year j
EV ...........Expected value
F .............Future worth, value, or amount
f ..............General inflation rate per interest period
G .............Uniform gradient amount per interest period
i ..............Interest rate per interest period
ie .............Annual effective interest rate
MARR ....Minimum acceptable/attractive rate of return
m .............Number of compounding periods per year
n .............Number of compounding periods; or the expected life of an asset
P .............Present worth, value, or amount
r ..............Nominal annual interest rate
Sn ............Expected salvage value in year n

4
 Time Value of Money
−𝑁
1 − (1 + 𝐼⁄100) −𝑁
𝑃( ) + 𝐹𝑣 (1 + 𝐼⁄100) + 𝑃𝑣 = 0
𝐼⁄
100
P = payment
Fv = future value
Pv = present value
I = interest rate (%)
Note: This will yield negative numbers for at least one result due to that number being a value that is paid.

Non-Annual Compounding
𝑟 𝑚
𝑖𝑐 = (1 + ) −1
𝑚

Breakeven Analysis
By altering the value of any one of the variables in a situation, holding all of the other values constant, it is possible to find a
value for that variable that makes the two alternatives equally economical. This value is the breakeven point. The payback
period is the period of time required for the profit or other benefits of an investment to equal the cost of the investment.

Inflation
To account for inflation, the dollars are deflated by the general inflation rate per interest period f, and then they are shifted over
the time scale using the interest rate per interest period i. Use an inflation adjusted interest rate per interest period d for
computing present worth values P.

d = i + f + (i × f)

Depreciation

𝐶 − 𝑆𝑛
𝐷𝑗 =
𝑛

Book Value
BV = initial cost – ∑ Dj

Capitalized Costs
Capitalized costs are present worth values using an assumed perpetual period of time.
𝐴
𝑃=
𝑖

Benefit-Cost Analysis
In a benefit-cost analysis, the benefits B of a project should exceed the estimated costs C.

B – C ≥ 0, or B/C ≥ 1

5
Modified Accelerated Cost Recovery System (MACRS)

Dj = (factor) C

6
2 FIRE PROTECTION ANALYSIS
General Fire Safety

Material Compatibility
Material compatibility is of importance for proper functionality of all systems and equipment. Information on oxidizing
chemicals, combustible chemicals, unstable chemicals, water- and air-reactive chemicals, and corrosive chemicals are available
in many sources including installation standards.

Acceptable Thresholds

2.1.2.1 Maximum Temperature

Maximum temperatures affect operability of machinery, ignition of flammable vapors or gases (autoignition), and degradation
of materials including structural elements.

Temperature Thresholds for Ignition Prevention:

• Autoignition temperature – The minimum temperature required to initiate self-sustained combustion in a substance without
any apparent source of ignition
• Flashpoint temperature – The minimum temperature at which the liquid gives off sufficient vapor to form an ignitable
mixture with air near the surface of the liquid or within the test vessel used. There are two methods of testing flash point:
closed-cup and open-cup.
o Closed-cup testing involves conditions similar to those in a closed tank. Most flashpoint temperature are given for
closed-cup.
o Open-cup testing is representative of open systems such as open tanks. This value will be indicated with a symbol
of oc)
o Generally, there is a difference of 10–20°F between closed-cup and open-cup flashpoint temperatures.
o At flashpoint temperature an ignitable mixture will form but the mixture will not ignite automatically. It is capable of
being ignited in the presence of an ignition source.
• Fire point – The lowest temperature of a liquid in an open container at which the vapors evolve fast enough to support
continuous combustion. The fire point is not the same as the autoignition temperature. An external ignition source must be
present.
• Diluted water-miscible flammable liquids might have a flash point but no fire point. This is a consideration when
evaluating protection of storage of heavily diluted water-miscible flammable liquids.

Electrical Fires

2.1.3.1 Ignition Modes Involving Electric Current

Electric sparking or arcing can ignite materials in all phases: gases, liquids, solids, liquid aerosols, and dust clouds. Ignition in
gaseous and dust cloud media has been studied extensively. Ignition in bulk liquids is rare, apart from oil-filled transformers
and other HV devices. Ignition of liquid sprays, fogs, or aerosols is problematic in some industries, however. Ignition of solids
from arcing or sparking is common.

7
 Minimum Ignition Energy (MIE) of Some Common Minimum Ignition Energy for Various Dust Clouds
Gases and Vapors Substance MIE (mJ)
Substance Energy (mJ) Aluminum 50
Acetone 2.15 Aspirin 25-30
Acetylene 0.03 Black powder 320
Ammonia 680 Coal e ? 250
Benzene 0.91 Cocoa p let 100-180
om
Butane 0.26 Coffee Inc 160
Carbon disulfide 0.039 Cornstarch 30-60
Cyclohexane 2.65 Cotton linters 1,920
Ethane 0.42 Dextrin 40
Ethylene 0.114 Flour, cake 25-80
Ethylene oxide 0.105 Grain dust 30
Furan 0.328 Magnesium 40
Heptane 1.15 Manganese 305
Hexane 0.29 Nitrostarch 40
Hydrogen 0.03 Nylon 20-30
Hydrogen sulfide 0.077 Paper dust 20-60
Iso-octane 2.9 Phenol formaldehyde 10-6,000
Methane 0.71 Polyethylene 70
Methanol 0.3 Polyethylene terephthalate 35
Pentane 0.82 Polystyrene 40-120
Propane 0.5 Rice 40-120
Propylene 0.418 Silicon 100
Toluene 2.5 Soap powder 60-120
Vinyl acetylene 0.095 Sugar, powdered 30
p-Xylene 0.2 Tantalum 120
From Ignition Handbook Tin 80
Table reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition,
with permission from SFPE.
Titanium 25
TNT 75
Urea formaldehyde 80-1,280
Wheat starch 25-60
Wood flour 30-40
Zinc 960
From Ignition Handbook
Table reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering,
fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Apart from metals and some other rare substances, there are no combustible solids with an ignition temperature over 1,000°C.
The temperature of an electric arc is at least 6,500 K and may be much higher. Yet, an electric arc impinging onto a
combustible solid is not necessarily assured of igniting it. There are two primary factors operating in such cases: (1) The arc
impingement may be very brief; many combustible materials can resist enormous heat fluxes if these are sustained only briefly.
(2) The material may ablate too rapidly to allow ignition. These mechanisms, however, are understood only qualitatively.

Risk Analysis
Risk analysis estimates the probability of fire occurring and evaluates its consequences by weighting both fire severity and
probability. The results of a risk analysis can be used to estimate the average expected loss and its consequences, the largest
possible loss and its consequences, or other parameters. Risk analysis takes fault analysis methodology, extreme value theory,
and reliability theory into account in analyzing fire risk of fire safety.

8
Manu methods or techniques may be used to evaluate risk. Examples include failure mode and effects analysis (FMEA), event
tree analysis (ETA), hazard and operability analysis (HAZOP), fault tree analysis, criticality analysis, consequence analysis,
and energy flow analysis.

Reliability Analysis
Reliability, represented by the letter R, is the probability of an item functioning after a predefined time, T. This definition
introduces the concept of probability in reliability analysis. As such, the time to failure of a system or component is considered
a random variable characterized by a probability distribution. The reliability of the system is the area under the probability
distribution to the right of time, T. Consequently, the unreliability of a system or component, represented by the letter F, is
simply F = 1 – R. The unreliability will be the area under the curve to the left of time T. The following figure illustrates this
concept. The curve in the figure represents the probability distribution characterizing the time to failure.

Conceptual representation for the definition of reliability and unreliability

Figure reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

The process of conducting a reliability, availability, or maintainability analysis consists of the following general steps:
1. Definition of system boundaries
2. Failure mode analysis
3. Collection of reliability data
4. Selection of appropriate modeling method or technique
5. Quantification
6. Documentation
This information has been reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Event Tree Analysis

An event tree is a diagram consisting of the sequence of possible states of a system and of corresponding events that lead to
those states. By assigning probabilities to the outcomes of the intermediate events, the cumulative probability of consequences
can be calculated.

Event tree analysis (ETA) is often used to analyze complex situations with several possible scenarios, where several fire or life
safety systems are in place or are being considered. In brief, event trees are developed for a scenario, and probabilities and
frequencies for components are applied (see previous discussion on ETA).

One method for quantifying fire risk from multiple fire scenarios is given as

∑Riski = ∑(Lossi × Fi)

where
Riski = risk associated with scenario i
Lossi = loss associated with scenario i
Fi = frequency of scenario i occurring
This information has been reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

9
 Criticality Analysis
Criticality analysis estimates the effect of fire prevention measures by assigning probabilities and severities to different possible
fire scenarios. This approach is also known as operational risk management.

Building Fire Risk Analysis

Building fire risk analysis is one specific application of risk analysis. In fire safety analysis, the level of building fire safety is
complementary to the level of fire risk. The chance of not having a fire is 1 minus the chance of having a fire (risk). Building
fire safety analysis may also involve cost-benefit analysis.

To reduce overall risk in an industrial facility, a planned hazardous materials storage area is recommended and sometimes
required depending on the hazardous materials being stored. The location, construction, and level of protection required
depends on the level of hazard the stored materials pose. The best option is to have a detached low-value structure that would
reduce the risk to the public, nearby structures, or occupants of those nearby structures at risk. If this is not achievable, the next
best option is an attached structure to the facility which has no penetrations into the facility that would allow transfer of
products of combustion or a material spill from the structure to the facility.

Building fire risk analysis should consider:

1. What the fire hazards are and how fires might occur
2. How the unwanted outcomes (consequences) are valued and by whom (including offsetting benefits)
3. What differences in risk perception and valuation exist and how they should be treated (i.e., should high-consequence events
be disregarded if the probability of occurrence is very low)
4. If there are any social or cultural issues that may be relevant
5. If there are different stakeholder views on the likelihood of fire occurrence and of the resulting consequences
6. Whether uncertainty, variability, and unknowns have been identified and appropriately addressed
This information has been reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Limits of Analysis
The limitations of developed models or equations should always be verified and examined when applying them to specific
problems.

The factors affecting the reliability of predictions provided by models or equations may be categorized as follows:
• Definition and conceptualization of the assessed problem or scenario
• Formulation of the conceptual model
• Formulation of the computational model
• Estimation of the parameter values
• Data on which the models or equations are based

Percent Error Formula

𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 = × 100%
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑

10
 Fire Protection Management
A comprehensive fire protection management program is critical to ensuring the health, safety, and welfare of a building's
occupants. To sustain a desired level of life safety, the building components and systems must be managed. In addition,
activities occurring within the building must be managed to remain within design limitations.

This topic also includes fire prevention measures such as hot work (welding) permits, housekeeping, security service,
maintenance of warehouse aisles and flue spaces, and maintenance of performance-based design parameters.

Three factors are important in managing an adequate level of life safety in an existing facility:
• Capabilities and limitation of design
• Facility system impairments procedures
• Inspection, testing and maintenance frequencies

The type, quantity, and arrangement of fuel present within a building can significantly affect the magnitude of a fire event. The
building design or a prescriptive code requirement may contemplate a specified maximum fuel loading associated with a
specific occupancy so that the fire protection systems can perform reliably and efficiently. Elements that can have an impact on
this design include:
• Size and type of fuel packages
• Maximum quantity of fuel packages within the specified area
• Allowable locations for storage of display of specified fuel packages
• Required spatial separation between fuel packages

Fire Protection System Reliability Prediction

Method to predict the required maintenance interval for a fire protection system that is based on the system's reliability:

tR = ln RR /(–Λ)
where
ln RR = Napierian log of the required reliability, RR
Λ = inherent failure rate of the system R=e(-At)
tR = required maintenance interval to achieve the required reliability

Reliability of Fire Protection System

ΛT = 1 – PT
where
ΛT = failure rate of the total system
PT = probability of successful operation for the system, or reliability

The failure rate, Λ, of a system assembled from components having exponential failure rates is computed from the sum of the
failure rates of each of the components, Λn, from
Λ = q1λ1 + q2λ2 + q3λ3 + · · · + qnλn

where
Λ = failure rate of the total system R=(1-lamd1)q1(1-lamd2)q2...(1-lamdN)qn
qn = quantity of the nth component in the system
λn = failure rate of the nth component in the system

11
 Fire Protection Analysis – Information Sources
Fire prevention can be defined as the design and monitoring of physical conditions, automated processes, and human activities
to minimize the chance of fire. The change of fire is minimized by controlling fuel, oxidizers, and ignition energy; by taking
process fire safety and hazard abatement measures; and by implementing management programs for loss prevention and
control. Fire prevention is found in every phase of a facility from preliminary design through demolition.

Data Interpretation
• Identify and assess the impact of changes (e.g., facility, occupant, content, process/activity)
• Analyze system test results (e.g., fire pump, sprinkler, fire alarm)
• Analyze fire test results

A number of types of fire tests can be analyzed:

• Flame spread over building materials (internal and external)
• Smoke production rates
• Ignitability and flammability of clothing, furniture, drapery, and other similar materials
• Flash point, fire point, and similar tests of liquid flammability
• Warehouse commodity classification
• Dust explosivity and ignitability
• Required extinguishing agent concentrations or densities for specific scenarios
• Susceptibility of liquid to static charge accumulation

Fire Test Methods

Fire tests of entire building component, such as doors or compartments, are known as full-scale tests. Bench tests are smaller-
scale tests of representative sample of materials. Fire tests can be grouped into these categories:
• Empirically based bench tests
• Full-scale and component tests
• Research-oriented bench tests

2.4.2.1 Liquid Flammability Tests

The test used to determine the flash points of most liquids is ASTM D56 "Flash Point by Tag Closed Cup Tester." This test is
intended for liquids with a flash point of less than 175°F. Flash points determined in an open-cup test can be as much as 50°F
higher than when determined using a closed-cup test. The Pensky-Martens test is intended for fuel oils with flash points
between 150°F and 230°F.

Corrected flash point = T – 0.033 (760 – P)

where:
T = measured closed-cup flash point (C)
P = ambient atmospheric pressure (mm Hg)

12
 Some Values of Closed-Cup Flash Point, Open-Cup Flash
Point, and Fire Point Temperatures
Closed Cup Open Cup FP Fire Point
FP (°C) (°C) (°C)
n-Hexane –22 a
NA
n-Heptane –4 –1 2
Methanolb 12 1.0, 13.5b 1.0, 13.5b
n-Octane 12 17 18
Ethanolb 13 6, 18.0b 6, 18.0b
s-Butanol 24 NA 29
m-Xylene 25 NA 44
p-Xylene 25 31 44
n-Butanol 29 36 36, 38, 50
n-Nonane 31 37 42
o-Xylene 32 36 42
JP-6 NA 38 43
n-Decane 44 52 61.5, 66
Decalin NA 57 63
Tetraline NA 71 74
Bicyclohexyl NA 74 79
n-Dodecane 74 NA 103
Fuel oil no. 2 124 NA 129
Fuel oil no. 6 146 NA 177
Glycerol 160 176 207
Motor oil 216 NA 224
NA = Not available
a
The open-cup flash point of n-hexane is quoted as –26C in the original
Factory Mutual Handbook and repeated in Babrauskas. This is incorrect.
b
Data from Glassman and Dryer. The lower values were obtained with
ignition by a pilot flame. The upper values refer to spark ignition.
Unless otherwise stated, these data come from the Factory Mutual
Handbook, as quoted by Babrauskas
Table reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

2.4.2.2 Smoke and Toxic Gas Release

The type of fuel, mode of burning (flaming/smoldering), heat flux, and ventilation factors have a major effect on smoke
development and toxic gas production. Knowledge of smoke development properties is important because smoke inhibits
visibility and exposes occupant to toxic gases.

Tests for smoke production include:

ASTM E662 "Specific Optical Density of Smoke Generated by Solid Materials"
ASTMD2843 "Density of Smoke from Burning or Decomposition of Plastics"
ASTM E906 "Heat and Visible Smoke Release Rates for Material and Products Using a Thermopile Method"
ASTM E1354 "Heat and Visible Smoke Release Rates for Materials and Products Using an Oxygen Consumption Calorimeter"

Furnace Test Correction Factor

2𝐼(𝐴 − 𝐴𝑆 )
𝐶=
3(𝐴𝑆 + 𝐿)

C = correction factor
I = indicated fire resistance period
A = area under the curve of indicated average furnace temperature for the first three-fourths of the indicated period
AS = area under the standard furnace curve for the same part of the indicated period.
L = lag correction (54F-h or 3,240F-min)

13
3 FIRE DYNAMICS FUNDAMENTALS
Basics

Combustion
Combustion can be expressed chemically, one example being the balanced chemical equation for the combustion of methane,
which is:
CH4 + 2O2 = CO2 + 2H2O
(1 mol of methane reacting with 2 mol of oxygen produces 1 mol of carbon dioxide and 2 mol of water)

(Heat of reaction) = (Heat of formation of products) – (Heat of formation of reactants)

Heats of Formation at 25ºC (298 K)

Compound (Hf)298 (kJ/mol)
Hydrogen (atomic) +218.00
Oxygen (atomic) +249.17
Hydroxyl (OH) +38.99
Chlorine (atomic) +121.29
Carbon monoxide –110.53
Carbon dioxide –393.52
Water (liquid) –285.8
Water (vapor) –241.83
Hydrogen chloride –92.31
Hydrogen cyanide (gas) +135.14
Nitric oxide +90.29
Nitrogen dioxide +33.85
Ammonia –45.90
Methane –74.87
Ethane –84.5
Ethene +52.6
Ethyne (acetylene) +226.9
Propane –103.6
n-Butane –124.3
iso-butane* –131.2
Methanol –242.1
*Heats of formation of other hydrocarbons are tabulated in Weast.

Table reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition,
with permission from SFPE.

Complete combustion for a generic hydrocarbon (CxHy) burning in air is written as:
𝑦
𝐶𝑥 𝐻𝑦 + 𝑎(𝑂2 + 3.76𝑁2 ) → 𝑥𝐶𝑂2 + 𝐻2 𝑂 + 3.76𝑎𝑁2
2

where
𝑦
𝑎=𝑥+
4
𝑦
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑖𝑟 (𝑥 + )
𝑠=( ) = 4
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑖𝑐 𝑋𝑂2

𝑋𝑂2 is the mole fraction of oxygen in air (1/4.76)

14
 B-Number Values for Different Fuels
Solids Formula B-number Liquids Formula B-number
Polypropylene C3H6 1.29 Methanol CH3OH 2.53
Polyethylene C2H4 1.16 Ethanol C2H5OH 2.89
Polystyrene C8H8 1.55 Propanol C3H7OH 3.29
Nylon 6/6 C12H22N2O2 1.27 Butanol C4H8OH 3.35
Polycarbonate C6H14O3 1.41 n-pentane C5H12 7.63
PMMA C5H8O2 1.78 n-hexane C6H14 6.67
PVC C2H3Cl 1.15 n-heptane C7H16 5.92
Fir wood C4.8H8O4 1.75 n-octane (gasoline) C8H18 5.42
-cellulose C6H10O5 6.96 iso octane C8H18 6.59
Polyoxymethylene CH2O 1.47 n-nonane C9H20 4.89
n-decane C10H22 4.61
n-undecane C11H24 4.43
n-dodecane (kerosene) C12H26 4.13
Acetone C3H2O 7.28
Table reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, Fifth Edition with permission from SFPE.

Stoichiometric Combustion
If the combustion process is stoichiometric, air or oxygen is being supplied at exactly the rate required to consume the fuel as it
is being made available. The stoichiometric air-to-fuel ratio, r, is defined as:

𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑚̇𝑎𝑖𝑟

𝑟= =
𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑚̇𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙

The combustion process is rarely complete. The efficiency of the combustion process can be assessed using the equivalence
ratio, ϕ.
𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙⁄ 𝑚̇
( ) ( 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙⁄𝑚̇ )
𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑚̇𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙
𝜑= = = 𝑟( )
𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙⁄ 𝑚̇𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑚̇𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙
( )
𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑖𝑐ℎ ( ⁄ )
𝑚̇𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑖𝑐ℎ

If ϕ < 1, the combustion will be fuel lean. If ϕ > 1, it will be fuel rich. Fuel-rich conditions can lead to incomplete combustion.

Heats of Combustion
The heat of combustion of a fuel is defined as the amount of heat released when unit quantity is oxidized completely to yield
stable end products. Tables for a variety of products can be found in Section 11.4 of this document.

Heats of Formation
The most stable compounds (CO2 and H2O) have the largest negative values, while positive values tend to indicate an
instability with respect to the parent elements. This can indicate high chemical reactivity, and indeed heats of formation have
been used in preliminary hazard assessment to provide an indication of the risks associated with new processes in the chemical
industry. (See table in Section 3.1.1)

15
 Specific Heat
Heat Capacities of Selected Gases at Constant Pressure (101.1 kN/m 2)

Table reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Thermal Capacity of the Products of Combustion of a Stoichiometric Propane/Air Mixture

Table reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Ignition
Four elements are necessary for ignition to occur:
• Fuel
• Oxidizer
• Energy
• Uninhibited chemical chain reaction

There are two general types of ignition scenarios: piloted ignition and autoignition.

Methods to predict the ignition of solid materials involve the following properties:
• Specific heat (cp)
• Thermal conductivity (k)
• Density (ρ)

The product of these properties (kρC) is called thermal inertia. Selected information can be found in Section 11.12.

Ignition of Thermally Thin Material

When the external heat flux is much larger than the losses, estimation of the time to ignition can be made using the following
equation: d
𝜌̅𝑠 ̅̅̅
𝐶𝑠 𝐿 (𝑇𝑖𝑔 − 𝑇0 )
𝑡𝑖𝑔 =
𝑞𝑒̇ "

16
 d=L ?
It applies to a material of thickness d heated on one side and insulated on the other, or a material of thickness 2d heated
symmetrically.

The physical thickness, d, of the material must be less than the thermal penetration depth, δ T, for it to be considered thermally
thin. Typically, items with a thickness of less than about 1 mm can be treated as thermally thin.

The equation for thermal penetration depth is given as (Fundamentals of Fire Phenomenon, equation 7.20a):

𝑘(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇0 )
𝑑 ≪ 𝛿 𝑇 ≈ √∝ 𝑡 ≈
𝑞̇ "
or
𝑑ℎ𝑐 ℎ𝑐 (𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇0 )
𝐵𝑖 ≡ ≪
𝑘 𝑞̇ "

Ignition of Thermally Thick Material

Different equations are applicable to materials with high- and low-incident heat fluxes. The solution using these equations is an
iterative process requiring a comparison of the ignition time to a characteristic time.

The characteristic time, tc, is determined as follows:

𝑘̅ 𝜌̅𝑠 𝐶̅𝑠
𝑡𝑐 =
(ℎ 𝑇 )2
where
hT = total heat transfer coefficient

It incorporates both convective and radiative heat losses.

This information has been reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

3.1.8.1 High-Incident Heat Flux

Where tig << tc

2
𝜋 𝑇𝑖𝑔 − 𝑇0
𝑡𝑖𝑔 = 𝑘̅ 𝜌̅𝑠 𝐶̅𝑠 ( )
4 𝑞𝑐̇ "

The heat loss term is not included, implying that it holds true where the heat flux term is large.

Thermal response parameter, TRP, is defined as

𝜋
𝑇𝑅𝑃 = ∆𝑇𝑖𝑔 √𝑘̅ 𝜌̅𝑠 𝐶̅𝑠
4

For fire initiation a material must be heated above its CHF value. And substitution into the high-incident heat flux equation
results in the following:
1 (𝑞𝑐 ̇" − 𝐶𝐻𝐹)
=
√𝑡𝑖𝑔 𝑇𝑅𝑃
This information has been reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

17
3.1.8.2 Low-Incident Heat Flux
Where tig > tc
1 √𝜋 √𝑘̅ 𝜌̅𝑠 𝐶̅𝑠 ℎ 𝑇 (𝑇𝑖𝑔 − 𝑇0 )
= [1 − ]
√𝑡𝑖𝑔 ℎ𝑇 𝑞𝑒̇ "

Gas Flame Temperature

Adiabatic Flame Temperature of Lower-Limiting Hydrocarbon
Air Mixtures
Adiabatic Flame Temperature at
Gas
Lower Flammability Limit (K)
Methane 1,446
Ethane 1,502
Propane 1,554
n-Butane 1,612
n-Pentane 1,564
n-Heptane 1,692
n-Octane 1,632

Table reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Combustion Efficiency
Combustion efficiency is likely to vary from around 0.3–0.4 for heavily fire-retarded materials to 0.9 or higher in the case of
oxygen-containing products.

The combustion efficiency, χch, can be described as the ratio of the effective heat of combustion and the net heat of combustion:

∆𝐻𝑐ℎ
𝜒𝑐ℎ = ⁄∆𝐻
𝑇

or

∆ℎ𝑐
𝜒𝑐ℎ = ⁄ 𝑙
∆ℎ𝑐
where
∆hc = the effective heat of combustion (MJ/kg)
∆ℎ𝑐 𝑙 = the net heat of combustion (MJ/kg)

Virtual Origin
The virtual origin is defined as the point source from which the plume above the flame appears to originate.

3.1.11.1 Virtual Origin for Pool Fires

𝑧0 = −1.02𝐷 + 0.083𝑄2/5
z0 = virtual origin
D = effective diameter (m)
Q = total heat release rate (kW)
If the pool is not circular
1⁄
4𝐴 2
𝐷=( )
𝜋
where
A = area of the pool

18
3.1.11.2 Virtual Origin of Other Fire Types
𝑧0 = 𝐿 − 0.175𝑄2/5
z0 = virtual origin
L = flame height (m) Qc
Q = total heat release rate (kW)
Qc=0.7Q
Fire Growth and Heat Release Rates

Heat Release Rate – General

Heat Release Rate = Mass burning rate × Heat of combustion

Heat Release Rates – Example Fire Test

Following is an example of a heat release rate graph for a burning foam sofa based on fire test data.

Figure reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Total Heat Release

Since the energy released by a fire is transported primarily through convection and radiation, the total heat release rate can be
defined as:
𝑄̇ = 𝑄̇𝑐 = + 𝑄̇𝑟
Check
Rate of Heat Release Within a Compartment
To calculate the rate of heat release within the compartment, it is assumed that the fire is ventilation controlled and that all
combustion takes place within the compartment.
𝑄̇𝑐 = 𝑚̇𝑎𝑖𝑟 × ∆𝐻𝑐 (air)
𝑄̇𝑐 = convective portion of the heat release rate (kW)
𝑚̇𝑎𝑖𝑟 = mass flow rate of air into the compartment (kg/s)
HC (air) = heat of combustion (kJ/kg) per unit mass of air consumed (3 kJ/g)

1/2
𝑚̇𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 0.52 𝐴0 𝐻0
A0 = effective area of ventilation (m2)
H0 = height of the ventilation opening (m)

19
 Rate of Heat Release for Pallets
The general heat release rate for a standard 1.22-m by 1.22-m pallet when stacked to less than 0.5 m in height can be
determined using the following equation:
q = 1, 368(1 + 2.14 h p )(1 − 0.03M )
where hp = stack height (m) and M = moisture (%) with an assumed net heat of combustion of 12 × 103 kJ kg–1.

The general heat release rate for a nonstandard pallet per-unit-pallet-floor-area when stacked to less than 0.5 m in height can be
determined using the following equation:
q  = 919(1 + 2.14 h p )(1 − 0.03M )
where hp = stack height (m) and M = moisture (%) with an assumed net heat of combustion of 12 × 103 kJ kg–1.

Power-Law Fire Growth

These growth models do not model fire decay. The most common power law growth model is the t 2 model.
𝑄̇ = ∝ (𝑡 − 𝑡𝑖 )𝑝
α = fire growth coefficient, 1,055/tg p

t = time measured
ti = ignition reference time (incorporates time to ignition and incubation period)
p = power (characterizing heat release rate increase)

t2 Fire Growth Rate

t 2 fire growth rates:
Ultra Fast tg = 75
Fast tg = 150
Medium tg = 300
Slow tg = 600

Heat Release Rates for t2 Fires with Standard Growth Rates

The t 2 fire growth can be depicted as curves at various α values. These are curves that present liquid fuel fires with liquid phase
and gas phase flame spread.

t2 Fires – with Fuel Constant

𝑄̇ = 𝛼𝑡 2
𝑄̇ = rate of heat release (Btu/s) (kW)
α = fire intensity coefficient (Btu/s3) (kW/s2)
t = time after burning occurs (sec)

These fire heat release rates curves are chosen to be representative of actual fire involving different commodities and geometric
storage arrangements:
Q = 0.00293t
2
Slow
Q = 0.01172t
2
Medium
Q = 0.0469t
2
Fast
Q = 0.1876t
2
Ultrafast
where
𝑄̇ is in kW
𝑡 2 is in seconds
This information has been reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE

20
 t2 Fires – with Fire Growth Time
1,055
𝑄(𝑡) = ( ) ∗ 𝑡2
𝑡𝑔2
Q(t) = total heat release rate at time t (kW)
t = time in seconds
tg = time (in seconds) for a fire to grow from first appearance of flame to 1,055 kW (1,000 Btu/s)

Heat Transfer
Methods for calculating the heat transferred by conduction, convection, and radiation.

Conduction
Conduction is the gradual spreading of heat through materials, molecule by molecule. The heat flux is related to the temperature
differential as follows:

𝑞́ " = ∆𝑇⁄ 𝑡
( )
𝑘
where
𝑞́ " = heat flux
t = plate thickness
k = thermal conductivity

3.3.1.1 Rate of Heat Transfer Through a Solid

The rate that heat is transferred through a solid is directly proportional to the difference in temperature, as given by Fourier's
law. Many thermal properties of materials are time dependent (i.e., thermal conductivity and specific heat). Average values that
span the range of temperatures under consideration are often used.
𝑑𝑇
𝑄̇ = −𝑘𝐴
𝑑𝑥
where
𝑄̇ = rate of heat transfer (W)
k = thermal conductivity (W/m·K)
A = surface area perpendicular to direction of heat transfer (m 2)

For heat release rate per unit area:

dT  T f − Ta 
q " = −k = −k  
dx  x 

21
3.3.1.2 Conduction Through a Plane Wall

−kA (T2 − T1 )
Q=
L
where
A = wall surface area normal to heat flow (m 2)
L = wall thickness (m)
T1 = temperature of one surface of the wall (K)
T2 = temperature of the other surface of the wall (K)

3.3.1.3 Thermal Resistance

22
Composite Plane Wall

Convection
Convection is the effect of conduction with the motion of heated fluids. Convection is a significant part of heat transfer through
turbulent plumes associated with most fires. The basic convective heat release rate (per unit area) equation is:
𝑞"̇ = ℎΔ𝑇

where
𝑞"̇ = convective heat release rate per unit surface area
h = convective heat transfer coefficient (which depends on the material characteristics, geometry of the solid, and property of
the fluid, including fluid parameters
ΔT = temperature difference between the fluid and the surface area

Radiation
Variations in the predicted versus measured heat fluxes vary considerably between methods. The following table is a summary
of methods.

Method Range of use (kW/m2) Recommended safety factor Preferred methods

Shokri and Beyler correlation All heat fluxes, ground level only 2 –
Point source model 0–5 kW/m2 2 5 kW/m2
Shokri and Beyler model 5 kW/m2 2 5 kW/m2
Mudan model All heat fluxes 2 –
This information has been reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

23
3.3.3.1 Point Source Radiation
This model is the simplest configuration of a radiant source and models the flame by a point source located at the center of the
real flame. This model assumes a vertical target and ϴ is the angle between the target's normal and the line of sight from the
target to the point source location.

Figure reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

The heat flux on a target for the point source model (Drysdale) is given by the equation:
Q cos 
qr = r 2
"

4r
where
"
q r is the heat flux on a target perpendicular to radius from the point source
𝑄̇𝑟 is the radiative heat release from the fire (typically 20–30% of Qtotal)
r is the distance from plume center at H/2 to the target
θ is the angle between the normal to the target and the line of sight from the target to the point source location. The worst case
is that cos θ equals one and this factor is ignored.

24
3.3.3.2 Incident Heat Flux – Shokri and Beyler Correlation
This method assumes that the pool is circular or nearly circular. It also assumes that the target is vertical and located at ground
level. Radiant heat flux is maximized near the mid-height of the radiating source. A target facing the center of radiation will
give the maximum heat flux at a given location. At heights above ground level, the radiant heat flux is expected to exceed that
given by this equation.

𝐿
𝑞̇ " = 15.4 ( )−1.59
𝐷
where
D = diameter of the pool fire
L = distance from the center of the pool fire to the target edge. The edge of a circular pool has a value of L/D or 0.5.

The equivalent diameter for noncircular pools is given as:

4𝐴
𝐷= √
𝜋
where A is the surface area of the noncircular pool.

This information has been reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

3.3.3.3 Radiative Energy Output

𝑄𝑟̇ = 𝜒𝑟 𝑄̇ = (0.21 − 0.0034𝐷)𝑄̇
where
𝑄̇𝑟 = total radiative energy output
𝜒𝑟 = radiative fraction
𝑄̇ = total heat release
D = pool diameter in meters

3.3.3.4 Radiative Fraction (𝝌𝒓 ) as a Function of Pool Diameter

Figure reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

25
3.3.3.5 Energy Absorbed (Heat Transfer)
𝐸 = 𝜀 ∗ 𝑞" ∗ 𝐴 ∗ 𝑡
E = energy absorbed
 = emissivity
q" = heat flux
A = exposed area
t = time

3.3.3.6 Emissivity
q = esT 4
2
q = flame emissive power kW/m
e = 1.0 for a blackbody
s = 56.7 × 10-12 kW/m2K4 (Stefan-Boltzmann constant)
T = temperature (Kelvin)

3.3.3.7 Emissivity – with Configuration Factor

For targets very near the fire, other methods that account for configuration (shape) factors are required.

Computing shape factors based on the algebraic formulae would take too long in the exam format; therefore, the shape factor
will likely be given or read off a graph. It is important to understand the relationship of the source to the target when selecting
shape factors. It is also important to understand when shape factors are mathematically combined.

If the emissive power from a surface is known, then it is possible to calculate the intensity of radiation falling at a point at a
known distance from the surface by incorporating a configuration or shape factor, Φ.
𝑞̇ " = Φ𝜀𝜎𝑇 4
where
𝑞̇ " = heat flux
Φ = configuration factor
ε = emissivity
σ = Stefan-Boltzmann constant = 5.67E-8 w/m2K4
T = absolute temperature
Under steady-state conditions, Kirchhoff's law stipulates that the absorptivity of a surface is equal to its emissivity. Thus, under
steady-state conditions, given a known incident heat flux and surface emissivity, the total energy absorbed by the surface can be
calculated. In this case the total energy absorbed is also equal to the total energy emitted (i.e., steady-state).

This information has been reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

𝑞"̇ = (∑ 𝐹 ) ∈ 𝜎𝑇 4
𝑞"̇ = flame emissive power kW/m2
e = 1.0 for a blackbody
s = 56.7 × 10-12 (kW/m2K4 - Stefan-Boltzmann constant)
T is in Kelvin
∑ 𝐹 = sum of configuration factors

26
3.3.3.8 Net Energy Exchange by Radiation Between Two Bodies
Body small compared to its surroundings

(
Q12 = A T14 − T24 )
where
Q12 = net heat transfer rate from the body (W)
 = emissivity of the body
 = Stefan-Boltzmann constant
(
  = 5.67  10−8 W/ m 2 K 4  )
2
A= body surface area (m )
T1 = absolute temperature (K) of the body surface
T2 = absolute temperature (K) of the surroundings

Plumes and Flames

Figure reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Mean Flame Height

The mean flame height, L, is the distance above the fire source where the intermittency has declined to 0.5. This height marks
the level at which the combustion reactions are essentially complete and the inert plume can be considered to begin.

Under normal atmospheric conditions and for most gaseous and liquid fuels:
L = H = −1.02 D + 0.235 Q 2/5
where
L, H, and D are in meters
𝑄̇ is the heat release of the pool fire in kW

However, if the actual lower heat of combustion (Hc) and the actual mass stoichiometric ratio of air to volatiles (r) are known or
if atmospheric conditions deviate significantly from normal, the following equation should be used:

27
 L = −1.02 D + AQ
2/5

where
1/5
 c pT 
A = 15.6  
 g  ( H c / r ) 
2 3

What is this r?
At the mean flame height, L(ΔTL = 500 K)
ment, L (kg/s) = 0.0058Qc (kW)

At and below the mean flame height, L, for fire source diameters of 0.3 m and greater
z
ment (kg/s) = 0.0058Qc (kW)
L
Temperature of Smoke in a Plume
𝑇 = 𝑇∞ + 𝑄𝑐0.6 /𝑀𝑐𝜌
T = temperature of smoke in plume (F)
T∞ = ambient temperature (F)
Qc = convective heat release rate (kW or Btu/s)
M = mass flow rate of plume (kW/s or lb/s)
cp = specific heat of air at constant pressure (1 kJ/kg-K or 0.24 Btu/lb-oF)

Plume Centerline Temperature Rise

1/3
 T  −5/3
T0 = 9.1   Qc ( z − z0 )
2/3
 g  c 22
   

where
T0 = T0 – T∞
T0 = temperature rise on centerline (K)
T0 = centerline Temperature (K)
T∞ = ambient temperature (K) = 273.16 K
g = gravity = 9.81 m/s2
cp = specific heat of air at constant pressure = 1 kJ/kg K
∞ = ambient density = 1.2 kg/m3
Qc = convective heat release rate (kW)
z = elevation of interest
z0 = virtual origin = -1.02D+0.083Q2/5
D = effective diameter (m)
Q = total heat release rate (kW)

28
 Plume Radius to Point Where Temperature Rise Has Declined to 0.5 TO
1
𝑇0 2
𝑏∆𝑇 = 0.12 ( ) (𝑧 − 𝑧0 )
𝑇∞
where
bT = plume radius (m)
T0 = centerline temperature (K)
T∞ = ambient temperature (K)
z = elevation above fire source
z0 = elevation of virtual origin (m)

Plume Centerline Velocity

1/3 1
𝑔
𝑢𝑂 = 3.4 ( ) 𝑄𝑐3 (𝑧 − 𝑧0 )−1/3
𝑐𝜌 𝜌∞ 𝑇∞
where
Qc = convective heat release rate (kW)
g = gravity = 9.81 m/s2
T∞ = ambient temperature (K)
cp = specific heat of air at constant pressure = 1 kJ/kg K
∞ = ambient density
z0 = virtual origin
z = elevation of interest

Plume Entrainment
Hot gases from a fire rise due to the effects of buoyancy that results from elevated temperature of the gas. The gas plume that is
formed entrains the surrounding ambient air so that the plume radius continues to get larger as the gases rise.

Correlations for plume entrainment are available for axisymmetrical, wall, corner, and balcony spill plumes. In general, the
flame height must be calculated to determine the appropriate entrainment equation. The flame height may be termed the
limiting height. 2/5
Flame height Zl=0.166Qc
To calculate the plume entrainment rate or mass flow rate for axisymmetrical plumes, the mean flame height is needed in order
to determine the proper equation to use. Plume entrainment rate above the flame is:
̇⁄ ⁄
𝑚̇𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 0.71𝑄̇𝑐1 3 (𝑧 − 𝑧0 )5⁄3 [1 + 0.027𝑄̇𝑐2 3 (𝑧 − 𝑧0 )−5⁄3 ] Z > Zl
SI
0.071
The axisymmetrical plume entrainment can be calculated using
⁄
𝑚̇𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 0.71𝑄̇𝑐1 3 (𝑧 − 𝑧0 )5⁄3 + 0.002𝑄̇𝑐 Z > Zl
SI
0.071
Tailored for atriums, where z is generally much greater than z0. Therefore, the equation is simplified by excluding z0.
⁄
SI 𝑚̇𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 0.71𝑄̇𝑐1 3 𝑧 5⁄3 + 0.0018𝑄̇𝑐 Z >> Z
Same as Page 87, l

7.2.3 0.071

kg/s kW

29
 Weak Plume Relations for Point Sources
The plume radius and centerline values for mean excess temperature and mean velocity follow these equations:
𝑇0 1/2
𝑏∆𝑇 = 0.12 ( ) (𝑧 − 𝑧0 )
𝑇∞
1/3
𝑇∞ 2/3
∆𝑇0 = 9.1 ( ) 𝑄𝑐̇ (𝑧 − 𝑧0 )−5/3
𝑔 𝑐𝑝2 𝜌∞
2
1/3
𝑔 1/3
𝑢0 = 3.4 ( ) 𝑄𝑐̇ (𝑧 − 𝑧0 )−1/3
𝑐𝑝 𝜌∞ 𝑇∞
where
𝑏∆𝑇 = plume radius to the point where the temperature ruse has declined to 0.5 ∆𝑇0
∆𝑇0 = centerline temperature
𝑄𝑐̇ = convective heat release rate kW
z = elevation above the fire source m
z0 = elevation of the virtual origin above the fire source

For normal atmospheric conditions:

T∞ = 293 K
g = 9.81 m/s2
cp = 1.00 kJ/kg K
ρ∞ = 1.2 kg/m3
1/3
𝑇∞
The factor 9.1 ( 2 𝜌2 ) has a value of 25.0 K m5/3 kW-2/3
𝑔 𝑐𝑝 ∞
1/3
𝑔
The factor 3.4 ( ) has a value of 1.03 m4/3s-1kW-1/3
𝑐𝑝 𝜌∞ 𝑇∞

Smoldering Combustion
The core of any combustion process is a global exothermic reaction that results in the release of heat and both gaseous and solid
products. Whether smoldering or flaming will be the dominant mode is dictated by which chemical species is oxidized. If the
oxidation takes place in the solid phase, smoldering is dominant; if the oxidation takes place in the gas phase, then flaming
dominates.
This information has been reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

3.4.8.1 General Characteristics of Smoldering Combustion

The characteristic temperature, spread rate, and power of smoldering combustion are low compared to flaming combustion.
Typical peak temperatures for smoldering are in the range of 450°C to 700°C, although very energetic and dense fuels such as
coal can reach peaks at around 1,000°C. The effective heat of combustion taking into account the combustion efficiency is in
the range from 6 to 12 kJ/g. These are much lower compared to typical values of around 1,500°C and 16–30 kJ/g respectively
for flaming combustion. The heat release rate per unit area of burning front is low and ranges from 10 to 30 kW/m 2. Because of
these characteristics and despite the considerable variation in the chemical nature of smoldering fuels, smoldering spreads in a
creeping fashion, typically around 1 mm/min, which is two orders of magnitude slower than flame spread.

Forward propagation occurs when the oxygen supply is moving in the direction of the smolder front. Opposed propagation (also
called reverse) occurs when the oxygen supply is moving opposite to the smolder front. In general, real smoldering fires are
multidimensional and cannot be classified into a single mode.

Forward smolder is faster than opposed under the same fuel and oxidizer supply and allows for more complete combustion of
the fuel.
This information has been reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

30
3.4.8.2 Suppression of Smoldering Combustion
A smoldering fire can be extraordinarily difficult to suppress. Experiments on heaps of coal show that smoldering requires large
amounts of water. For example, the amount of water required to suppress smoldering coal was measured to be in the range from
1 to 2l of water per kg of burning fuel. Moreover, smoldering requires lower oxygen concentration to be smothered, around
10% O2, compared to 16% O2 for flaming.

The CO/CO2 ratio, which can be thought of as an index of the incompleteness of combustion, is ~0.4 in smoldering but ~0.1 in
flaming combustion.
This information has been reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

3.4.8.3 Gas Emissions

The mean particle size of the aerosol in smoldering cellulose was measured to be in the range of 2 to 3 μm; this is about 50–200
times larger than the sooty particulates produced by flaming combustion.
This information has been reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Opposed-Flow Flame Spread

φ is a parameter that can be quantified with bench scale testing.

𝜙
𝑉𝑝 ≈ 2
𝑘𝜌𝑐 (𝑇𝑖𝑔 − 𝑇0 )

Wind-Aided Flame Spread Velocity on Thermally Thick Solid

Figure reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

The flame spread occurs in two manners: advancement of the flame front and advancement of the ignition front of the solid
surface. The location of the ignition front is identified as the location where the surface temperature has reached the ignition
temperature.

31
 4𝑞̇ "2𝑓𝑐 𝛿𝑓𝑐 (𝑥𝑓𝑐 − 𝑥𝑝 )
𝑉𝑝 = 2 = ∗
𝜋𝑘𝜌𝑐 (𝑇𝑖𝑔 − 𝑇0 ) 𝑡𝑖𝑔
where
𝑉𝑝 = characteristic steady flame spread velocity
𝑥𝑓𝑐 = characteristic flame height
𝑥𝑓𝑐 = 𝑥𝑝 + 𝛿𝑓𝑐
𝑥𝑝 = pyrolysis front length
∗
𝑡𝑖𝑔 = characteristic time to ignition
2
∗ 𝜋𝑘𝜌𝑐 (𝑇𝑖𝑔 − 𝑇0 )
𝑡𝑖𝑔 = ⁄
4 𝑞̇ "2𝑓𝑐
𝛿𝑓𝑐 = characteristic preheat distance, essentially the distance between the flame front and the ignition front

Flammable and Combustible Liquids Fires

Pool Fires Mass Loss Rate

"
𝑚" = 𝑚∞ (1 − 𝑒 −𝑘𝛽𝐷 )
m" = large pool burning rate
m"∞ = mass loss rate for an infinite pool diameter (p. 3-37)
D = pool diameter
k = extinction absorption coefficient (see Section 11.12)

Liquid Fuel Flame Height (Mean Flame Height)

ℎ = 0.235𝑄̇ 2/5 − 1.02𝐷
where
h = flame height (m)
𝑄̇ = total heat release rate of fire (kW)
D = diameter of fire (m)
Note: Equivalent diameter for noncircular shapes: D = √4𝐴/𝜋 if L/w ~ 1.

Also: Q = 37(L+1.02D)5/2
L = mean flame height (m)

Note: 0.235 is an average applicable to many gaseous and liquid fuels under normal atmospheric conditions (Hc/r within the
range of 2,900–3,200 kJ/kg).
What does this
Burning Duration of Pool Fire r represent?
Bd = Mass of Liquid/Mass Burning Rate: ml/m" (minutes)
where
ml = (volume of liquid (L)) * (density of liquid (ρ))
m" = mass burning rate per unit area
ρ = density of liquid (kg/m3)

32
 HRR from Liquid Pool Fire
The empirical relationship for predicting the heat release rate from liquid pool fires is
′′
𝑞̇ = Δℎ𝑐 𝑚̇∞ (1 − 𝑒 −𝑘𝛽𝐷 )𝐴
where
D = pool diameter m
′′
𝑚̇∞ = mass loss rate for an infinite pool diameter
-kβ = extinction absorption coefficient
Δhc = net heat of combustion
A = area of pool m2
This equation incorporates the burning rate per unit area.

Compartment Fires
Compartment fires are often discussed in terms of growth stages:
• Ignition
• Growth
• Flashover
• Fully developed
• Decay

Temperature rise over time of a typical room fire in the absence of fire control

Figure reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

This information has been reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

The total surface area of a compartment is calculated as:

𝐴 𝑇 = 𝐴𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑟 + 𝐴𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑠 + 𝐴𝑐𝑒𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 − 𝐴𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠

Ventilation Factor
The ventilation factor is defined as:
𝐴𝑂 √𝐻𝑂
2
AO = area of opening (m )
HO = height of opening (m)

33
 Pre-Flashover Compartment Temperatures – with Mechanical Ventilation
The following is an equation for forced ventilation fires based on the method of Foote et al:
0.72
∆𝑇𝑔 𝑄 ℎ 𝐴
𝑇∞
= 0.63 (𝑚 ) (𝑚𝑘 𝑐𝑇 )-0.36
𝑔 𝑇∞ 𝑐𝑝 𝑔 𝑝
where
∆Tg = Tg – T∞
∆Tg = upper gas temperature rise above ambient (Kelvin)
Tg = upper gas temperature (Kelvin)
T∞ = ambient gas temperature (Kelvin) m2
Q = total heat release rate (kW)
hk = effective heat transfer coefficient ((kW/m)/Kelvin)
AT = total area of compartment enclosing surfaces (m2)
cp = specific heat of gas (kJ/kg-K)
mg = compartment mass ventilation rate (kg/s)
mg is (m3/s)(1.18 kg/m3) {5,000 cfm ~ 2.4 m3/s}

Pre-Flashover Compartment Temperatures – with Natural Ventilation

2 1
−3
3
𝑄 ℎ𝑘 𝐴 𝑇
∆𝑇𝑔 = 480 ( ) ( )
√𝑔(𝑐𝑝 𝜌∞ 𝑇∞ 𝐴𝑂 )√𝐻𝑂 √𝑔(𝑐𝑝 𝜌∞ 𝐴𝑂 )√𝐻𝑂
where
∆Tg = Tg – T∞
Method of McCaffrey, Quintiere, Harkleroad
∆Tg = upper gas temperature rise above ambient (Kelvin)
Tg = upper gas temperature (Kelvin)
T∞ = ambient gas temperature (Kelvin)
Q = total heat release rate (kW)
hk = effective heat transfer coefficient (thermal inertia) m2
hk = (kcr/t)½ (Note: c,r may not be same) (kW/m*Kelvin)
AT = total area of compartment enclosing surfaces (m2)
AO = area of opening (m2)
HO = height of opening (m)
g = 9.8 m/s2
cp = 1.05kJ/kg*K (specific heat)
r∞ = 1.2 kg/m3 (density)
T∞ = 295 K (Kelvin)

34
 Pre-Flashover Compartment Temperatures – with Natural Ventilation at Standard
Temperature and Pressure
The following is a simplified equation for naturally ventilated fire assuming typical values for ambient conditions, based on the
method of McCaffrey et al:
1/3
𝑄2
∆𝑇𝑔 = 6.85 ( )
ℎ𝑘 𝐴 𝑇 𝐴𝑂 √𝐻𝑂
where Simplified 3.6.3 Method of McCaffrey, Quintiere, Harkleroa
∆Tg = Tg – T∞
∆Tg = upper gas temperature rise above ambient (Kelvin)
Tg = upper gas temperature (Kelvin)
T∞ = ambient gas temperature (Kelvin) m2
Q = total heat release rate (kW)
hk = effective heat transfer coefficient ((kW/m)/Kelvin)
AT = total area of compartment enclosing surfaces (m2)
AO = area of opening (m2)
HO = height of opening (m)

McCaffrey Flashover Heat Release Equations

1/2
𝑄𝑓𝑙 = 610(ℎ𝑘 𝐴 𝑇 𝐴𝑂 √𝐻𝑂 )
where
Qfl = heat release rate required for flashover (kW) m2
hk = effective heat transfer coefficient ((kW/m)/K)
AT = total area of compartment surfaces (m2)
AO = area of opening (m2)
HO = height of opening (m)

where time of exposure (t) > thermal penetration time (tp)

𝑘
ℎ𝑘 =
𝛿
hk = (krc/t)½ where t <= tp
k = thermal conductivity of wall material
 = thickness
rho
tp = (rc/k)(d/2)2
3
r = density of compartment surface (kg/m )
c = specific heat of compartment surface material (kJ/m-K) m2
k = thermal conductivity of compartment surface (kW/ m-K)
d = thickness of compartment surface (m)

Flashover References
Flashover is at 20 kW/m2 or 500–600C.

35
 Heat Release Rate Needed for Flashover
This is a simplified method for predicting the heat release rated needed to cause flashover, using the Babrauskas method:

𝑄̇ = 750 𝐴𝑂 √𝐻𝑂 Check

Using the Thomas method, the equation is as follows:

Q = 7.8 AT + 378 AO ( H O )
1/ 2

where
AT = total area of the compartment enclosing surfaces (m 2)
AO = area of opening (m2), = height of opening (m)
Q = heat release rate required to cause flashover (kW)

Post Flashover Compartment Temperature

Use Law's formula to calculate post-flashover compartment fire temperatures
(1 − 𝑒 −0.1Ω )
𝑇𝑔(max) = 6,000
√Ω

(𝐴 𝑇 − 𝐴𝑜)
Ω=
𝐴𝑜√𝐻𝑜
where
AT = total area of the compartment enclosing surfaces (m 2)
AO = area of opening (m2)
HO = height of opening (m)
𝑇𝑔 = 𝑇𝑔(𝑚𝑎𝑥) (1 − 𝑒 −0.05Ψ )

Tg = average temperature in the compartment (ºC)

Ψ = L/(AO(AT–AO))1/2
L = fire load equiv. to wood (kg)
Ψ fire loading calculation can be assumed 1 where only upper layer temperature is requested

36
Transient Ceiling Jet Flow in a Room

Figure reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Ceiling Jet Flows Beneath an Unconfined Ceiling

Figure reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

37
Equations below are for axisymmetric fires, where the fire source is away from the enclosure walls. These correlations were
developed for data where the fire source was at a distance from the enclosure walls of at least 1.8 times the ceiling height.
Where the fire source is against a flat wall, use 2𝑄̇ instead of 𝑄̇ . Where the fire source is in a 90° corner, use 4𝑄̇ instead of 𝑄̇ .

3.6.10.1 Weak Plume-Driven Temperature of Ceiling Jet (Alpert)

2
𝑄̇ 3
𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑇∞ = 16.9 5
𝐻3

for r/H ≤ 0.18

2 5
𝑄̇3 /𝐻 3
𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑇∞ = 5.38
𝑟 2
( )3
𝐻

for r/H > 0.18

where
Tmax = maximum temperature (C)
𝑇∞ = ambient temperature (C)
𝑄̇ = convective heat release rate (kW) Total HRR
H = distance from fire source to the ceiling (m)
r = radial distance from plume centerline (m)

3.6.10.2 Weak Plume-Driven Velocity of Ceiling Jet (Alpert)

𝑄̇
𝑈 = 0.947 ( )1/3
𝐻

for r/H ≤ 0.15

𝑄̇ 𝑟
𝑈 = 0.197 ( )1/3 /( )5/6
𝐻 𝐻

for r/H > 0.15

where
U = maximum ceiling jet gas velocity (m/s)
𝑄̇ = convective heat release rate (kW) Total HRR
H = distance from fire source to the ceiling (m)
r = radial distance from plume centerline (m)

Many of the correlations described hereafter were developed from tests involving heat release rates that ranged from 600 kW to
98 MW and total ceiling heights that ranged from 4.6 m to 18 m. These data should be considered limitations when using the
correlations.

3.6.10.3 Strong Plume-Driven Plume Fields

When the flame height is comparable to the ceiling height above the burning fuel, the resulting ceiling jet is driven by a strong
plume.

38
 Vent Flows
Two-layer method
𝜌𝑎 −𝜌 1⁄2
Outflow 𝑢𝑢 = (2𝑔 𝑦)
𝜌
where
uu = velocity of the upper layer (m/s)
y = distance above the neutral plane

2
𝑚̇𝑢 = 𝐶𝑏√2𝑔𝜌(𝜌𝑎 − 𝜌)(ℎ𝑣 − ℎ𝑛 )3⁄2
3
where
𝑚̇𝑢 = mass flow rate of the upper layer (kg/s) hv=
b = width of the vent hn=
C = experimentally determined flow coefficient (0.68)

Mass conservation
d
( VR ) =  ( −mi j + m j i )
dt
Heat conservation
d
cp ( VRT ) = Q − Qh + c p  ( −mi jT + m j iTj )
dt
Ideal gas law
Mp
T =
R
where
j = index of adjacent room connected by vents with the room considered
V, VR = volume of the room
mi j = mass outflow rate from room i to an adjacent room j

m ji = mass inflow rate to room i from an adjacent room j

Q = heat release rate of fire source

Qh = heat loss from the room gas due to heat transfer

 = summation with respect to all the vents between all the adjacent rooms
This information has been reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Figure reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

39
Mass inflow and outflow rates through the vent, md and mu, are given as a function of the neutral plan height, hn:
√2 ⁄
𝑚̇𝑑 = 𝐶𝑏√2𝑔𝜌𝑎 (𝜌𝑎 − 𝜌)ℎ𝑛3 2
3

√2
𝑚̇𝑢 = 𝐶𝑏√2𝑔𝜌𝑎 (𝜌𝑎 − 𝜌)(ℎ𝑣 − ℎ𝑛 )3⁄2
3

ℎ𝑣 ℎ𝑣
ℎ𝑛 = =
𝜌𝑎 1⁄3 𝑇 1⁄3
1+( ) 1+( )
𝜌 𝑇𝑎

Required Smoke Vent Area

Figure reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

1. Calculate the plume flow rate at height, yc:

⁄
𝑚̇ = 0.08𝑄̇ 1⁄3 𝑦𝑐5 3
2. Calculate the smoke layer temperature:
𝑄̇
𝑇 = 𝑇𝑎 +
𝑐𝑝 𝑚 + 𝛼𝑘 𝐴𝑤
𝛼𝑘 = effective heat transfer coefficient (kW/m2K)

3. Calculate the smoke layer density:

352.8
𝜌=
𝑇
4. Calculate the pressure at floor level:
𝑚̇2
Δ𝑝(0) =
2𝜌𝑎 (𝐶𝐴𝑑 )2
5. Calculate the pressure at the smoke vent:
Δ𝑝(ℎ𝑒 ) = −Δ𝑝(0) + (𝜌𝑎 − 𝜌)𝑔(ℎ𝑒 − 𝑦𝑐 )
6. Calculate the smoke vent area, Ae:
𝑚̇
𝐴𝑒 =
𝐶√2𝜌Δ𝑝(ℎ𝑒 )

This information has been reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

40
 Smoke Characterization and Damage Potentials
The governing mode of smoke deposition is primarily dependent on whether the transport flow is turbulent or laminar and on
the particle size. The flow type can be classified by the magnitude of the particle Reynolds number:

𝜌𝑔 𝑑𝑝 𝑉
𝑅𝑒𝑝 =
𝜂
where
ρg = gas density
dp = particle diameter
V = particle velocity
η = gas viscosity

Laminar flow occurs when the Reynolds number is less than 1 (Re p < 1).
Turbulent flow occurs when the Reynolds number is greater than 1 (Re p > 1).

3.6.13.1 Laminar Flow – Smoke Particles > 1 μm

The following equation applies for smoke particles > 1μm
𝜌𝑝 𝑑𝑝2 𝑔
𝑉𝑇𝑆 =
18𝜂
where g is the gravitational acceleration.

3.6.13.2 Laminar Flow – Smoke Particles < 1 μm

The following equation for slip correction applies for smoke particles < 1μm
2.52 𝛬
𝐶𝑐 = 1 +
𝑑𝑝
where
Λ is mean free path, which is 0.066 μm for air at 1 atm and 20°C.

This slip correction factor applies to the right-hand side of the equation for Laminar Flow – Smoke Particles > 1 μm, increasing
the terminal settling velocity.

3.6.13.3 Turbulent Flow – Smoke Particles > 1 μm

1/2
4𝜌𝑝 𝑑𝑝 𝑔
𝑉𝑇𝑆 = [ ]
3𝐶𝐷 𝜌𝑔
where
CD is the drag coefficient

3.6.13.4 For Reynolds Number Greater than 1 and Less than 1,000 (1 < Rep < 1,000)
24
𝐶𝐷 = (1 + 0.15𝑅𝑒𝑝0.687 )
𝑅𝑒𝑝

41
3.6.13.5 Turbulent Flow – Smoke Particles < 1 μm
Drag Coefficient Versus Particle Reynolds Number

Figure reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

𝑘𝛽 𝑇𝐶𝑐
𝐷=
3𝜋𝜂𝑑𝑝
where
D = particles' diffusion coefficient
kβ = Stephan-Boltzmann constant
T = absolute temperature

Light Transmission Through Smoke

𝐼
= exp(−𝑂𝐷𝜆 𝑙)
𝐼0
where
I = transmitted intensity (cd)
I0 = initial intensity (cd)
ODλ = optical density (m-1)
l = optical path length (m)

𝑂𝐷𝜆 𝜆
𝑓𝑣 =
𝑐
where
λ = incident wavelength
c = average coefficient of smoke extinction

42
 Smoke Mass Concentration
𝜌𝑠 𝑂𝐷𝜆 𝜆
𝐶𝑠 = 𝜌𝑠 𝑓𝑣 =
𝑐
ODλ = optical density (m-1)
λ = incident wavelength
c = average coefficient of smoke extinction

Thermal settling velocity is

𝜌0 𝑑𝑎2 𝑔
𝑉𝑇𝑆 =
18𝜂

Aerodynamic Mass Mean Diameter of Smoke from Flaming Plasticsa

Figure reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Mass Burning Rate

The formula to estimate the mass burning rate of the fuel can be given as:
𝑚̇𝑓 = 𝑞𝐴/𝐿
where
𝑚̇𝑓 = mass burning rate of the fuel (kg/s)
q = heat flux to the fuel surface (kW/m2)
A = surface area of the fuel (m2)
L = heat of gasification (kJ/kg)

The rate of energy release is equal to the mass loss rate of the fuel time the heat of combustion of the fuel:
𝑄̇ = 𝑚̇𝑓 Δℎ𝑐
where
𝑄̇ = energy release rate of the fire (kW)
𝑚̇𝑓 = mass burning rate of the fuel (kg/s)
Δhc = effective heat of combustion of the fuel (kJ/kg)

43
 Heat Release Rate
𝑄̇ = 𝑚̇𝑔 𝑐𝑝 (𝑇𝑔 − 𝑇∞ ) + 𝑞𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
where
𝑄̇ = energy release rate of the fire (kW)
𝑚̇𝑔 = gas flow rate out the opening (kg/s)
𝑐𝑝 = specific heat of gas (kJ/kg · K)
Tg = temperature of the upper gas layer (K)
𝑇∞ = ambient temperature (K)
𝑞𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = net radiative and convective heat transfer from the upper gas layer (kW)

Rate of Heat Transfer to Surfaces

The rate of heat transfer to the surfaces is approximated by
𝑞𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = ℎ𝑘 𝐴 𝑇 (𝑇𝑔 − 𝑇∞ )
where
ℎ𝑘 = effective heat transfer coefficient (kW/m2K)
𝐴 𝑇 = total area of the compartment enclosing surfaces (m 2)

Heat Release Rate with Natural Ventilation

1⁄2
𝑄̇ = 610(ℎ𝑘 𝐴 𝑇 𝐴𝑂 √𝐻𝑂 )
where
ℎ𝑘 = effective heat transfer coefficient (kW/m2K)
𝐴 𝑇 = total area of the compartment enclosing surfaces (m 2)
𝐴𝑂 = area of opening (m2)
𝐻𝑂 = height of opening (m)

Alternatively, the equation is sometimes expressed using a coefficient of 620 (instead of 610). This is based on a difference in
the value used for the specific heat of air. The use of either 610 or 620 is acceptable within the accuracy of the expression.
This information has been reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

44
 Fire-Generated Environmental Conditions
(𝑄𝑓 ⁄𝑉 )
𝜌𝑌𝑖 =
(Δ𝐻𝑐 ⁄𝑓𝑖 )
where
𝜌𝑌𝑖 = mass concentration of species i (kgi/m3)
(𝑄𝑓 ⁄𝑉 ) = fire heat release per unit volume of the control volume (kJ/m 3)
(Δ𝐻𝑐 ⁄𝑓𝑖 ) = species heat of combustion (kJ/kgi)

Δ𝐻𝑐 𝜒𝑂2 ,𝑙𝑖𝑚 (1 − 𝜒1 )

Δ𝑇𝑔,𝑙𝑖𝑚 =
𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑐𝑝

𝐾 = 𝐾𝑚 𝜌𝑌𝑠𝑜𝑜𝑡
where
𝐾𝑚 = specific light extinction coefficient
Suggested: 7,600 m2/kg for flaming combustion; 4,400 m2/kg for smoke produced by pyrolysis; and 8,700 m2/kg for
flaming combustion of wood and plastic fuels
Ysoot = soot mass concentration

𝐼
= e−𝐾𝐿
𝐼0
𝐶
𝑆=
𝐾
where
S = visibility distance (m)
C = nondimensional constant associated with the object being viewed through smoke
Suggested: 8 for light-emitting signs; 3 for light-reflecting signs
K = light extinction coefficient

This information has been reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

45
4 WATER-BASED EXTINGUISHING SYSTEMS
Fluid Mechanics

Density, Specific Volume, Specific Weight, and Specific Gravity

The definitions of density, specific weight, and specific gravity follow:

 = limit m /  V
V →0

 = limit W /  V
V →0

 = limit g m / V = g
V →0

Also
SG =  /  w =  /  w

ρ = density (also called mass density)

m = mass of infinitesimal volume
V = volume of infinitesimal object considered
 = specific weight = g
W = weight of an infinitesimal volume
SG = specific gravity
ρw = density of water at standard conditions = 1,000 kg/m 3 (62.4 lbm/ft3)
 = specific weight of water at standard conditions = 9,810 N/m 3 (62.4 lbf/ft3) = 9,810 kg/(m2•s2)

Characteristic of a Static Liquid

The pressure field in a static liquid

The difference in pressure between two different points is

𝑃2 − 𝑃1 = −𝛾(𝑧2 − 𝑧1 ) = −𝛾ℎ = −𝜌gℎ

Absolute pressure = atmospheric pressure + gauge pressure reading

Absolute pressure = atmospheric pressure – vacuum gauge reading

Bober, W., and R.A. Kenyon, Fluid Mechanics, Wiley, 1980.

46
 Principles of One-Dimensional Fluid Flow
Continuity equation
So long as the flow Q is continuous, the continuity equation, as applied to one-dimensional flows, states that the flow
passing two points (1 and 2) in a stream is equal at each point, A1v1 = A2v2.
Q = Av
m = Q = Av
Q = volumetric flowrate
𝑚̇ = mass flowrate
A = cross-sectional area of flow
v = average flow velocity
 = the fluid density

For steady, one-dimensional flow, 𝑚̇ is a constant. If, in addition, the density is constant, then Q is constant.

Energy equation
The energy equation for steady incompressible flow with no shaft device is
𝑃1 𝑣12 𝑃2 𝑣22
+ 𝑧1 + = + 𝑧2 + + ℎ𝑓
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔
or
𝑃1 𝑣12 𝑃2 𝑣22
+ 𝑧1 + = + 𝑧2 + + ℎ𝑓
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔

where hf = the head loss, considered a friction effect, and all remaining terms are defined above.

If the cross-sectional area and the elevation of the pipe are the same at both sections (1 and 2), then z1 = z2 and v1 =
v2. The pressure drop P1 – P2 is given by the following:

P1 – P2 =  hf = ghf

Bernoulli equation
The field equation is derived when the energy equation is applied to one-dimensional flows. Assuming no friction losses and
that no pump or turbine exists between sections 1 and 2 in the system,

𝑃2 𝑣22 𝑃1 𝑣12
+ + 𝑧2 = + + 𝑧1
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔

or

𝑃2 𝑣22 𝑃1 𝑣12
+ + 𝑧2 𝑔 = + + 𝑧1 𝑔
𝜌 2 𝜌 2

P1, P2 = pressure at sections 1 and 2

v1, v2 = average velocity of the fluid at the sections
z1, z2 = vertical distance from a datum to the sections (the potential energy)
 = specific weight of the fluid (g)
g = acceleration of gravity
 = fluid density

47
For water, use field equation (English units), without friction loss:
𝑣12 𝑣22
2.31P1 + +h1 = 2.31P2 + +h2
2 2

Conservation equation
𝜌𝑉 2
𝑝𝑇 = 𝑝 + + 𝜌𝑔𝑍
2
pT = total pressure (psi)
p = normal pressure (psi)
 = fluid density in mass per unit volume
V = fluid velocity (ft/s)
g = gravitational constant
Z = vertical distance from an arbitrary elevation
H = pluses and minuses due to pumps, elevation changes, flowing heads, etc.

Hydraulic gradient (grade line)

Hydraulic grade line is the line connecting the sum of pressure and elevation heads at different points in conveyance systems. If
a row of piezometers were placed at intervals along the pipe, the grade line would join the water levels in the piezometer water
columns.

Energy line (Bernoulli equation)

The Bernoulli equation states that the sum of the pressure, velocity, and elevation heads is constant. The energy line is this sum
or the "total head line" above a horizontal datum. The difference between the hydraulic grade line and the energy line is the
v2/2g term.

Fluid Flow Characterization

Reynolds number
v𝐷𝜌 v𝐷
𝑅𝑒 = =
𝜇 ʋ

v (2−𝑛) 𝐷𝑛 𝜌
𝑅𝑒 ′ =
3𝑛 + 1 𝑛
𝐾 ( 4𝑛 ) 8(𝑛−1)

where
v = fluid velocity
 = mass density
D = diameter of the pipe, dimension of the fluid streamline, or characteristic length
 = dynamic viscosity
ʋ = kinematic viscosity
Re = Reynolds number (Newtonian fluid)
Re' = Reynolds number (power law fluid)

K and n are defined in the Stress, Pressure, and Viscosity section.

The critical Reynolds number (Re)c is defined to be the minimum Reynolds number at which a flow will turn turbulent.
Flow through a pipe is generally characterized as laminar for Re < 2,100 and fully turbulent for Re > 10,000, and
transitional flow for 2,100 < Re < 10,000.

48
The velocity distribution for laminar flow in circular tubes or between planes is
𝑟 2
v(𝑟) = v𝑚𝑎𝑥 [1 − ( ) ]
𝑅
where
r = distance (m) from the centerline
R = radius (m) of the tube or half the distance between the parallel planes
v = local velocity (m/s) at r
vmax = velocity (m/s) at the centerline of the duct
v𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 1.18v̅, for fully turbulent flow
v𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2v̅, for circular tubes in laminar flow, and
v𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 1.5v̅, for parallel planes in laminar flow
where v̅ = average velocity (m/s) in the duct

The shear stress distribution is

𝜏 𝑟
=
𝜏𝑤 𝑅

where 𝜏 and 𝜏𝑤 are the shear stresses at radii r and R, respectively.

Consequences of Fluid Flow

Drag force
The drag force FD on objects immersed in a large body of flowing fluid or objects moving through a stagnant fluid is
𝐶𝐷 𝜌𝑣 2 𝐴
𝐹𝐷 =
2
where
CD = drag coefficient
v = velocity (m/s) of the flowing fluid or moving object
A = projected area (m2) of blunt objects such as spheres, ellipsoids, disks, and plates, cylinders, ellipses, and air foils
with axes perpendicular to the flow
 = fluid density

For flat plates placed parallel with the flow:

0.5 4 5
CD = 1.33/Re (10 < Re < 5 × 10 )
1/7 6 9
CD = 0.031/Re (10 < Re < 10 )

The characteristic length in the Reynolds number (Re) is the length of the plate parallel with the flow. For blunt objects, the
characteristic length is the largest linear dimension (diameter of cylinder, sphere, disk, etc.) that is perpendicular to the flow.

49
 General Water Flow Equations
Orifice discharging freely into atmosphere

𝑄 = 𝐶𝐴0 √2𝑔ℎ
in which h is measured from the liquid surface to the centroid of the orifice opening.

Q = volumetric flow
A0 = cross-sectional area of flow
g = acceleration of gravity
h = height of fluid above orifice

Multipath Pipeline Problems

𝐿𝐴 𝑣𝐴2 𝐿𝐵 𝑣𝐵2
ℎ𝐿 = 𝑓𝐴 = 𝑓𝐵
𝐷𝐴 2𝑔 𝐷𝐵 2𝑔
(𝜋𝐷2 /4)𝑣 = (𝜋𝐷𝐴2 /4)𝑣𝐴 + (𝜋𝐷𝐵2 /4)𝑣𝐵

Pitot Tube
From the stagnation pressure equation for an incompressible fluid,
𝑣 = √(2/𝑝)(𝑃0 − 𝑃𝑆 ) = √2𝑔(𝑃0 − 𝑃𝑆 )/𝛾
v = velocity of the fluid
P0 = stagnation pressure
PS = static pressure of the fluid at the elevation where the measurement is taken

50
For a compressible fluid, use the above incompressible fluid equation if the Mach number  0.3.

Fire Hydrants

Hydrant Flow Test

(𝑆 − 𝑅2 )0.54
𝑄2 = 𝑄1
(𝑆 − 𝑅1 )0.54

Q = flow (gpm)
S = static pressure (psi)
R = residual pressure (psi) R1: test residual.; R2 desired residual

𝑄 = 29.84𝑐𝑑 2 √pitot
c = constant based upon hydrant outlet (0.9, 0.8, 0.7)
d = diameter of opening (inches)
pitot = velocity pressure of water exiting hydrant (psi)

NFPA Standard 291, Recommended Practice for Fire Flow Testing and Marking of Hydrants, Section 4.10.1.2

Pressure available at water supply (P)

𝑃 = (𝑃𝑅 − 𝑃𝑆 )(𝑄 ⁄𝑄𝑅 )1.85 + 𝑃𝑆
PS = static pressure from test; PR = res. pressure from test
Q = flow at which you want to know pressure
QR = flow at PR

51
 Fire Sprinkler Systems
The area of sprinkler coverage is taken as twice the maximum coverage in one direction times twice the maximum coverage in
the other direction.

Sprinkler Flow Using Sprinkler K-Factor

𝑄 = 𝑘 ∗ √𝑝
k = nominal orifice coefficient
Q = system flow gpm
P = system pressure psi

Sprinkler Flow Normal Pressure

𝑃𝑛 = 𝑃𝑡 − 𝑃𝑣
Pn = normal pressure
Pt = total pressure
Pv = velocity pressure

Sprinkler Flow Velocity Pressure

0.001123𝑄2⁄
𝑃𝑣 = 𝑑4
Pv = velocity pressure (psi)
Q = flow prior to orifice (gpm)
d = pipe inside diameter prior to orifice (inches)

Dry System Water Delivery

Time to trip a dry pipe sprinkler system per FM Global research:
𝑉𝑇 𝑝𝑎0
𝑡 = 0.0352 1⁄ ln ( )
𝑝𝑎
𝐴𝑛 𝑇0 2

where
t = time (s)
VT = dry volume of sprinkler system (ft3)
T0 = air temperature (ºR)
An = flow area of open sprinklers (ft2)
Pa0 = initial air pressure (absolute)
Pa = trip pressure (absolute)

Hydraulic Calculations

Pressure Due to Elevation

P = 0.433H
P = pressure (psi)
H = height (ft)

52
 Hazen-Williams Pressure Loss
US Customary Units
4.52𝑄1.85
𝑝=
𝐶 1.85 𝑑𝑖 4.87
p = pressure loss per foot of pipe (psi)
Q = flow rate (gpm)
C = pipe roughness coefficient
di = internal pipe diameter (inches)
L = length of pipe (ft)

Δ𝑝𝑑𝑖4.87
0.54
4.52𝐿
0.54
Δ𝑝𝐶 1.85 𝑑𝑖4.87
𝑄 = 𝐶( ) 𝐶 = 𝑄( ) 𝐿=
4.52𝐿 Δ𝑝𝑑𝑖4.87 4.52𝑄1.85

SI Units
bar for pressure, liter
for volume SI unit? 6.05𝑄1.85
𝑃= × 105
𝐶 1.85 𝐷4.87
P = pressure loss (bars per meter of pipe)
Q = flow (liters/minute)
D = pipe diameter (mm)

For Underground Pipe

Note: Other values for aboveground piping are available within the provided reference standards.

Needs to provide data

Pipe Schedule Correction Factor
4.87
𝑑𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙
𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = ( )
𝑑𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑑 40
dactual = pipe diameter for schedule pipe being used (in)
dsched40 = pipe diameter for schedule 40 pipe (in)

53
 Darcy-Weisbach Friction Loss
𝐿𝑣 2
ℎ𝐿 = 𝑓
2𝐷g
hL = friction loss over a length of pipe
f = friction factor
L = length of pipe
v = fluid velocity
D = pipe diameter
g = gravitational constant

For laminar flow (Re < 2000)

64
𝑓= or Moody Diagram
𝑅𝑒
Re = Reynolds number

For hydraulically smooth or turbulent smooth

1 𝜀 ⁄𝐷 2.51
= −0.86 ln ( + )
√𝑓 3.7 𝑅𝑒√𝑓
or
−2
𝜀 9.35
𝑓 = [1.14 − 2 log ( + )]
𝐷 𝑅𝑒√𝑓

A chart that gives f versus Re for various values of ε/D, known as the Moody diagram, is available in this section.

Values of Absolute Roughness of Commercial Pipes

ε in ft × 10-6 Probable maximum variation
Type of pipe or tubing
Range Design of f from design (%)
New clean pipe
Asphalted cast iron 400 400 -5 to +5
Brass and copper 5 5 -5 to +5
Concrete 1,000 – 10,000 4,000 -35 to +50
Cast iron 850 850 -10 to +15
Galvanized iron 500 500 0 to +10
Wrought iron 150 150 -5 to +10
Steel 150 150 -5 to +10
Riveted steel 3,000 – 30,000 6,000 -25 to +75
Wood stave 600 – 3,000 2,000 -35 to +20
Aged pipe
Steel, dry system 1,250
Steel, wet system 333
Plastic 7
Copper 7
Notes: For ε values in meters, multiply the above numbers by 0.3048.
For ε values in inches, multiply the above numbers by 12.
Table reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

𝐷𝑒 𝑣𝜌
𝑅𝑒 =
𝜇
De = equivalent flow diameter
ρ = density
μ = absolute (dynamic) viscosity
𝐷𝑒 = 4𝑟ℎ
rh = hydraulic radius (area in flow divided by the wetted perimeter)

54
For fluids:
0.000216𝑓𝜌𝑄2
ℎ=
𝐷5
h = friction loss over a unit length of pipe
Q = flow rate

For water at 68°F

0.0135𝑓𝑙𝑄2
ℎ=
𝐷5
l = length of pipe

Alternate terms

𝑙𝜌𝑄2 50.6𝑄𝜌
Δ𝑃 = 0.000216𝑓 𝑅𝑒 =
𝑑5 𝑑𝜇

ΔP = friction loss (psi)

Q = flow (gpm)
d = internal diameter of the pipe (inches)
μ = viscosity (centipoises)

Piping Loops
𝑥
𝐿𝑖
Add 𝐴 = ∑[ ] 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐿𝑒𝑔 1 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝
𝑐𝑖1.85 𝑑𝑖4.87
𝑖=1
drawings
𝑦
𝐿𝑗
𝐵 = ∑[ 1.85 4.87 ] 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐿𝑒𝑔 2 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝
𝑐 𝑑𝑗
𝑗=1 𝑗
𝐵0.54
𝑄1 = 𝑄3 [ ]
(𝐴0.54 + 𝐵0.54 )
𝑄2 = 𝑄3 − 𝑄1
L = length of pipe (ft)
d = pipe diameter (in)
c = pipe C-factor
Q = pipe flow (gpm)

Equivalent Pipe:
Series: FLCe = FLC1 + FLC2 + FLC3 +....
Parallel: (1/FLCe)0.54 = (1/FLC1)0.54 + (1/FLC2)0.54 + (1/FLC3)0.54 +....

FLCe = 4.52Le/(Ce1.85De4.87)
Le = equivalent length of pipe (ft)
De = equivalent pipe diameter (in)
Ce = equivalent pipe C-factor
FLCe = equivalent pipe flow (gpm)

55
Moody, Darcy, or Stanton Friction Factor Diagram

56
Relative Roughness Chart

This figure reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth Edition with permission from SFPE.

57
 Water Hammer
Water hammer in a pipeline is caused by a sudden stoppage of flow and is characterized by loud noise and vibration. The
formula expressing the relationship between pressure and volume for water hammer is
Δ𝑉
Δ𝑝 = −𝐸
𝑉0
Δp = change in pressure (psi)
E = bulk modulus of elasticity
ΔV = change in volume
V0 = initial volume

Pressure shocks in fluids of infinite extent travel at a velocity given by

𝐾𝐸
𝑐∗ = √
𝜌
c* = celerity (velocity) of the shock wave
KE = kinetic energy of the fluid
ρ = fluid density

For a system composed of fluid and pipe

1 1 𝐷
= +
𝐸𝐶 𝐸 𝐸𝑝 𝑤
Ec = modulus of elasticity of a system composed of fluid and pipe
Ep = modulus of elasticity of the pipe material
D = pipe diameter
w = thickness of pipe wall

Modulus of Elasticity Ep of Various Pipe Materials

Table reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Shock wave in a pipe system of finite extent computed as

𝑐 1
∗
=
𝑐 √1 + 𝐸𝐷/(𝐸𝑃 𝑤)

The time for a shock to be absorbed into a larger energy field

𝐿
𝑡=
𝑐
L = distance from the energy reservoir to shock wave point of origin

58
The time period that the initial shock acts on a valve is
2𝐿
𝑇 = 2𝑡 =
𝑐

Theoretical magnitude of the pressure shock at instantaneous valve closure is 𝑝∗ = 𝜌𝑐Δ𝑣. The pressure will oscillate in the pipe
within the range 𝑝 = 𝑝0 ± 𝑝∗ .

Pressures Add equation for calculating Churn pressure:

Pchurn = Pcity + 1.4 P rated

Velocity Head
𝑄2⁄
ℎ𝑉 = 891𝑑 4
hv = velocity head (psi)
Q = flow rate (gpm)
d = pipe inside diameter (in)

Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH)

𝑁𝑃𝑆𝐻𝐴 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝑃𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 − 𝑓 − 𝑃𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟

NPSHA = net positive suction head available (psi)

Patm = atmospheric pressure (psi)
Pstatic = pressure tank pressure – elevation pressure (psi)
f = friction loss in line (psi)
Pvapor = vapor pressure (psig) adjusted for temperature and altitude, 0.256 psia represents water at 20ºC

Fire Pumps

Pump Affinity Laws

Law 1 – Constant Speed

𝑄1 𝑁1 𝐻1 𝑁12 𝑏ℎ𝑝1 𝑁13

= = =
𝑄2 𝑁2 𝐻2 𝑁22 𝑏ℎ𝑝2 𝑁23

Law 2 – Constant Diameter

𝑄1 𝐷1 𝐻1 𝐷12 𝑏ℎ𝑝1 𝐷13

= = =
𝑄2 𝐷2 𝐻2 𝐷22 𝑏ℎ𝑝2 𝐷23

Q = capacity (gpm)
N = specific speed number (rpm)
H = head (ft); pressure (psi)
bhp = brake horsepower
D = impeller diameter

59
 Fire Pump Total Head
𝐻 = ℎ𝑑 + ℎ𝑉𝑑 − ℎ𝑠 − ℎ𝑉𝑠
H = total head (ft)
hd = discharge head (ft)
hVd = discharge velocity head (ft)
𝑉𝑑2
ℎ𝑉𝑑 =
2𝑔
V = velocity (ft/sec) discharge or suction velocity
V = Q/A = gpm *(1 ft3/7.48 gal)*(1 min/60 s)*(1/A)

g = acceleration due to gravity (32.2 ft/s2)

hs = suction head (ft)
hVs = suction velocity head (ft)
𝑉𝑠2
ℎ𝑉𝑠 =
2𝑔

Pump Power Equation

𝑄𝛾ℎ 𝑄𝜌𝑔ℎ
𝑊̇ = =
𝜂𝑡 𝜂𝑡
Q = volumetric flow (cfs) (m3/s)
h = head (ft) (m) the fluid has to be lifted
ηt = total efficiency (ηpump × ηmotor)
𝑊̇ = power (ft-lbf/sec) (kg·m2/sec3)

Water Horsepower
𝑄ℎ
𝑊𝐻𝑃 =
3,960
WHP = water horsepower
Q = flow (gpm)
H = total dynamic head (ft)
Using the specific weight, γ, for water at 68ºF (20ºC)

Pump Brake Horsepower

𝐻 = (𝑃 × 600 × 𝐸)/𝑄
P = brake horsepower (kW)
Q = pump discharge (L/min)
H = pump discharge head (bar)
E = combined efficiency of the motor and gear drives (𝜂𝑑 × 𝜂𝑚 )

𝑄𝑃
𝑏ℎ𝑝 =
1,710𝐸
bhp = brake horsepower
hp = hydraulic horsepower = QP/1,710
Q = flow (gpm)
P = total pressure (psi) = (total head)*(0.433)
E = pump efficiency (decimal); usually 60 to 75%

Deratings for Altitude and Temperature:

Altitude: 3% for every 1,000 ft above 300 ft
Temperature: 1% for every 10oF above 77oF

60
 Diesel Fuel Tank Capacity
When a diesel fuel tank is needed to support the fire pump, the tank must be able to accommodate 1 gallon/bhp plus 5% for
expansion and 5% for sump.

Water Mist Fire Suppression Systems

Water mist fire protection systems refer to water sprays with no drops larger than 1.0 mm, or 1,000 μm (micrometers or
microns). Extinguishing mechanisms apply to extinguishment of Class B liquid fuel fires as well as Class A solid fuels. Water
mist systems can control or extinguish a fire by reducing the oxygen concentration below the limiting oxygen concentration
(LOC), wetting/cooling the fuel surface, or reducing radiant heat flux through radiation attenuation.

Water mist systems can be categorized based on several distinguishing factors. The four most important from a systems
engineering perspective are (a) the mode of application of the mist, (b) method of spray generation, (c) the pressure regime, and
(d) the means of providing the necessary system flow and pressure. There are several subcategories of systems, each with its
own specific technical features, such as single-fluid and twin-fluid systems, and constant pressure versus decaying pressure
discharges. The mode of application refers to how the system is intended to develop and deploy the mist within a given space or
environment and includes total compartment application (TCA); local application (LA); and zoned application (ZA) systems.
This information reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Water Mist System Definitions

Engineered water mist system
This is a system designed in the same manner as traditional sprinkler or water-spray system, based on criteria in the
manufacturer's design installation, operation, and maintenance manual. The designer applies these guidelines and performs
necessary calculations, such as hydraulic calculations, for the system.

High-pressure system
This is a system that operates at pressures above 500 psi (34.5 bar).

Intermediate-pressure system
This is a system that operates at pressures between 175 psi (12.1 bar) and 500 psi (34.5 bar).

Low-pressure system
This is a system that operates at pressures below 175 psi (12.1 bar).

NanoMist system
This is a system that has an ultrafine mist with very uniform drop size distribution with a volumetric mean droplet diameter in
the 10 μm range.

Pre-engineered water mist system

This is a system that has been developed for a hazard of a limited size and consistent features defining the compartment. It is
installed per the manufacturer specifications and does not require engineering calculations.

Single-fluid nozzles
These nozzles discharge water only.

Twin-fluid nozzles
These nozzles involve combining two independent streams of fluid, one of water and one of compressed gas, at a nozzle to
generate finely atomized spray.

This information reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

61
 Spray Heat Absorption Ratio (SHAR)
𝑄𝑤
𝑆𝐻𝐴𝑅 =
𝑄𝑓

Qw = evaporation of a given mass of water

Qf = heat given off by the fire

Required Extinguishing Medium Portion (REMP)

𝑚𝑒′
𝑅𝐸𝑀𝑃 =
𝑚g′

m'e = mass application rate of extinguishing agent required

m'g = mass rate of fuel consumed

Spray Characteristics
To fully characterize a spray requires information about the following elements:
• Drop size distribution (DSD)
• Cone angle
• Velocity of the discharge jet(s)
• Mass flow rate
• Spray momentum (product of velocity and mass)

62
5 SPECIAL HAZARD EXTINGUISHING SYSTEMS
Foam Agents

Test Average Effective Absorptivity for AFFF at

Different Expansion Ratios

This table reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition,
with permission from SFPE.

Surface Tension of Hydrocarbon Liquids and Fuels

This table reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition,
with permission from SFPE.

63
Interfacial Tensions, Spreading Coefficients, and Film Formation Observations for Various Surfactant Solution-
Hydrocarbon Liquid Combinations

This table reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Comparison of Design Criteria for Low-Expansion and High-Expansion Foam Systems

This table reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

64
 Low-Expansion Foam Systems
𝑄 = 𝐷 × 𝑇 × % + 𝐻𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚
Q = primary foam concentrate (gpm) (system + hose)
D = foam discharge rate (gpm)
T = discharge time
% = concentrate percent of foam (decimal)

Foam Discharge Rate

D=A×R
D = foam discharge rate (gpm)
A = surface area
For tanks = 0.785d2
R = rate of application

High-Expansion Foam Systems

𝑉
𝑅=( + 𝑅𝑆 ) 𝐶𝑁 𝑥 𝐶𝐿
𝑇
R = rate of discharge (cfm)
V = submergence volume (ft3)
(volume of combustible + 10% or 2 ft – whichever is greater)
CN = 1.15
CL = foam leakage coeff. (between 1.0 and 1.2)

𝑅𝑆 = 𝑆 × 𝑄
S = sprinkler breakdown rate (10 cfm/gpm)
Q = estimated sprinkler discharge (gpm)

65
Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Systems
Reference Properties of Carbon Dioxide

This table reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Specific Heat, Thermal Conductivity, Viscosity

This table reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

66
 Material Compatibility of Carbon Dioxide

This table reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Acute Health Effects of High Concentrations of Carbon Dioxide

too hard to read

This table reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

67
 Permissible Exposure Limits – US Standards

This table reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

CO2 Total Flooding

In a total flooding system, a specific design concentration of carbon dioxide is needed to promptly extinguish surface fires
under anticipated conditions. As such, the quantity of carbon dioxide required to achieve concentration C in an enclosure can be
calculated as follows
V 100
m= ln( )
s 100-C

m = quantity of CO2 (kg)

V = enclosure volume (m3)
s = specific volume of CO2 vapor at the enclosure temperature (m3/kg)
C = CO2 concentration (vol. %)

Minimum Extinguishing and Design Concentrations for Selected

Flammable Liquids
Material MEC, vol% DC, vol%

Acetone 27* 34

Acetylene 55 66

Carbon disulfide 60 72

Ethyl alcohol 36 43

Hexane 29 35

Methyl alcohol 33 40

Propane 30 36

*Calculated from accepted residual oxygen values

MEC – Minimum Extinguishing Concentration
DC – Design Concentration

This table reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition,
with permission from SFPE.

68
 Flooding Factors vs. Hazard Volume
Protected Flooding Minimum
Volume (VP), m3 Factor, kg/m3 Quantity, kg

≤ 3.96 1.15 -

3.97 to 14.15 1.07 4.5

14.16 to 45.28 1.01 15.1

45.29 to 127.35 0.9 45.4

127.35 to 1415 0.8 113.5

> 1415 0.74 1135

This table reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Material conversion factor

The material conversion factor is used to increase the base design quantity (m BD) for design concentrations exceeding 34%
carbon dioxide. The MCF is used to find the corrected design quantity (m cf) of carbon dioxide
100
MCF = 2.41ln( )
100-C

mcf = mBD * MCF

Unclosable openings
In some cases, the enclosure surrounding the protected volume has openings that cannot be closed. The total quantity of carbon
dioxide lost due to leakage from unclosable openings in a time period (t) can be found using the following equations, using SI
and US units respectively
mlo = 116A√ρ1 (ρ1 -ρA )h t

mlo = quantity of CO2 leaked through openings (kg)

A = area of opening (m2)
h = height, center of opening to top of protected space (m)
ρ1 = density of carbon dioxide-air atmosphere (kg/m3)
ρA = density of air external to enclosure (kg/m3)
t = time duration of leakage (min)

At 1 atm pressure and 21°C

ρA = 1.202 (kg/m3)
ρ1 = 0.006220C + 1.202 (kg/m3)

2g(ρ1 -ρA )h
mlo = 0.6CρCO2 A√ t
ρ1

mlo = quantity of CO2 leaked through openings (lb)

C = CO2 concentration (vol. %)
A = area of opening (ft2)
g = acceleration of gravity (32.2 ft/s2)
h = height, center of opening to top of protected space (ft)
ρCO2 = density of carbon dioxide vapor (lb/ft3)

69
ρ1 = density of carbon dioxide-air atmosphere (lb/ft3)
ρA = density of air external to enclosure (lb/ft3)
t = time duration of leakage (min)

At 1 atm pressure, and 70°F

ρCO2 = 0.114 lb/ft3

ρA = 0.0751 lb/ft3
ρ1 = 0.000388C + 0.0750 lb/ft3

Ventilation systems
Generally, mechanical ventilation of a protected volume should be arranged to shut down prior to discharge of a carbon dioxide
extinguishment system. Where this is not possible, the quantity of carbon dioxide lost due to ventilation must be found. The
amount lost is equal to the volume of fresh air introduced into the protected volume by the mechanical ventilation system over a
time period (t) times the flooding factor.
mlv = Qv * t * FF

mlv = CO2 added to compensate for forced ventilation (kg)

Qv = ventilation rate (kg/m3)
t = duration of discharge (s)
FF = flooding factor (kg/m3)

Temperature extremes
The quantity of agent must also be adjusted to account for extreme temperatures in the protected volume whenever present.
Extremes temperatures are defined as those above 93°C (200°F) and those below -18°C (0°F). For protected volumes that
experience both high and low extreme temperatures, the high and low extreme temperature factors must be calculated and the
one with the highest value is chosen.
τH = 0.0036(TH – 93)
τL = -0.018(TL + 18)
τH = extreme high temperature factor (SI units)
TH = high temperature value (°C)
τL = extreme low temperature factor (SI units)
TL = low temperature value (°C)

τH = 0.002(TH – 200)
τL = 0.01(0 – TL)
τH = extreme high temperature factor (US units)
TH = high temperature value (°F)
τL = extreme low temperature factor (US units)
TL = low temperature value (°F)

mT = τ(mcf + mlo + mlv)

mT = additional carbon dioxide quantity for extreme temperature
τ = extreme high or low temperature factor, whichever is greater
mcf = base quantity of carbon dioxide after applying MCF
mlo = additional carbon dioxide quantity for leakage through openings
mlv = additional carbon dioxide quantity for mechanical ventilation

This information in this section has been reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

70
 Design Parameters for Specific Deep-Seated Fire Hazards
Min. design Flooding
Hazard type Conc., vol. % factor, kg/m3 Remarks
3
Dry electrical hazards in general, V < 56.6 m 50 1.6
Dry electrical hazards in general, V > 56.6 m3 50 1.33 Minimum quantity, 91 kg
Record (bulk paper) storage, ducts, covered trenches 65 2.0
Fur storage vaults, dust collectors 75 2.66

This table reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

CO2 Pressure Relief Venting

In some cases, the pressure rise in an enclosure due to carbon dioxide discharge is capable of damaging the enclosure
construction. The risk of enclosure damage can be greatly reduced by designing and installing a means of pressure relief. The
size of the minimum pressure relief area required is based on the maximum flow rate of carbon dioxide and is calculated using

239w
Av =
√P

Av = vent area, mm2

w = carbon dioxide flow rate, kg/min
P = allowable enclosure pressure limit, kPa
This information has been reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

𝑄
𝑋=
1.3√𝑃
X = free venting area (in2)
Q = calculated CO2 flow rate (lb/min)
P = allowable strength of enclosure (lb/ft2)

Allowable Pressure for Average Enclosures

Construction
type P, kPa Note
Light building 1.2 Venting sash remains open
Normal building 2.4 Venting sash designed
to open freely
Vault building 4.8
This table reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

71
Clean Agents
Commercialized Halon Replacement Nomenclature

This table reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Comparisons of Systems in 500–5,000 m3 Range of Volumes

This table reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

72
Summary of the Class A and Class B Extinguishing Concentrations for Various Agents and Equipment Manufacturers

This table reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Comparison of Design Concentrations for Class A Fires

This table reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

73
 Specific Volume Constants

This table reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Clean Agent Hold Time and Leakage

In order to measure leakage in quiescent environments, the clean agent-air mixture density must be estimated using the
following formula
C ρ (100-C)
ρm =Vd +[ a ]
100 100

ρm = clean agent-air mixture density (kg/m3)

ρa = air density (1.202 kg/m3)
C = clean agent concentration (%)
Vd = agent vapor density (kg/m3) shown below

This information reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Atmospheric Lifetimes
Greenhouse gases break down in the atmosphere according to the following equation, which describes e-folding lifetimes
instead of the more common half-lifetimes used in the nuclear field. This means that after a lifetime L there will be 1/e of the
specimen left (0.368) instead of 1/2 of the specimen (0.5).
C = C0 e-kt

C = concentration at time t
C0 = initial concentration at time t
k = an experimentally determined rate constant (units = 1/time)

C = C0 e-t/L
L = the time it takes for the ratio of C:C0 to be equal to 1/e

74
 Environmental Factors for Halocarbon Clean Agents

This table reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Halocarbon Total Flooding

Toxicity Data for Halocarbon Clean Agent Fire Suppressants

This table reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Physical Properties of Clean Halocarbon Agents (SI Units)

This table reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

75
Quantity of halocarbon agent
The quantity of halocarbon agent necessary to achieve an established design concentration is
V C
w= ( )
S 100-C

V = net volume of protected space

C = design concentration (%)
w = specific weight of agent required
S = specific volume (ft3/lb) (m3/kg)
S = k1 + k2(T)

T = minimum ambient temperature of the protected space

k1 and k2 = constants in Specific Volume Constants table above

Altitude correction factor (A) is applied to the specific weight of the agent required.
For –3,000 ft to 5,500 ft of equivalent altitude
𝑌 = (−0.000036 × 𝑋) + 1
For 5,501 ft to 10,000 ft of equivalent altitude
𝑌 = (−0.00003 × 𝑋) + 0.96
Y = correction factor
X = altitude (ft)

Potential Human Health Effects of Hydrogen Fluoride in Healthy Individuals

This table reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

76
 Inert Gas Total Flooding
Physical Properties of Clean Inert Gas Agents (SI units)

This table reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

For inert gases, the following formula is used

V 100
X=2.303 log ( )V
S 100-C s

X = volume of inert gas required at 70°F

VS = specific volume at 70°F
V = net protected hazard volume
S = specific volume at minimum ambient temperature (F) in protected space (k1 + k2(T))

Altitude correction factor (A) is applied to the specific weight of the agent required.
For –3,000 ft to 5,500 ft of equivalent altitude
𝑌 = (−0.000036 × 𝑋) + 1
For 5,501 ft to 10,000 ft of equivalent altitude
𝑌 = (−0.00003 × 𝑋) + 0.96
Y = correction factor
X = altitude (ft)
repeat 5.5.3

77
6 FIRE ALARM AND DETECTION
General Information
Fire alarm and detection systems rely heavily on the information contained in installation standards such as NFPA 72, National
Fire Alarm and Signaling Code.

Heat Detector RTI

The use of RTI as a heat transfer function is a simplification and incorporates both conductive and convective heat transfer
mechanisms.
𝑅𝑇𝐼 = 𝜏0 √𝑢𝑂
RTI = response time index
O = detector time constant (secs)
uO = gas velocity (5.0 ft/sec) or (1.5 m/sec) typ.

The sensitivity of a detector can be expressed in terms of RTI as related to the flow of hot gases as
⁄
𝑡𝑟 𝑢01 2
𝑅𝑇𝐼 =
ln[(𝑇𝑔 − 𝑇𝑎 )/(𝑇𝑔 − 𝑇𝑟 )]

Rate of Heat Release

𝑄 = 𝛼𝑡 2
Q = rate of heat release (Btu/s) (kW)
α = fire intensity coefficient (Btu/s3) (kW/s2)
t = time after burning occurs (sec)

Also
𝑄
𝛼=
𝑡2

Heat Detector Spacing

Radial Distance from Fire Axis to Detector

𝑆 = 21⁄2 𝑟
S = spacing of detectors (ft) (m)
r = radial distance from fire plume axis (ft) (m)

𝑆
𝑟=
1.414

Add detector spacing multiplier per NFPA 72 - 2016,

Table 17.6.3.5.1

78
 Smoke Detector Response

Obscuration
Percent obscuration Percent obscuration per unit distance, Ou
𝐼 𝐼 1⁄𝐼
𝑂 = 100 (𝐼 − ) 𝑂𝑢 = 100 [1 − ( ) ]
𝐼0 𝐼0

I = intensity of the light beam in the presence of smoke (cd)

I0 = initial intensity of a light beam (cd)

Optical density Optical density per unit distance, Du (m-1)

𝐼0 𝐼 𝐷 1 𝐼0 𝐼
𝐷 = log10 ( ) = − log10 ( ) 𝐷𝑢 = = log10 ( ) = − log10 ( )
𝐼 𝐼0 𝑙 𝑙 𝐼 𝐼0

l = distance between the source and photocell

Radiant Energy Detection

During the combustion process, electromagnetic radiation is emitted over a broad range of the spectrum. Currently, however,
fire detection devices operate only in one of three bands: ultraviolet (UV), visible, or infrared (IR), where the wavelengths are
defined within the following ranges:

Ultraviolet 0.1–0.35 μm
Visible 0.35–0.75 μm
Infrared 0.75–220 μm

This information reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Radiant power to detector

𝑘𝑃e𝜁𝑑
𝑆=
𝑑2
S = radiant power reaching the detector (W)
k = proportionality constant for the detector
P = radiant power emitted by the fire
All SI units
ζ = extinction coefficient of air
d = distance between the fire and the detector

Sensitivity Level
Du = Dm(m)/Vc ta = m/mbr
where
Du = upper sensitivity level (m–1)
Dm = mass optical density (m2/g)
m = mass (g)
Vc = volume of enclosure (m3)
ta = activation time (sec)
mbr = mass burning rate (g/s)

79
 Audibility Design

Sound Pressure Level

𝐿𝑃 = 𝐿𝑊 + 𝐶1 + 𝐶2
LP = sound pressure level (dBA)
LW = sound power level (dB)
C1 = adjustment for mounting position of the sounder
C2 = adjustment for distance from the sounder

Adjustment for Mounting Position of Sounder (C1)

Sounder Position C1

Wall/ceiling mounted (more than 1 m from any other major surface) +5

Wall/ceiling mounted (closer than 1 m to one other major surface) +7

Adjustment for Distance (C2 ) with Distance from Source (m)

Distance from
C2
Source (m)
1 -11
2 -17
3 -21
6 -27
12 -33
15 -35
20 -37
25 -39
30 -41
40 -43
50 -45
60 -47
80 -49
100 -51
This table reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Sound Power Level

𝐿𝑊 = 𝐿 + 20 log10 𝑟 + 11
LW = sound power level of a sounder (dBA)
L = manufacturer's stated output (dBA)
r = distance (m)

80
 Illumination Design

Illumination
𝐼
𝐸=
𝑑2
E = illumination (lumens per unit area or footcandle)
I = intensity of light source (candela)
d = distance from light source to object (ft)

Effective Intensity
𝑡
(∫𝑡 2 𝐼𝑑𝑡 )
1
𝐼𝑒 =
(𝑎 + 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 )
Ie = effective intensity
I = instantaneous intensity a=0.2 in US
t1 = time (s) of the beginning of that part of the flash where I exceeds Ie
t2 = time (s) of the ending of that part of the flash where I exceeds Ie

Voltage Drop Calculation

Vload = Vterminals – (IloadRconductors)
Vload = 16 volts minimum operating voltage of appliance (unless otherwise specified)
Vterminals = 20.4 volts (unless otherwise specified)
Iload = total current draw in amperes of appliance
Rconductors = conductor resistance (ohms)

81
7 SMOKE CONTROL
Fundamentals

Door Opening Forces

𝑘𝑑 𝑊𝐴∆𝑃
𝐹 = 𝐹𝐷𝐶 +
2(𝑊 − 𝑑)
F = total door opening force (lb) (N)
FDC = force to overcome the door closer (lb) (N)
W = door width (ft) (m)
A = door area (ft2) (m2)
P = pres. diff. across door (in. H2O) (Pa)
d = distance from doorknob to the edge of the knob side of the door (ft) (m)
kd = coefficient (5.20) (1.00)

Wind Pressure
𝑃𝑊 = 𝐶𝑊 𝐾𝑤 𝑉 2
PW = wind pressure (in. H2O)
CW = dimensionless pressure coefficient ranging from -0.8 to 0.8, with positive values for windward walls and negative values
for leeward walls
KW = coefficient, 4.82×10-4
V = wind velocity (mph)

Local design wind

𝛿𝑚𝑒𝑡 𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡 𝐻 𝑎
𝑈𝐻 = 𝑈𝑚𝑒𝑡 ( ) ( )
𝐻𝑚𝑒𝑡 𝛿
UH = wind velocity at wall height H, (mph) (m/s)
Umet = measured velocity, (mph) (m/s)
Hmet = height of wind measurement, (ft) (m)
δmet = boundary layer height in the vicinity of the wind anemometer, (ft) (m)
ɑmet = wind exponent in the vicinity of the wind anemometer, dimensionless
H = height of wall, (ft) (m)
δ = boundary layer height at wall, (ft) (m)
ɑ = wind exponent at wall

Wind pressure on a wall

𝑝𝑤 = 0.00645𝐶𝑤 𝜌𝑜 𝑈𝐻2
1
𝑝𝑤 = 𝐶𝑤 𝜌𝑜 𝑈𝐻2 for SI units
2
pw = wind pressure, (in. H2O) (Pa)
Cw = pressure coefficient, dimensionless
ρo = outside air density, (lb/ft3) (kg/m3)
UH = wind velocity at wall height H, (mph) (m/s)

Height of Flame Tip (zl)

2
𝑧𝑙 = 0.533𝑄𝑐5 ft
zl = limiting elevation (ft)
Qc = convection portion of heat release rate (Btu/sec)
= 70% of Q total = 0.7Q

SI: Zl=0.166Qc2/5 m, kW

82
 Fuel Mass Consumed
Steady fire
𝑄̇𝑡
𝑚̇𝑓 =
𝐻𝑐
𝑚̇𝑓 = mass burning rate (kg/s)
𝑄̇𝑡 = heat release rate for steady fires (kW)
Hc = heat of combustion (kJ/kg)
Where is this equation
Unsteady t 2 fires from?
𝑡3 If I replace the T-squared
𝑚̇𝑓 = 333
𝐻𝑐 𝑡g2 HRR, I get 1055 instead of
𝑚̇𝑓 = mass burning rate (kg/s) 333, and shall be t2, not t3,
t = time (s) need to be confirmed
Hc = heat of combustion (kJ/kg)
tg = growth time (s)

Limiting Average Velocity Through Communicating Space

1
𝑄 3
𝑣𝑒 = 17 ( ⁄𝑧) IP version of equation 7.3.4
ve = V = limiting air velocity (ft/min)
Q = heat release rate of fire (Btu/sec)
z = distance above the base of the fire to the bottom of the opening (ft)

Flow Paths
Effective area for flow paths in parallel
𝑛

𝐴𝑒 = ∑ 𝐴𝑖
𝑖=1

Ae = effective flow area, (ft2) (m2)

Ai = flow area of path i, (ft2) (m2)

Effective area for flow paths in series

𝑛 −1⁄2
1
𝐴𝑒 = (∑ 2 )
𝐴𝑖
𝑖=1

Ae = effective flow area, (ft2) (m2)

Ai = flow area of path i, (ft2) (m2)

Stack Effect/Buoyancy
1 1
7.63 ∆𝑃 = 𝐾𝑆 ( − ) ℎ
𝑇𝑂 𝑇𝐼
P = pressure difference (in H2O) (Pa)
KS = coefficient (7.64) (3460)
TO = absolute temperature of outside air (R) (K)
TI = absolute temperature of inside air (R) (K)
h = distance above neutral plane (ft) (m)

83
Pressure difference for normal/reverse stack effect
1 1
∆𝑝𝑆𝑂 = 7.63 ( − )𝑧 for IP units
𝑇𝑂 + 460 𝑇𝑆 + 460
1 1
∆𝑝𝑆𝑂 = 3460 ( − ) 𝑧 for SI units
𝑇𝑂 +273 𝑇𝑆 +273

∆𝑝𝑆𝑂 = pressure difference from a shaft to the outside, (in H 2O) (Pa)
TO = temperature of outside air (ºF) (ºC)
TS = temperature of the shaft (ºF) (ºC)
z = distance above the neutral plane (ft) (m)

Pressure Difference
1 1
∆𝑝𝐹𝑆 = 7.63 ( − )𝑧 for IP units
𝑇𝑂 + 460 𝑇𝐹 + 460
1 1
∆𝑝𝐹𝑆 = 3460 ( − ) 𝑧 for SI units
𝑇𝑂 +273 𝑇𝐹 +273

∆𝑝𝐹𝑆 = pressure difference from a fire space to the surroundings, (in H2O) (Pa)
TO = temperature of surroundings (ºF) (ºC)
TF = temperature of the fire space (ºF) (ºC)
z = distance above the neutral plane (ft) (m)

Untreated Pressurization Air

Stairwell temperature
𝑇𝑆 = 𝑇𝑂 + 𝜂(𝑇𝐵 − 𝑇𝑂 )
TS = temperature in the stairwell (ºF) (ºC)
TO = temperature of outside air (ºF) (ºC)
TB = temperature in the building (ºF) (ºC)
η = heat transfer factor, dimensionless

Scaling Relationships
Quintiere's review of scaling relationships based on preserving the Froude number, Fr (defined as v/gl).

For the relationships in this section the following apply:

Subscript "m" identifies the value for small-scale model
Subscript "F" identifies the value for full-scale building
𝑙 = characteristic length

Temperature
𝑇𝑚 = 𝑇𝐹

Geometric position
𝑙𝑚
𝑥𝑚 = 𝑥𝐹 ( )
𝑙𝐹
x = geometric position

Pressure
𝑙𝑚
Δ𝑝𝑚 = Δ𝑝𝐹 ( )
𝑙𝐹
Δ𝑝 = pressure difference

84
Velocity
𝑙𝑚 1⁄2
𝑣𝑚 = 𝑣𝐹 ( )
𝑙𝐹
v = velocity

Time
𝑙𝑚 1⁄2
𝑡𝑚 = 𝑡𝐹 ( )
𝑙𝐹
t = time

Convective heat release

𝑙 5⁄2
̇ = 𝑄̇𝑐,𝑓 ( 𝑚 )
𝑄𝑐,𝑚
𝑙𝐹
𝑄̇𝑐 = convective portion of heat release rate of fire

Volumetric flow rate

𝑙𝑚 5⁄2
𝑉𝑓𝑎𝑛,𝑚 = 𝑉𝑓𝑎𝑛,𝐹 ( )
𝑙𝐹
V = volumetric flow rate

Equivalent Width
Balcony spill plume
𝐿 =𝑤+𝑏

L = width of balcony spill plume (m)

w = width of the balcony opening from the area of origin (m)
b = distance from the store opening to the balcony edge (m)

Gas Species Concentration

𝑀𝑊𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝑝𝑝𝑚𝑖 = 𝑌 × 106
𝑀𝑊𝑖 𝑖

ppmi = concentration in parts per million

MWair = molecular weight of air (kg)
MWi = molecular weight of species i (kg)
Yi = mass fraction of gas species

Exposure to Toxic Gases

Approximate effects of exposure to toxic gases
∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝐶𝑖 ∆𝑡𝑖
FED =
L𝐶𝑡50

FED = fractional effective dose, dimensionless

Ci = mass concentration of material burned at the end of time interval i (lb/ft3) (g/m3)
Δti = time interval i (min)
LCt50 = lethal exposure dose from test data (lb ft-3 min) (g m-3 min)
n = number of discrete concentration time pairs

85
 Heat Exposure for Hyperthermia
𝑛
Δ𝑡
𝐹𝐼𝑡ℎ = ∑
𝑒𝑥𝑝(5.67 − 0.0152𝑇𝑖 )
𝑖=1
Δ𝑡
𝐹𝐼𝑡ℎ = ∑𝑛𝑖=1 for SI units
𝑒𝑥𝑝(5.185−0.0373𝑇𝑖 )

FIth = total cumulative dose, dimensionless

Δt = time interval (min)
Ti = temperature of air in interval i (ºF) (ºC)

Smoke

Expansion Ratio
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑇𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 460
= repeat 7.2.9
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑇𝑖𝑛 + 460
where
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = volumetric flow of smoke out of the fire compartment (cfm) (m3/s)
𝑉𝑖𝑛 = volumetric flow of air into the fire compartment (cfm) (m3/s)
𝑇𝑜𝑢𝑡 = temperature of smoke leaving the fire compartment (ºF) (ºC)
𝑇𝑖𝑛 = temperature of air entering the fire compartment (ºF) (ºC)

Optical Densities
Smoke filling
𝐷𝑚 𝑄
𝐷=
𝜒𝑎 𝐻𝐶 𝐴(𝐻 − 𝑧)
D = optical density per unit pathlength (m-1)
Dm = mass optical density (m2/kg)
χa = combustion efficiency
Hc = heat of combustion (kJ/kg)
A = cross-sectional area of the atrium (m2)
H = height of ceiling above top of fuel surface (m)
z = clear height, position of smoke layer interface above the top of fuel surface (m)

Vented
𝐷𝑚 𝑄̇
𝐷=
𝜒𝑐 Δ𝐻𝑐 𝑚̇⁄𝜌
D = optical density per unit pathlength (m-1)
Dm = mass optical density (m2/kg)
𝑄̇ = heat release rate of fire (kW)
χc = combustion efficiency
Hc = heat of combustion (kJ/kg)
𝑚̇ = mass entrainment rate in plume (kg/s)
ρ = density (kg/m3)

86
 Height of First Indication of Smoke for Steady Fires
1
𝑡𝑄 ⁄3⁄
𝑧 4
= 0.67 − 0.28 ln 𝐻 ⁄3
𝐻 𝐴⁄
𝐻2
( )
Note: For SI Units, use 1.11 instead of 0.67

z = height of first indication of smoke above the base of the fire (ft)
H = ceiling height above the fire surface (ft)
t = time (sec)
Q = heat release rate from steady fire (Btu/s)
A = cross-sectional area (length×width) of the space being filled with smoke (ft2)
A/H 2 is the aspect ratio

Steady fire smoke layer position

−3⁄2
𝑧 2𝑘𝑣 𝑡𝑄̇1⁄3
= [1 + ]
𝐻 3(𝐴⁄𝐻2 )𝐻 4⁄3
z = clear height, position of smoke layer interface above the top of fuel surface (m)
H = height of ceiling above top of fuel surface (m)
kv = volumetric entrainment constant (0.065 m4/3kW-1/3·s-1)
t = time (s)
𝑄̇ = heat release rate of fire (kW)
A = cross-sectional area of the atrium (m2)

t 2 fire smoke layer position Is t-squared fire

−3⁄2
steady fire? 𝑧 4𝑘𝑣 𝑡(𝑡⁄𝑡g )
2⁄3

= [1 + ]
𝐻 (𝐴⁄𝐻2 )𝐻 4⁄3
z = clear height, position of smoke layer interface above the top of fuel surface (m)
H = height of ceiling above top of fuel surface (m)
kv = volumetric entrainment constant (0.065 m4/3kW-1/3·s-1)
t = time (s)
tg = growth time (s)
A = cross-sectional area of the atrium (m2)

Functional relationship of the mass entrainment rate

⁄
𝑚̇ = 𝑓(𝑄̇𝑐1 3 𝑧 5⁄3 )
𝑚̇ = mass entrainment rate in plume (kg/s)
𝑄̇ = heat release rate of fire (kW)
z = clear height, position of smoke layer interface above the top of fuel surface (m)

The limiting height may be estimated as

⁄
𝑧𝑓 = 0.166𝑄̇𝑐2 5

For clear heights less than the limiting height, the entrainment rate is
⁄
𝑚̇ = 0.032𝑄̇𝑐3 5 𝑧

For clear heights greater than the limiting height, the entrainment rate is
⁄
𝑚̇ = 0.071𝑄̇𝑐1 3 𝑧 5⁄3 + 0.0018𝑄̇𝑐

The validity of neglecting z0 in the above equation is based on observation that z0 is typically small, compared to z. The location
of the virtual origin of an assumed point source can be estimated as
𝑧0 = 0.083𝑄̇2⁄5 − 1.02𝑑0

87
 Height of First Indication of Smoke for Unsteady (or Growing) Fires
−1.45
3
2 4
𝑧 𝑡 𝐴 5 1.45 0.23𝐻
𝐻
= 0.23 ( 2 4 3 ) or 𝑡 = 𝑡𝑔 𝐻 ( 2 )
5 5
𝐻
√
𝑧
𝐴 5
𝑡𝑔 5 𝐻 5 ( 2 )
𝐻

Note: For SI Units, use 0.91 instead of 0.23 already given in

equation below
z = height of first indication of smoke above fire surface (ft)
H = ceiling height above the surface (ft)
t = time (sec) t-squared fire?
tg = growth time (sec) (time for fire to reach 1,000 Btu/s or 1,055 kW)
A = cross-sectional area of smoke filled space (ft2)

steady state fire, why this is under the 𝑧 𝑡𝑄̇ 1⁄3 𝐻 −4⁄3
= 1.11 − 0.28 ln ( )
section of unsteady fires? 𝐻 𝐴 ⁄𝐻 2
z = clear height, position of smoke layer interface above the top of fuel surface (m)
H = height of ceiling above top of fuel surface (m)
t = time (s)
𝑄̇ = heat release rate of fire (kW)
A = cross-sectional area of the atrium (m2)

Time dependent smoke layer interface position for t2 fires

𝑧 ⁄ −1.45
= 0.91[𝑡𝑡g−2 5 𝐻 −4⁄5 (𝐴⁄𝐻2 )−3⁄5 ]
𝐻

z = clear height, position of smoke layer interface above the top of fuel surface (m)
H = height of ceiling above top of fuel surface (m)
t = time (s)
tg = growth time (s)
A = cross-sectional area of the atrium (m2)

Atrium
3 −1.45
−
2 4 𝐴 −5
𝑧⁄𝐻 = 0.91 [𝑡 ∗ 𝑡𝑔 5 ∗ 𝐻 −5 ∗ ( 2) ]
𝐻
3 −1.45

−
2 4 𝐴 −5
(𝑧 ÷ 𝐻) = 0.91 (𝑇 ∗ ((𝐺) 5) ∗ (𝐻 −5 ) ∗ ( 2) )
𝐻
t = time (s)
tg (g) = time growth (s)
H = atrium height (m or ft)
A = atrium area (m2 or ft2) is this tg?
z = critical layer height (m or ft)
t = 0.94tg2/5 H4/5 (A/H2)3/5 (z/H) -0.69

88
 Transport Lag
Steady fire plume transport lag
𝑡𝑝𝑙 = 0.67 𝐻 4⁄3 ⁄𝑄̇ 1⁄3

t 2 fire plume transport lag

⁄5
𝑡𝑝𝑙 = 0.1𝐻 4⁄5 𝑡g2

Steady fire ceiling jet transport lag

𝑟 11⁄6
𝑡𝑐 𝑗 =
1.2𝑄̇ 1⁄3 𝐻 1⁄2
r represent radus
t 2 fire ceiling jet transport lag of plume
⁄5
0.72𝑟𝑡g2
𝑡𝑐 𝑗 =
𝐻 1⁄5

Mass Flow Rate if H > zl (Axisymmetric Plume)

1 5
𝑚 = [0.022𝑄𝑐3 𝑧 3 ] + 0.0042𝑄𝑐
m = mass flow rate of plume at height z (lb/sec)
Qc = convection portion of heat release rate (Btu/sec)
z = height above the fuel (ft)

2/3
2/5
zl = 0.166Qc

(
when z  zl , m = 0.071Qc
1/3 5/3
z ) + 0.0018Qc
3/5
when z  zl , m = 0.032Qc z
zl = limiting elevation (m)
Qc = convective portion of heat release rate (kW)
z = distance above the base of the fire to the smoke layer interface (m)
m = mass flow rate in plume at height z (kg/s)

Average Mass Flow Rate of Fire Plume

1
𝜌𝑜2 𝑔 2 1
𝑚𝑝 = ( ) 𝐴𝑣 𝑑 2
2

mp = M = mass flow rate of the plume (lb/sec)

o = P = density of air (0.075 lb/ft3)
g = acceleration of gravity (32.2 ft/sec2) Check
Av = A = aerodynamic vent area (ft2)
d = depth of the smoke layer (ft)
Height of the vent about the smoke layer interface

89
 Volumetric Flow Rate
𝑉 = 60𝑚⁄𝜌
3
V = volumetric flow rate (ft /min)
m = mass flow rate of plume at height z (lb/sec)
 = P = density of air (0.075 lb/ft3)

Ratio of volumetric flows

𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑇𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 460
=
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑇𝑖𝑛 + 460
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑇𝑜𝑢𝑡 +273
𝑉𝑖𝑛
= 𝑇𝑖𝑛 +273
for SI units

Vout = volumetric flow of smoke out of the fire compartment (cfm) (m3/s)
Vin = volumetric flow of air into the fire compartment (cfm) (m3/s)
Tout = temperature of smoke leaving the fire compartment (ºF) (ºC)
Tin = temperature of air entering the fire compartment (ºF) (ºC)

Relationship for volumetric rate and mass rate

𝑚̇
𝑉̇ =
𝜌

Density of Smoke
𝜌 528 ∗ 𝜌𝑜
=
𝜌𝑜 460 + 𝑇
o = O = density of air (0.075 lb/ft3)
 = P = density of smoke at temperature T (lb/ft3)
T = temperature of smoke (F)

144𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚
𝜌=
𝑅(460 + 𝑇)
Patm = atmospheric pressure (14.696 psi)
R = gas constant (53.34)
 = P = density of smoke at temperature T (lb/ft3)
T = temperature of smoke (F)

Density of air and smoke

144𝑝
𝜌=
𝑅(𝑇 + 460)
𝑝
𝜌= for SI units
𝑅(𝑇+273)

ρ = density (lb/ft3) (kg/m3)

p = pressure (lb/in2) (Pa)
R = gas constant (53.34 ft lbf/lbm/ºR) (287 J kg K)
T = temperature (ºF) (ºC)

90
 Maximum Flow Rate to Avoid Plugholing
1 1
𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑜 2 𝑇𝑜 2
5
𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 0.354𝛽𝑑 2
[ ] [ ]
𝑇𝑠 𝑇𝑠
mmax = maximum mass rate of exhaust without plugholing (lb/sec)
 = exhaust location (dimensionless)
d = depth of smoke layer below the exhaust inlet (ft) d is depth of smoke layer
Ts = absolute temperature of smoke layer (R)
below the exhaust inlet?
To = absolute temperature of ambient layer (R)

Volumetric flow rate

1
5 𝑇s − 𝑇o 2
𝑉max = 452γ𝑑 2 ( )
𝑇o
3
Vmax = maximum volumetric flow rate without plugholing at Ts (ft /min)
 = exhaust location factor
 is: 1 for exhaust inlets centered no closer than twice the diameter from the nearest wall; 0.5 for exhaust inlets
centered less than twice the diameter from the nearest wall; 0.5 for exhaust inlets on a wall
d = depth of smoke layer below the lowest point of the exhaust inlet (ft)
Ts = absolute temperature of smoke layer (R)
To = absolute temperature of ambient layer (R)

Plume Rise
𝑧𝑚 = 3.79𝐹 1⁄4 𝐺 −3⁄8
where
zm = maximum rise of plume (m)
𝐹 = g𝑄𝑐 /(𝑇𝑜 𝜌𝑜 𝑐𝑝 ) and 𝐺 = −(g⁄𝜌𝑜 )𝑑𝜌𝑜 /𝑑𝑧
To = ambient temperature
cp = specific heat (kJ/kg-K)

For standard conditions and ideal gas behaviors:

𝐹 = 0.0277𝑄̇𝑐 and 𝐺 = 0.0335𝑑𝑇𝑜 /𝑑𝑧
Using simplified F and G above:
⁄
𝑧𝑚 = 5.54𝑄̇𝑐1 4 (Δ𝑇𝑜 /𝐻)−3⁄8
H = height of ceiling above top of fuel surface (m)

Minimum fire size for smoke to reach atrium ceiling without stratifying
⁄
𝑄̇𝑐 = 0.00118𝐻 5⁄2 Δ𝑇𝑜3 2

Plume Width
𝑑 = 2.4𝛼𝑧
d = plume diameter (m)
z = clear height, position of smoke layer interface above the top of fuel surface (m)

where 𝛼 ≅ 0.15, 𝑑 = 0.36𝑧

Handa and Sugawa empirical correlation

𝑑 = 𝑑𝑜 𝑧 1⁄2

do = diameter of fire (m)

91
 Plume Diameter
𝑇𝑐 1⁄2
𝑑 = 0.48 ( ) 𝑧
𝑇𝑜

Tc = temperature of plume centerline (K)

To = ambient temperature (K)
z = clear height, position of smoke layer interface above the top of fuel surface (m)

Maximum exhaust capacity at an extract point

Δ𝑇 1⁄2
̇
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 4.16𝛾𝑑 5⁄2 ( )
𝑇𝑜

γ = factor relating to the location of the vent

d is depth of smoke layer
below the exhaust inlet?
Balcony Spill Plume – Air Entrainment
Clear heights in excess of 15 m
⁄
1 3
𝑚̇ = 0.36(𝑄̇ 𝑊̇ 2 ) (𝑧𝑏 + 0.25𝐻)
W = width of the balcony opening from the area of origin (m)
zb = position of smoke layer interface above top of balcony (m)
H = height of ceiling above top of fuel surface (m)

Clear heights up to 15 m
𝑚̇ = 0.59𝑄̇ 1⁄3 𝑊 1⁄5 (𝑧𝑏 + 0.17𝑊̇ 7⁄15 𝐻 + 10.35𝑊 7⁄15 − 15)

Average Temperature of Fire Plume

𝑄𝑐
𝑇𝑝 = 𝑇𝑜 +
𝑚𝐶𝑝
Tp = P = average plume temperature at elevation z (F)
To = T = ambient temperature (F)
𝑄̇𝑐 = convection portion of heat release rate (Btu/sec)
m = mass flow rate of plume at height z (lb/sec)
Cp = C = specific heat of plume gases (0.24 Btu/lb-F)

Plume Centerline Temperature

⁄
𝑇𝑐 = 0.08𝑇𝑜 𝑄̇𝑐2 3 𝑧 −5⁄3 + 𝑇𝑜
Tc = temperature of plume centerline (K)
To = ambient temperature (K)
𝑄̇𝑐 = convection portion of heat release rate (kW)
z = clear height, position of smoke layer interface above the top of fuel surface (m)

Volumetric venting rate for other heat release rates/temperature rises

𝑄𝑐1 𝑉1 Δ𝑇𝑎𝑑1 𝑇2
=
𝑄𝑐2 𝑉2 𝑇𝑎𝑑2 𝑇1

delta Tad2

92
 Temperature During Filling Period
(1 − 𝜒𝑙 )𝑄
𝑇 = 𝑇𝑜 exp ( )
𝑄𝑜

To = ambient temperature (K)

Q = 𝑄̇ t for steady fires (kJ)
𝑄𝑜 = 𝜌𝑜 𝑐𝑝 𝑇𝑜 𝐴(𝐻 − 𝑧) (kJ)
A = cross-sectional area of the atrium (m2)

Temperature Rise of Smoke Layer

(1 − 𝜒𝑙 )𝑄̇𝑐
Δ𝑇 =
𝑐𝑝 𝑚̇
𝜒𝑙 = heat loss fraction from smoke to enclosure
𝑄̇𝑐 = convection portion of heat release rate (kW)
𝑚̇ = mass entrainment rate in plume (kg/s)
There is no temperature in the
equation below? it seems
Temperature of Smoke
calculates smoke species only
Smoke filling
𝑓𝑖 𝑄
Υ𝑖 =
𝜌𝑜 𝜒𝑎 𝐻𝑐 𝐴(𝐻 − 𝑧)
Υ𝑖 = mass fraction of gas species i (kg of species i per kg of smoke)
𝑓𝑖 = yield fraction of species i (kg of species i per kg of fuel consumed)
𝜒𝑎 = combustion efficiency
Hc = heat of combustion (kJ/kg)
A = cross-sectional area of the atrium (m2)
H = height of ceiling above top of fuel surface (m)
z = clear height, position of smoke layer interface above the top of fuel surface (m)

Vented
𝑓𝑖 𝑄
Υ𝑖 =
𝑚̇𝜒𝑎 𝐻𝑐

Smoke Layer Temperature

⁄ 712𝐴𝑜 √𝐻(𝑇 − 293)
𝑇 = 293 + [0.0018 + 0.072𝑄̇𝑐−2 3 𝑧 5⁄3 + ]
𝑄̇𝑐 𝑇 3⁄2
𝑄̇𝑐 = convection portion of heat release rate (kW)
H = height of ceiling above top of fuel surface (m)

Vented Fire Smoke Layer Temperature Change

[60(1 − 𝑥1 )𝑄𝑐 ]
∆𝑇 =
(𝜌𝑜 𝑐𝑝 𝑉)

T = T = temperature rise in smoke layer (F)

x1 = X = total heat loss factor from smoke layer to atrium boundaries (assume maximum temperature rise will occur  x1 = 0
Qc = Q = 0.7Q = convective heat release rate (Btu/sec)
o = P = density of ambient air (0.075 lb/ft3)
cp = C = specific heat of ambient air (0.241 Btu/lb-F)
V = volumetric vent rate (ft3/min)

93
7.2.23 Vent Size for Natural Venting – Smoke Management
𝜌𝑜2 g
𝑚𝑝 = √ 𝐴 𝑑 1⁄2 both SI, IP applicable
2 𝑣
mp = mass flow rate of plume (lb/s)
ρo = density of ambient air (.075 lb/ft3)
Check
2
g = accl. of gravity (32.2 ft/s )
d = depth of smoke level (ft) Height of the vent about the smoke layer interface
Av = aerodynamic vent area (ft2)
𝑚𝑝
Av =
(𝑝 2
√ 𝑜 𝑥 𝑔)
This the the same equation
2√𝑑 as the one above, but it is
again wrongly typed
Smoke Flow Across an Opening/Pressurization
2∆𝑃
𝑉 = 𝐶𝐴√ SI Units
𝜌
3
V = volumetric airflow rate (cfm) m /s
C = flow coefficient (0.65)
A = flow area (also leakage area) (ft2) m2
P = pressure difference across flow path (in H2O) Pa
 = density of air entering the flow path (lb/ft3) kg/m3

𝑉 = 𝐾𝑓 𝐴√∆𝑃 IP Units
V = volumetric airflow rate (cfm)
Kf = flow coefficient (2610) This coefficient of
A = flow area (ft2) 2610 is obtained
P = pressure difference across flow path (in H2O) assuming C=0.65

Flow Rate of Smoke Through a Vent flow speed u?

1
𝜌 𝜇 2 = Δ𝜌g𝑑
2 𝑜
ρ = density of smoke (kg/m3)
ρo = density of ambient air (kg/m3) what does this d
Δρ = ρo – ρ (kg/m3) represent here?

𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝐴𝑣 𝑢
𝑚̇ = mass flow rate through vent (kg/s)
Av = flow area of vent (m2) d is Height of the vent about the smoke layer interface?

𝑇𝑜 Δ𝑇 1⁄2
𝑚̇ = (2𝜌𝑜2 g)1⁄2 ( ) 𝐴𝑣 𝑑 1⁄2
𝑇

Flow rate increases with smoke temperature and depth

T2
1⁄2
𝑇𝑜 Δ𝑇 𝐴𝑣 𝑑1⁄2
𝑚̇ = (2𝜌𝑜2 g)1⁄2 ( )
𝑇
𝐶𝑑2 𝐴2𝑣 𝑇𝑜
√1 + 2 2 ?
𝐶𝑑,𝑖 𝐴𝑖 𝑇𝑜
2
T

94
 Vent Area
Effect of inlet pressure can replace Av with effective vent area Av*
1 1 1 𝑇𝑜
∗2 = 2 + 2( )
𝐴𝑣 𝐴𝑣 𝐴𝑖 𝑇

Ratio of actual vent area to effective vent area, K

1⁄2
𝐴𝑣 𝐴𝑣 2 𝑇
𝐾 = ∗ = [1 + ( ) ]
𝐴𝑣 𝐴𝑖 𝑇𝑜

Airflow

Airflow Rate for Pressure Differences – Barriers repeat 7.2.24

𝑉 = 𝐾𝑓 𝐴√∆𝑃 (CFM)
Kf = coefficient (2610)
A = flow area (ft2)
ΔP = pressure difference across flow path (in. H20)

Required Opposed Airflow for Smoke Control

1
{𝑇f + 460} − {𝑇o + 460} 2
𝑣e = 38 (𝑔𝐻 )
{𝑇f + 460}
ve = V = limiting air velocity (ft/min)
g = acceleration of gravity (32.2 ft/sec2)
H = height of the opening as measured from the bottom of the opening (ft)
Tf = F = temperature of heated smoke (F) (converted to R)
To = O = temperature of ambient air (F) (converted to R)

Critical Airflow Velocity for Smoke Control

1
𝑄 3
𝑉𝐾 = 𝐾𝑉 ( ) Reference?
𝑊
VK = critical air velocity to prevent smoke backflow (fpm) (m/s)
Q = heat release rate into corridor (Btu/s) (kW)
W = corridor width (ft) (m)
KV = coefficient (86.9) (0.292)

Velocity Required for Opposed Airflow

Minimum average velocity to oppose smoke originating in the communicating space
𝑔𝐻(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑜 )
𝑣𝑒 = 0.64√
𝑇𝑠

Velocity when smoke at the opening is part of a rising plume along the side of the atrium wall
1⁄3
𝑄̇
SI version of equation 7.1.5: 𝑣𝑒 = 0.057 ( ) SI units
𝑧

kW, m, m/s

95
 Capacity Required for Opposed Airflow
Volumetric capacity of mechanical equipment required to deliver necessary velocity for opposed airflow
𝑣𝑜𝑎 = 𝐴𝑜 𝑣𝑒

Leakage Area
−1⁄2
1 1 1
𝐴𝑒 = ( 2 + 2 + 2 )
𝐴𝑠𝑟 𝐴𝑖𝑟 𝐴𝑖𝑜

Asr = leakage area between shaft and lobby (ft2) (m2)

Aio = leakage area between the building and the outside (ft2) (m2)

Flow Areas of Walls and Floors of Commercial Buildings

Area ratio
Construction Element Leakage Leakage area per unit wall area
in2/ft2 ft2/ft2 m2/m2
-3 -5
Tight 7.2 x 10 5.0 x 10 5.0 x 10-5
-2 -4
Exterior Building Walls (includes construction Average 2.5 x 10 1.7 x 10 1.7 x 10-4
-2 -4
cracks, cracks around windows and doors) Loose 5.0 x 10 3.5 x 10 3.5 x 10-4
-1 -3
Very loose 1.7 x 10 1.2 x 10 1.2 x 10-3
-3 -5
Tight 2.0 x 10 1.4 x 10 1.4 x 10-5
Stairwell Walls (includes construction cracks but not -2 -4
Average 1.6 x 10 1.1 x 10 1.1 x 10-4
cracks around windows or doors) -2 -4
Loose 5.0 x 10 3.5 x 10 3.5 x 10-4
-2 -4
Tight 2.6 x 10 1.8 x 10 1.8 x 10-4
Elevator Shaft Walls (includes construction cracks -1 -4
Average 1.2 x 10 8.4 x 10 8.4 x 10-4
but not cracks around doors) -1 -3
Loose 2.6 x 10 1.8 x 10 1.8 x 10-3
Leakage area per unit floor area
in2/ft2 ft2/ft2 m2/m2
-4 -6
Tight 9.5 x 10 6.6 x 10 6.6 x 10-6
Floors (includes construction cracks and gaps around -3 -5
Average 7.5 x 10 5.2 x 10 5.2 x 10-5
penetrations) -2 -4
Loose 2.4 x 10 1.7 x 10 1.7 x 10-4
Note: The data in this table are for use with the orifice equation with a flow coefficient of C=0.65. Floor leakage
does not account for gaps that sometimes exist between the floor and curtain walls.
This table reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

96
 Elevator Pressurization

Pressure Differences Criteria for Elevator Pressurization Simulations

Minimum Maximum
System
in. H2O Pa in. H2O Pa
Pressurized elevators 0.10 25 0.25 62
Pressurized stairwells 0.10 25 0.35 87
The above criteria are for the elevator simulations discussed in Chapter 11 of the Handbook of Smoke
Control Engineering, and some projects may have different criteria depending on code requirements and
requirements of specific applications.
This table reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Flow Areas and Flow Coefficients of Doors Used for Elevator Pressurization Simulations
Flow area
Flow path Path name Flow coefficient
ft2 m2
Single door (closed) DOOR-SC 0.65 0.25 0.023
Single door (opened) DOOR-SO 0.35 21 2.0
Double door (closed) DOOR-DC 0.65 0.48 0.045
Double door (opened) DOOR-DO 0.35 42 3.9
Elevator door (closed) DOOR-EC 0.65 0.65 0.06
Elevator door (opened) DOOR-EO 0.65 6 0.56
The values in this table were chosen for the elevator simulations discussed in Chapter 11 of the
Handbook of Smoke Control Engineering. The flow areas and flow coefficients appropriate for a design
analysis of a specific building may be different.
The path name is an identifier used in the CONTAM simulations.
This table reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Leakage factors

Flow Areas and Flow Coefficients of Leakages Used for Elevator Pressurization Simulations
Flow Flow area
Flow path Leakage Path name
coefficient ft2 per ft2 of wall m2 per m2 of wall
-4
Tight WALL-EXT 0.65 0.5 x 10 0.5 x 10-4
-3
Average 0.17 x 10 0.17 x 10-3
Exterior walls -3
Loose 0.35 x 10 0.35 x 10-3
-2
Very loose 0.12 x 10 0.12 x 10-2
-3
Interior walls Loose WALL 0.65 0.35 x 10 0.35 x 10-3
-5
Tight FLOOR 0.65 0.66 x 10 0.66 x 10-5
-4
Floor (or roof) Average 0.52 x 10 0.52 x 10-4
-3
Loose 0.17 x 10 0.17 x 10-3
2
ft per ft of wall m2 per m of wall
Curtain wall Tight 0.002 0.00061
FLOORW 0.65
gap
Loose 0.02 0.0061
Notes: The values in this table were chosen for the elevator simulations discussed in Chapter 11 of the Handbook
of Smoke Control Engineering. The flow areas and flow coefficients appropriate for a design analysis of a
specific building may be different.
The path name is an identifier used in the CONTAM simulations.
This table reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

97
 Elevator Piston Effect for Elevators
1.66 × 10−6 𝜌 𝐴𝑠 𝐴𝑒 𝑈 2
Δ𝑝𝑢,𝑖𝑟 = ( )
2 𝐴𝑎 𝐴𝑖𝑟 𝐶𝑐
𝜌 𝐴 𝐴 𝑈 2
Δ𝑝𝑢,𝑖𝑟 = 2 (𝐴 𝑠𝐴 𝑒 𝐶 ) for SI units
𝑎 𝑖𝑟 𝑐

Δpu,ir = upper limit pressure difference from the shaft to the building (in. H 2O) (Pa)
ρ = air density in hoistway (lb/ft3) (kg/m3)
AS = cross-sectional area of shaft (ft2) (m2)
Air = leakage area between building and lobby (ft2) (m2)
Aa = free area around the elevator car (ft2) (m2)
Ae = effective area (ft2) (m2)
U = elevator car velocity (fpm) (m/s)
Cc = flow coefficient for flow around car (dimensionless)

Cc was determined experimentally to be 0.94 for multiple car hoistways and 0.83 for a single car hoistway. The free area
around the elveator car is the cross-sectional are of the shaft less the cross-sectional area of the car.

Stairwell Pressurization
𝑏𝑦
∆𝑃𝑆𝐵 = ∆𝑃𝑆𝐵𝑏 +
𝐴𝑆𝐵 2
1+( )
𝐴𝐵𝑂

PSB = P = pressure difference between stairwell and building (inches of H2O) (92A T5.2.1.1)
PSBb = S = pressure difference between stairwell and building at the bottom of stairwell (inches H2O)
ASB = A = flow area between stairwell and building (ft2)
ABO = O = flow area between building and outside (ft2)
y = Y = distance above stairwell bottom
1 1
𝑏 = 𝐾𝑠 ( − )
𝑇𝑂 𝑇𝑆
b = B = temperature factor (in. H2O/ft)
Ks = K = 7.64
TO = T = absolute temperature of outside air (R)
TS = S = absolute temperature of stairwell air (R)

3 3
𝑁𝐴𝑆𝐵∆𝑃2 − ∆𝑃𝑆𝐵𝑏
2
𝑄 = 𝐾𝑞 ( 𝑆𝐵𝑡 )
√𝜌 ∆𝑃𝑆𝐵𝑡 − ∆𝑃𝑆𝐵𝑏

Q = flow rate of pressurization air (ft3/min)

N = number of floors
ASB = A = flow area between the stairwell and building (ft2)
 = P = density of air (0.075 lb/ft3)
PSBb = B = pressure difference at the bottom of the stairwell (inches of H2O)
PSBt = T = pressure difference at top of stairwell (in. H2O)
Kq = 475
where does this
Orifice equation for analysis of pressurization smoke control systems
equation come from?
𝑚 = 12.9𝐶𝐴√2𝜌Δ𝑝
wrong!!
𝑚 = 𝐶𝐴√2𝜌Δ𝑝 for SI units

98
Orifice equation for standard atmospheric pressure and mass flow at 70ºF (21ºC)
𝑚𝑠𝑣 = 2610𝐶𝐴√Δ𝑝 IP units, C=1.0
𝑚𝑠𝑣 = 0.839𝐶𝐴√Δ𝑝 for SI units C=1.0

m = mass flow through the path (lb/s) (kg/s)

msv = mass flow through the path (scfm) (standard m3/s)
C = flow coefficient, dimensionless C=0.65
A = flow area (or leakage area) (ft2) (m2)
Δp = pressure difference across path (in. H2O) (Pa)
ρ = gas density in flow path (lb/ft3) (kg/m3)

Orifice equation in terms of volumetric flow P94, 7.2.24

2Δ𝑝 IP units, C=0.65
𝑉 = 776𝐶𝐴√
𝜌
2Δ𝑝
𝑉 = 𝐶𝐴√ for SI units C=0.65
𝜌
V = volumetric flow through the path (cfm) (m3/s)

Stairwell Pressurization Height Limitation

∆𝑝𝑚𝑎𝑥 − ∆𝑝𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝐴𝑆𝐵 2
𝐻𝑚 = 𝐾𝑚 [1 + ( ) ]
1 1 𝐴𝑆𝑂
( − )
𝑇𝑂 𝑇𝐵

Hm = height limit (ft)

pmax = maximum allowable pressure difference between the stairwell and the building (in. H2O)
pmin = minimum allowable pressure difference between the stairwell and the building (in. H 2O)
TO = absolute temperature of outside air (R)
TB = absolute temperature of building air (R)
ASB = flow area between the stairwell and the building (ft2)
ASO = flow area between the building and outside (ft2)
Km = 0.131
𝐹𝑅 (∆𝑝𝑚𝑎𝑥 − ∆𝑝𝑚𝑖𝑛 )
𝐻𝑚 = 0.131
1 1
| − |
𝑇𝑜 + 460 𝑇𝑠 + 460

𝐹𝑅 (∆𝑝𝑚𝑎𝑥 −∆𝑝𝑚𝑖𝑛 )
𝐻𝑚 = 2.89 × 10−4 1 1 for SI units
| − |
𝑇𝑜 +273 𝑇𝑠 +273
Hm = height limit (ft) (m)
FR = flow area factor (dimensionless)
Δpmax = maximum design pressure difference (in. H2O) (Pa)
Δpmin = minimum design pressure difference (in. H 2O) (Pa)

Flow area factor

2 (𝑇
𝐴𝑆𝐵 𝐵 + 460)
𝐹𝑅 = 1 + 2
(𝑇
𝐴𝐵𝑂 𝑆 + 460)
𝐴2𝑆𝐵 (𝑇𝐵 +273)
𝐹𝑅 = 1 + for SI units
𝐴2𝐵𝑂 (𝑇𝑆 +273)

ASB = flow area between the stairwell and the building (ft2) (m2)
ABO = flow area per stairwell between the building and the outside (ft 2) (m2)
TS = temperature in stairwell (ºF) (ºC)
TB = temperature in building (ºF) (ºC)

99
8 HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
Flammability
Flammable describes any solid, liquid, vapor, or gas that will ignite easily and burn rapidly. A flammable liquid is defined by
NFPA and USDOT as a liquid with a flash point below 100°F (38°C). Flammability limits are given by volume % in air.

Lower Flammable Limit

𝐿𝐹𝐿 = 𝑉𝐿𝐹𝐿 ⁄0.147
LFL = lower flammable limit
VLFL = vapor pressure of liquid @ its LFL, psia

𝐿𝐹𝐿 = 𝑉𝐿𝐹𝐿 ⁄1.01

LFL = lower flammable limit
VLFL = vapor pressure of liquid @ its LFL, kPa

𝐿𝐹𝐿 = 100𝑉 ⁄𝑃
LFL = lower flammable limit
V = vapor pressure of liquid @ its LFL @ ambient pressure
P = ambient pressure

8.1.1.1 Lower Flammable Limit Concentration of a Fuel Mixture

100
LFL m =
n  C
fi 
 
i =1  LFLi 

where
Cf = volume percent of fuel gas i in the fuel gas mixture
LFLi = lower flammable limit of fuel gas i

Flammable Vapor Concentrations (Le Chatelier's Rule)

1
𝐿𝐹𝐿𝑚𝑖𝑥 = 𝜒
∑𝑗=1 ( 𝑗 )
𝐿𝐹𝐿𝑗
χ j = molar concentration of fuel gas j in the fuel mixture
LFLj = lower flammable limit of gas or vapor j

100
 Flammable Vapor Concentrations

Volume of Vapor Production from Liquid

(Source: NFPA Fire Protection Handbook, 20th edition, Section 6/Ch 12, p. 6-202)

To calculate the volume of vapor produced by solvent:

English units:
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝑉𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 1 𝑔𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑛 = 111 ×
𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟

Metric units:
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝑉𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 1 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 0.83 ×
𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟

Volume of Air Required to Maintain Lower Flammable Limit

(Source: NFPA Fire Protection Handbook, 20th edition, Section 6/Ch 12, p. 6-202)

English units:

𝑓𝑡 3 𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑦 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑓𝑡 3 𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 100 − 𝐿𝐸𝐿 𝑇

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 = =( )( )
𝑔𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑔𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐿𝐸𝐿 𝑇

Metric units:

𝑚3 𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑦 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑚3 𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 100 − 𝐿𝐸𝐿 𝑇

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 = =( )( )
𝐿 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐿 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐿𝐸𝐿 𝑇

where

𝐿𝐸𝐿 𝑇 = lower explosive limit expressed in percent by volume in air, corrected for temperature other than STP

101
 Aerosols
(Source: NFPA Fire Protection Handbook, 20th edition, Section 6/Chapter 16, p. 6-259)

Aerosol classification levels are based on the total chemical heat of combustion (ΔHc) and are as follows:
Level 1 = total chemical heat of combustion equal to or less than 8,600 Btu/lb (20 kJ/g)
Level 2 = total chemical heat of combustion greater than 8,600 Btu/lb (20 kJ/g) and less than or equal to 13,000 Btu/lb
(30 kJ/g)
Level 3 = total chemical heat of combustion greater than 13,000 Btu/lb (30 kJ/g)

Total heat of combustion is determined by summing the products of the component percentage and the component heat of
combustion.
Total ΔHc = ∑ (ΔHc × %volume)

Vapor Clouds

Spill Rate – Dispenser

A valve remaining unintentionally open would spill liquid on the ground at a rate determined by a pump or by the pipe system
upstream of the value.

Spill Rate – Pressurized Liquid

Use the orifice flow equation:

𝑚̇ = 𝐶 𝐴 √2𝜌(𝑃𝑙 − 𝑃𝑎)+ 𝜌𝑔ℎ

where
𝑚̇ = vapor source mass flow rate
ρ = liquid density
Close it
Pl = pressure of liquid
Pa = ambient pressure
A = area of orifice opening
C = discharge coefficient (assumed to be ~0.60)
G = acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s2)

Spill Area and Thickness

Assume the liquid spreads instantaneously either to cover the entire containment area or to reach the minimum pool thickness
(when the spill is uncontained). In most applications, the surface roughness of the concrete or soil where the liquid has spilled
dominates the surface tension effects. Examples of minimum pool heights are as follows:

Substrate Minimum Pool Height (hmin)

Dry soil 2 cm (0.8 in)
Wet soil 1 cm (0.4 in)
Concrete 0.5 cm (0.2 in)
This table reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

102
 Explosions
Protection from explosions that produce shock waves (detonations, waves travel at or above the speed of sound) must be
handled differently than explosions producing slower pressure waves (deflagrations).

Pressure Damage Thresholds

Pressure Damage Thresholds for Buildings
Pressure (kPa) Damage Description
3.5–7 Small and large windows usually shattered
7–15 Wood and aluminum panels fasteners fail; panels buckle or blow out
15–20 Unreinforced concrete and cinderblock walls shattered
20 Steel frame buildings distorted and pulled away from foundations
20–28 Self-framing steel panel building demolished
35–50 Nearly complete destruction of houses
This table reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Blast Damage – Overpressure Correlation

Type of Damage Pressure (kPa)
Minimum damage to glass panel 0.1–0.3
Typical window glass breakage 1–1.5
Windows shattered, plaster cracked, minor damage to buildings 3.5–7.5
Brick wall – minor damage 5
Person knocked down 7–10
Wood and aluminum panels fasteners fail; panels buckle or blow out 7–15
Panel of sheet metal buckled 7. –12.5
Failure of wooden siding in conventional homes 7.5–15
Failure of walls constructed of concrete blocks or cinder blocks 12.5–20
Brick wall – major damage 14
Unreinforced concrete and cinderblock walls shattered 15–20
Steel frame buildings distorted and pulled away from foundation 20
Self-framing steel panel building demolished 20–28
Oil storage tanks ruptured 20–30
Wood frame building collapse 20–31
Cladding of light industrial buildings ruptured 27
Utility poles broken off 30–50
Serious damage to buildings with structural steel framework 30–50
Nearly complete destruction of houses 35–50
Reinforced concrete structures severely damaged 40–60
Railroad cars overturned 40–60
Probable total destruction of most buildings 200–500
Steel towers blown down 205
Crater damage 606
This table reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Blast Wave Energy

𝐸 = 𝛼∆𝐻𝐶 𝑚𝐹
E = blast wave energy (kJ)
α = yield fraction of available combustion energy participating in blast wave generation
(conservative value is 0.5)
Hc = theoretical net heat of combustion (kJ/kg)
mF = mass of flammable vapor released (kg)

103
 TNT Mass Equivalent
𝑊𝑇𝑁𝑇 𝐸 ⁄4,200
WTNT = equivalent weight of TNT in kg
E = blast wave energy in kJ

1 kg TNT has an explosive energy of 4,200 kJ/kg

Blast Wave Energy of a BLEVE

𝐸 = 𝑚(𝑢𝑟 − 𝑢𝑎 )
E = blast wave energy
m = mass of liquid in vessel
ur = internal energy (per unit mass) of liquid at rupture
ua = internal energy (per unit mass) of vapor after expansion

Fireball Size and Dynamics – Originating from a BLEVE

The maximum size of a fireball is governed primarily by the mass of the fuel released and vaporized. Although the fireballs are
rarely spherical, an equivalent spherical volume is widely used to characterize the size of a fireball. The maximum diameter of
the equivalent spherical fireball is given by:
D = 5.8 m1/3

where D is the maximum diameter in meters and m is the mass of fuel in kilograms.
The maximum fireball diameter is independent of the initial pressure of the fuel so long as the pressure and temperature are
sufficient to vaporize the fuel.

This information has been reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Burning Duration of a Fireball – Originating from a BLEVE

8.3.6.1 For momentum-dominated fireballs

td = 0.45 m1/3
where td is in seconds and m is in kilograms (< 30,000 kg).

8.3.6.2 For buoyancy-dominated fireballs

As would be expected for atmospheric pressure releases
td = 2.6 m1/6

where td is in seconds and m is in kilograms (> 30,000 kg).

Time to Fireball Liftoff

The time to fireball liftoff is given by:
te = 1.1 m1/6
where
te is in seconds
m is in kilograms

104
 Fireball Exposure to Target (Point Source Method)
1/3
𝑍𝑝 = 12.73 𝑉𝑣𝑎
𝑞𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 828𝑚0.771 /𝑅2
where
Zp = rise of center of fireball above tank (m)
Vva = fuel vapor volume (m3)
qmax = peak thermal radiation from fireball (kW/m2)
m = mass of fuel (kg)
R = distance of center of fireball to target (m)

Minimum Required Explosion Vent Area

4/3 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐴𝑣 = 1 × 10−4 (1 + 1.54 𝑃𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡 )𝐾𝑆𝑇 𝑉 3/4 √ −1
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑑

where
Pstat is the vent deployment pressure (bar g) in response to a slowly increasing (static) pressure
V is the enclosure volume in m3
Pred is the reduced pressure (less than Pmax) in the enclosure because of venting. NFPA 68, Standard on Explosion Protection by
Deflagration Venting, specifies that the value of Pred shall be no greater than 2/3 the enclosure strength based either on incipient
permanent deformation or actual enclosure (structural member) rupture, at the discretion of the facility owner

This equation is applicable to compact enclosure with L/D ≤ 2, and lightweight vent disks/panels.

Explosion Venting

Minimum Pred for Non-Relieving Wall Construction

𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑑 = 𝑃𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡 + 0.024𝑏𝑎𝑟(𝑜𝑟50𝑝𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟0.35𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑔)

Vent Area for Low-Strength Enclosures

Minimum Recommended Vent Area for Venting of Low-strength Enclosures from Gases, Gas Mixtures, and Mists

𝐶(𝐴𝑠 )
𝐴𝑣 =
(𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑑 )1/2

Av = minimum vent area (ft2)

C = fuel constant or venting parameter (psi1/2) [can be found in NFPA 68, 7.2.2.1]
As = internal surface area of enclosure including floor, roof, and all walls (ft2) psi
Pred = maximum pressure to be attained during vented deflagration (psi 1/2)

C = venting equation constant given as a function of laminar burning velocity for different gases (in units of bar1/2 or psi1/2)

For psi1/2
𝐶 = (6.1𝑥10−5 )(𝑆𝑢2 ) + (6.1𝑥10−4 )(𝑆𝑢 ) + 0.0416

For bar1/2
𝐶 = (1.57𝑥10−5 )(𝑆𝑢2 ) + (1.57𝑥10−4 )(𝑆𝑢 + 0.0109)

Su = fuel fundamental burning velocity (cm/s) [has to be less than 60 cm/s]

105
 Vent Area for High-Strength Enclosures
(Source: NFPA 68, Standard on Explosion Protection by Deflagration Venting, Section 7.3)

𝐴∗ 1/2
𝐷 = 2( )
𝜋

D = equivalent diameter (ft)

A* = cross-sectional area normal to the longest dimension (ft2)
For L/D  2 and volume  1,000 m3, then
−0.582 −0.572
𝐴𝑣 = [(0.127 log10 𝐾𝐺 − 0.0567)𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑑 + 0.175𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑑 (𝑃𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡 − 0.1)]𝑉 2/3

Av = A = vent area (m2)

KG = K =deflagration index of gas (bar-m/sec)  550 (Green bk. p 463)
Pred = R = 2 bar and at least 0.05 bar greater than Pstat
Pstat = S  0.5 bar
V = enclosure volume (m3)
If L/D between 2 and 5 and Pred is no greater than 2.0 bar, additional vent area must be added to Av
𝐴𝑣 𝐾𝐺 [(𝐿/𝐷) − 2]2
∆𝐴 =
750

Final Av = A + Av

Vent Area Threshold Mass

(Source: NFPA 68, Standard on Explosion Protection by Deflagration Venting, Equation 8.2.7.2)
1.67
2 )(𝑛0.3 )
𝑉
𝑀𝑇 = [6.67(𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑑 ( 0.5 )]
𝐾𝑆𝑡
where
MT = threshold mass (kg/m2)
Pred = reduced pressure after deflagration (bar)
n = number of panels
V = enclosure volume (m3)
Kst = deflagration index (bar-m/sec)

Venting One End of Elongated Enclosure

(Source: NFPA 68, Standard on Explosion Protection by Deflagration Venting, Sections 7.2.3.3 and 7.2.3.4)

𝐿3 ≤ 12 𝐴/𝑝
L3 = longest dimension of the enclosure (ft)
A = cross-sectional area through which the burning mixture must vent (ft 2)
p = perimeter of that cross section (ft)

For highly turbulent gas mixtures, the length to diameter ratio should not exceed 2:
𝐿3 ≤ 8 𝐴/𝑝

106
 Effects of Vent Ducts (Cubical Vessels)
"
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝐴𝑣 1.6 𝐿
= 1 + [17.3 ( 0.753 ) ]
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑉 𝐷

P"red = P = pressure during a vented deflagration with the vent duct in place (bar)
Pred = R = pressure during a vented deflagration without the vent duct (bar)
Av = A = vent area (m2)
V = enclosure volume (m3)
L = duct length (m)
D = equivalent diameter of the vent duct (m)

Venting of Deflagrations of Dusts and Hybrid Mixtures

(Source: NFPA 68, Standard on Explosion Protection by Deflagration Venting, Section 8.2.2)

4
3
3 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐴𝑣0 = .0001 (1 + 1.54𝑃𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡 ) 𝐾𝑠𝑡 𝑉 4 √ −1
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑑

Av0 = vent area (m2)

Pstat = nominal static burst pressure of vent (bar)
Kst = deflagration index (bar-m/sec)
V = enclosure volume (m3)
Pmax = maximum pressure of deflagration (bar)
Pred = reduced pressure after deflagration (bar)

Equation is valid for the following:

1) 5 bar  Pmax  12 bar
2) 10 bar-m/sec  Kst  800 bar-m/sec
3) 0.1 m3  V  10,000 m3
4) Pstat  0.75 bar

When L/D is  2, Av1 shall be set equal to Av0

For 2  L/D  6, Av1 shall be calculated as:
0.75
𝐿 2 )]
𝐴𝑣1 = 𝐴𝑣0 [1 + 0.6 ( − 2) ex p(−0.95𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑑
𝐷

Partial Volume Deflagrations

(Source: NFPA 68, Standard on Explosion Protection by Deflagration Venting, Section 8.3)
1/2
𝑃
(𝑋𝑟 − 𝑟𝑒𝑑 )
−1/3 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐴𝑣𝑝𝑣 = 𝐴𝑣0 𝑋𝑟 [ ]
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑑
(1 − )
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥

Avpv = required vent area for the PVD (m2)

Av0 = required vent area for the entire enclosure if filled with an ignitable mixture (m 2)
Xr = fill fraction at the time of the PVD
Pmax = maximum pressure of deflagration (bar)
Pred = reduced pressure after deflagration (bar)
 = Pred /Pmax

107
 Deflagration Index
The deflagration index, K, is computed from the maximum rate of pressure rise attained by combustion in a closed vessel with
volume, V, and is defined by the following equation:

K =
 dP   V 1/3

 dT max

Dusts

Flammability of Dusts
(Source: NFPA Fire Protection Handbook, 20th edition, p. 6-147)

The flammability of dust can be defined with six classes:

Class 1: No self-sustained combustion

Class 2: Local combustion of a short duration
Class 3: Local sustained combustion but no propagation
Class 4: Propagating smoldering combustion
Class 5: Propagating open flame
Class 6: Explosive combustion

The class is determined through testing. Samples of the dust (a ridge 2 cm wide × 4 cm long) are ignited at one end with a
1,000°C gas flame or platinum wire (glowing). The class number relates to a modified test procedure. With the modified test,
material may show flame propagation instead of melting due to the mixing of dust with diatomaceous earth (20% by weight).

Ignition Sensitivity
(Source: NFPA Fire Protection Handbook, 20th edition)

The ignition sensitivity and explosion severity of a dust are defined as:

(𝑇𝑖 × 𝐸𝑚 × 𝐶𝑚 )𝑃𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑠𝑏𝑢𝑟𝑔ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑢𝑠𝑡

𝐼𝑆 =
(𝑇𝑖 × 𝐸𝑚 × 𝐶𝑚 )𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑑𝑢𝑠𝑡
(𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 × 𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 )𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑑𝑢𝑠𝑡
𝐸𝑆 =
(𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 × 𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 )𝑃𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑠𝑏𝑢𝑟𝑔ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑢𝑠𝑡

where
Ti = ignition temperature of a dust cloud
Em = minimum ignition energy of a dust cloud
Cm = minimum concentration for a combustible dust cloud
Pmax = maximum explosion pressure
Rmax = maximum rate of pressure rise in the test apparatus

108
 Explosibility of Data Powders and Dusts
Material Median Minimum Min. cloud Min. layer Minimum Pmax Kst
particle explosive ignition ignition ignition (bar g) (bar
size (μm) concentration temperature temperature energy m/s)
(g/m3) (°C) (°C) (mJ)
Activated carbon 18 60 790 >450 - 8.8 44
Aluminum powder <10 60 560 430 - 11.2 515
Aluminum shavings 240 No ignition
Ascorbic acid 39 60 460 melts - 9.0 111
Calcium stearate <10 30 580 >450 16 9,2 99
Coal, bituminous 4 60 510 260 - 9.1 59
Corn starch <10 - 520 >450 300 10.2 128
Epoxy resin 26 30 510 melts - 7.9 129
Fructose 200 60 440 440 180 7.0 28
Iron from filter 12 500 580 >450 - 5,2 50
Magnesium 28 30 - - - 17.5 508
Methyl Cellulose 37 30 410 450 29 10.1 209
Milk powder 165 60 460 330 75 8.1 90
Napthalene 95 15 660 >450 <1 8.5 178
Paper tissue dust 54 30 540 300 - 8.6 52
Phenolic resin <10 15 610 >450 - 9.3 129
Polyethylene, 1.d. <10 30 420 melts - 8.0 156
Polyethylene, 1.d. 150 125 480 melts - 7.4 54
Polyvinylchloride 25 125 750 >450 - 9.3 129
Rubber 80 30 500 230 13 8.5 138
Silicon <10 125 >850 >450 54 10.2 126
Sugar 10 60 440 melts 14 8.3 75
Sulfur 20 30 280 - 6.8 151
Toner 23 60 530 melts 8 8.8 145
Wood from chip 43 60 490 320 - 9.2 102
board
Zinc <10 250 570 440 - 6.7 125
This table reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Fireball Hazard
1/3

D= K
V 

n
where
D = axial distance (front) from the vent (ft or m) and the diameter of the fireball at that distance
K = flame length factor
K = 10 for metal dusts
K = 8 for agricultural dust
V = volume of vented enclosure (m3 of ft3)
n = number of vents

109
9 PASSIVE BUILDING SYSTEMS
General
During the course of a fire, structures must maintain their integrity for a sufficient period of time to allow for evacuation and
firefighting operations. In performance-based codes, these goals are defined by estimated time for evacuation and firefighting
operations based on one or more selected design fires for the occupancy.

Fire Load
Fire load is a measure of the maximum heat release if all of the combustibles in a defined area burn to completion. This is
determined by multiplying the mass of each combustible with the heat of combustion. Fire load includes combustible contents,
interior finish, floor finish, and structural elements and is expressed in lb/ft 2 or kg/m2.

Analytical Method for Fire Resistance

A broad-based analytical method for fire resistance will consider three aspects:
1. Fire exposure
2. Heat transfer
3. Structural response

The two most important fire effects that alter a structure's resistance from that at ambient are the high-temperature degradation
of its mechanical properties (strength and stiffness) and thermally induced strains. These cause softening, weakening, and
damage to even noncombustible construction materials and directly lead to a progressive reduction of load-carrying resistance
at higher temperatures. Meanwhile, fire-induced thermal elongations can (1) lead to displacements so large that they influence
the effects of action (a term used to designate bending moments, axial forces or shear forces) in the structure or, (2) when
restrained, generate additional effects of action, typically in the form of compressive forces.

These dual responses demonstrate that fire is clearly time dependent with effects on both the load and the resistance sides of the
equation for strength limit. Similar to the real time–history response of a structure subjected to an earthquake, load-resistance
interactions exist that usually give rise to nonlinear structural behavior and permanent distortions/damage.

Factors to be considered and evaluated in a structural analysis:

• Local member or frame instability
• Floor slab effects
• Thermal strains
• Tensile membrane action of composite floors
• Connection moment-rotation behavior
• Nonuniform heating
• Material strength limit states
This information in this section has been reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

110
Fire Endurance Rules – Harmathy's Ten Rules of Fire Endurance

air gap

Shall make them easier to read !!!

Figure reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

111
 Time-Temperature Curve – General

Figure reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

ASTM E119

9.1.5.1 ASTM E119 Time-Temperature Curve

Figure reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

112
9.1.5.2 Key Points on the Standard Time-Temperature Curve
From the ASTM E119 standard time-temperature curve:

Time Temperature (°F) Add a column for

5 minutes 1,000 SI unit
10 minutes 1,300 temperature
30 minutes 1,550
1 hour 1,700
2 hours 1,850
4 hours 2,000
8 hours & over 2,300

9.1.5.3 ASTM E119 Test Endpoint Criteria

Structural Member Location Maximum Temperature °F (°C)

Walls/partitions (bearing and Unexposed side
nonbearing Average 250 (139) a
Single point 325 (181) a
Steel columns Average 1,000 (538)
Single point 1,200 (649)
Floor/roof assemblies and Unexposed side
loaded beams Average 250 (139) a
Single point 325 (181) a
Steel beam
Average 1,100 (593)
Single point 1,300 (704)
Prestressing steel 800 (426)
Reinforcing steel 1,100 (593)
Open-web steel joists 1,100 (593)
Steel beams/girders (not Average 1,100 (538)
loaded)
Single point 1,200 (649)
a
Maximum temperature cited refers to maximum temperature rise about initial conditions
Table reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Flame Spread Index

Class A Class B Class C

Flame spread index 0–25 26–75 76–200
Smoke development index 0–450 0–450 0–450

113
 Steel
The following types of calculation methods are available to assess the fire resistance of steel structural members:
1. Empirical correlations
2. Heat transfer analyses
3. Structural analyses

The principal material properties of interest are yield strength, ultimate strength, modulus of elasticity, coefficient of thermal
expansion, density, specific heat, and thermal conductivity.

This information in this section has been reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Yield Strength
For 0 < T ≤ 600°C:
𝑇
𝜎𝑦𝑇 = 1 + 𝜎𝑦0
𝑇
900l n ( )
1,750
𝑇 SFPE 5th edition
𝐸𝑇 = 1 + 𝐸0
𝑇 p1913
2,000l n ( )
1,100

For T > 600°C:

340 − 0.34𝑇 Are the SI and IP
𝜎𝑦𝑇 = 𝜎𝑦0 units both applicable
𝑇 − 240
for the equation?
690 − 0.69𝑇
𝐸𝑇 = 𝐸0 need to confirm.
𝑇 − 53.5

For any temperature,

∝ 𝑇 = (0.04𝑇 + 12) × 10−6

where
𝜎𝑦𝑇 = yield strength temperature T (psi) (Mpa)
𝜎𝑦0 = yield strength at (68°F) (20°C) (psi) (MPa)
𝐸𝑇 = modulus of elasticity at temperature T (psi) (MPa)
𝐸0 = modulus of elasticity at (68°F) 20°C (psi) (MPa)
𝛼 𝑇 = coefficient of thermal expansion at temperature T (ft/ft °F) (m/m °C)
T = steel temperature (°F)(°C)
This information in this section has been reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

114
 Temperature Effects on Properties of ASTM A36 Steel

Figure reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Insulation of Steel Members

Insulation of the steel is achieved by surrounding the steel with materials that preferably have the following characteristics:
1. Noncombustibility and the added attribute of not producing smoke or toxic gases when subjected to elevated temperatures
2. Thermal protective capability when subjected to elevated temperatures
3. Product reliability giving positive assurance of consistent uniform protection characteristics
4. Availability in a form that permits efficient and uniform application
5. Sufficient bond strength and durability to prevent either dislodgement or surface damage during normal construction
operations
6. Resistance to weathering or erosion resulting from atmospheric conditions.

In addition to the insulating qualities of the protection materials, chemical reactions may occur in the insulation, further
reducing the rate of heat transfer. The chemical reactions include calcination, ablation, intumescence, thermal hydrogeneration,
and sublimation. Insulating methods include the use of board products, spray-applied materials, and concrete encasement.
This information in this section has been reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

115
Heated Perimeter for Steel Columns

Figure reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

116
Fire Endurance Equations for Steel Columns

R(min)

W' is too hard to read !!!

R fire endurance time (hr)

Is A/P interchangeable
with A/Ppipe and
A/Ptube?

R fire endurance time (hr)

Table reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

117
 Heated Perimeter for Beams

Figure reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Beam or Column Substitution

𝑊2 ⁄𝐷2 + 0.6
ℎ1 = ( )ℎ
𝑊1 ⁄𝐷1 + 0.6 2
where
h = thickness of spray-applied fire protection (in.)
W = weight of steel beam (lb/ft)
D = heated perimeter of steel beam (in.)

Subscripts:
1 Substitute beam and required protection thickness
2 The beam and protection thickness specified in the referenced tested design or tested assembly

118
Heater Perimeter of Steel Trusses

Figure reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Steel Truss Protection

Table reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

What is the meaning

of X here?

119
 Unprotected Steel Member Temperature Rise
The equation for temperature rise during a short period, ∆T, is:
𝛼
Δ𝑇𝑆 = (𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇𝑠 )Δ𝑡
𝑐𝑠 (𝑊⁄𝐷 )

where
∆𝑇𝑠 = temperature rise in steel (°F) (°C)
α = heat transfer coefficient from exposure to steel member (Btu/ft 2 s R) (W/m2 K)
D = heater perimeter (ft) (m)
𝑐𝑠 = steel specific heat (Btu/lb °F) (J/kg °C)
W = steel weight per lineal foot (lb/ft) (kg/m)
𝑇𝑓 = fire temperature (R) (K)
𝑇𝑠 = steel temperature (R) (K)
∆t = time step (sec)

9.2.10.1 Heat Transfer Coefficient

𝛼 = 𝛼𝑟 + 𝛼𝑐

where
∝𝑐 = convective heat transfer coefficient = 9.8 × 10-4 to 1.2 × 10-3 Btu/s ft2 R4 (20 to 25 W/m2 K4)
∝𝑟 = radiative heat transfer coefficient

𝐶1 𝜀𝑓
𝛼𝑟 = (𝑇 4 − 𝑇𝑠4 )
𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇𝑠 𝑓

𝐶1 = 4.76 × 10-13 Btu/s ft2 R4 (5.67 × 10-8 W/m2 K4)

𝜀𝑓 = the effective emissivity, see Table 53.7 below:

Table reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

120
 Protected Steel Member Temperature Rise
𝑘𝑐
∆𝑇𝑠 = (𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇𝑠 )∆𝑡
𝑐𝑠 ℎ 𝑊⁄𝐷

where
∆𝑇𝑠 = temperature rise in steel (°F) (°C)
D = heater perimeter (ft) (m)
𝑐𝑠 = steel specific heat (Btu/lb °F) (J/kg °C)
ki = thermal conductivity of insulation material (Btu/ft s °F) (W/m °C)
h = protection thickness (ft) (m)
W = steel weight per lineal foot (lb/ft) (kg/m)
𝑇𝑓 = fire temperature (R) (K)
𝑇𝑠 = steel temperature (R) (K)
∆t = time step (sec)

Concrete/Masonry

Thermal Properties of Concrete at 70°F

Normal-Weight Concrete Structural Lightweight Concrete

0.95 Btu/h ft °F 0.35 Btu/h ft °F
Thermal Conductivity (k)
(1.64 W/m K) (0.61 W/m K)
0.20 Btu/lb °F 0.20 Btu/lb °F
Specific Heat (c)
(835 J/kg K) (835 J/kg K)
Table reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Fire Endurance of a Concrete Slab

Figure reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

121
 heat exposure is on
the bottom slab

heat exposure is on
the bottom slab

Figure reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Concrete Column Fire Resistance

Minimum column dimension for fire resistance rating, in (mm)

1 hour 1.5 hour 2 hour 3 hour 4 hour
Semi-lightweight 8 (200) 8.5 (216) 9 (225) 10.5 (270) 12 (305)
Siliceous 8 (200) 9 (225) 10 (255) 12 (305) 14 (356)
Carbonate 8 (200) 9 (225) 10 (255) 11 (280) 12 (305)
Table reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

122
 Timber/Wood

Fire Resistance of Wood Frame and Protective Coverings

The addition of insulation to a wall assembly can increase its fire resistance. Adding rock wool or slag mineral wool insulation
batts for additional protection to the wood stud wall generally has an assigned time of 15 minutes.

Time assigned to protective membranes:

Description of Finish Time (min)
3/8 in (9.5 mm) Douglas fire plywood 5
1/2 in (13 mm) Douglas fir plywood 10
5/8 in (16 mm) Douglas fir plywood, phenolic bonded 15
3/8 in (9.5 mm) gypsum board 10
1/2 in (13 mm) gypsum board 15
5/8 in (16 mm) gypsum board 20
1/2 in (13 mm) Type X gypsum board 25
5/8 in (16 mm) Type X gypsum board 40
2 layers of 3/8 in (9.5 mm) gypsum board 25
1 layers of 3/8 in (9.5 mm) and 1 layer 1/2 in (13 mm) 35
gypsum board
2 layers of 1/2 in (13 mm) gypsum board 40
Table reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Time assigned for contribution of wood frame:

Description of Frame Time (min)
Wood wall studs, 16 in (406 mm) on center 20
Wood floor and roof joists, 16 in (406 mm) on center 10
Wood floor and roof truss assemblies, 24 in (610 mm) on 5
center
Table reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Minimum size for studs is nominal 2 in. by 4 in. (51 mm by 102 mm). Wood joists are not to be less than nominal 2 in.
(51 mm) in thickness. The spacing between studs on joists should not exceed 16 in. (406 mm) on-center.

Char Depth
𝑑𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟 = 𝛽 𝑡
where
𝑑𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟 = char depth
𝛽 = charring rate [typically assumed to be 0.6 mm/min (1.5 in/h) for all woods]
t = time (min)

Char Rate – White and Nordheim

𝑡 = 𝑚 𝑥𝑐1.23
where
t = time (min)
m = char rate coefficient
xc = char depth (mm)

123
The char rate coefficients (m) ranged from 0.42 to 0.84 mm/min 1.23 for the eight species. Average values for the char rate
coefficients were 0.555 for southern pine, 0.554 for western red cedar, 0.598 for redwood, 0.734 for Engelmann spruce, 0.498
for basswood, 0.653 for hard maple, 0.747 for red oak, and 0.607 for yellow poplar. The char rate coefficient was found to be
correlated to density, moisture content, and achar contraction factor, defined as the thickness of the char layer at the end of the
fire exposure divided by the original thickness of the wood layer that was charred (char depth).
This information in this section has been reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Thermal Conductivity of Wood

Many physical and mechanical properties of wood change with moisture content at those moisture contents below the fiber
saturation point. The equilibrium moisture content is about 9%. Moisture generally reduces the strength of wood. Moisture also
reduces the charring rate.

For moisture content of 25% or less, densities greater than 300 kg/m 3, and temperatures 24°C, the average thermal conductivity
of wood perpendicular to the grain is:

𝑘 = 𝑆 (0.0001941 + 0.000004046𝑀) + 0.01864

where
k = thermal conductivity (W/m K)
S = density based on volume at current moisture content and over-dry mass (kg/m3)
M = moisture content (%)

Conductivity increases about 2–3% per 10°C.

This information in this section has been reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Heat Capacity of Dry Wood

𝑐𝜌 = 0.1031 + 0.003867 𝑇

where
𝑐𝜌 = heat capacity (kJ/kg K) of dry wood
T = temperature (K)

Tied Fire Walls

Tied fire walls are fastened to and usually encase members of the structural frame of the building, according to NFPA 221,
Standard for High Challenge Fire Walls, Fire Walls, and Fire Barrier Walls. To remain stable, the pull of the collapsing
structural members on the fire side of the wall must be resisted by the strength of the structure on the other side.

If the wall is not located at the center of strength, the lateral resistance of the frame on either side of the wall should be
sufficient to resist the maximum horizontal component of the force that could result from collapsing structural framework on
the opposite side. The horizontal force at each tie should be computed by using the following formula:

𝑤𝐵𝐿2
𝐻=
8𝑆
where
H = horizontal pull per tie in lb (kg)
w = dead load plus 25% of the live load of the roof in lb/ft 2 (kg/m2)
B = distance between ties in (ft) (m)
L = span of the structural member running perpendicular to the wall in (ft) (m)
S = sag in (ft) (m) that may be assumed as:
0.07L for open-web steel trusses
0.09L for solid-web steel beams
0.06L for wood trusses

124
10 EGRESS AND OCCUPANT MOVEMENT
General
Factors that may influence people's responses and behaviors during evacuations in fire situations:
• Occupant characteristics – including mobility limitations and cognitive abilities
• Human response to cues (recognition time)
• Decision making (response time)
• Movement – including susceptibility to effects from products of combustion
• Fire environment impact

Egress Timeline

Figure reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

where
tdet = detection time, the interval between fire ignition and the first detection of the fire by a device or individual
twarn = warning time, the interval between detection of the fire and the time at which an alarm signal is activated or notification
of occupants takes place
tpre = pre-evacuation time, the interval between the time at which a general alarm signal or warning is given and the time at
which the first deliberate evacuation movement is made. Includes recognition time and response time
trec = recognition time, the interval between the time at which the alarm signal is perceived and the time at which the occupant
interprets this signal as indicating a fire/emergency event
tres = the interval between recognition time and the time that the first move is made to evacuate the building
ttrav = travel time – the time needed, once movement toward an exit has begun, for all occupants to reach a place of safety
tevac = the time from the alarm signal to the time at which the occupants reach a place of safety
tRSET = the calculated time necessary between ignition of a fire and the time at which all occupants can reach an area of safety
tASET = the calculated time available between ignition of a fire and the time at which tenability criteria are exceeded in the
means of egress

125
 Limitations in the Hydraulic Model of Occupant Movement
The following are limitations of the hydraulic model of occupant movement calculations:
• Behaviors that detract from movement are not explicitly considered.
• The numbers of people in a structural component are considered rather than their identity and their individual attributes.
• Movement between egress components is considered (e.g., from room to room), rather than within them.
• The results are deterministic and will therefore remain the same unless changes are made to the scenario or the assumptions
employed.

This information in this section has been reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Required Safe Egress Time

𝑅𝑆𝐸𝑇 = 𝑡𝑑 + 𝑡𝑛 + 𝑡𝑝−𝑒 + 𝑡𝑒
where
td = time from fire ignition to detection; that is, the detection phase
tn = time from detection to notification of occupants of a fire emergency; that is, the notification phase
tp–e = time from notification (or cue reception) until evacuation commences; that is, the pre-evacuation phase
te = time from the start of purposive evacuation movement until safety is reached; that is, the evacuation phase

Boundary Layer Widths

Exit Route Element Boundary Layer Width

inches centimeters
Stairways – wall or side of tread 6 15
Railing, handrails a 3.5 9
Theater chairs, stadium benches 0 0
Corridor, ramp walls 8 20
Obstacles 4 10
Wide concourses, passageways <18 46
Door, archways 6 15
a
Where handrails are present, use the value of the actual handrail if it results in a lesser
effective width
Table reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Evacuation Movement
The following people movement characteristics are needed to estimate the movement time.
• Speed
• Flow
• Specific flow

126
 Evacuation Speed
If the population density is less than approximately 0.05 persons/ft 2 (0.54 persons/m2) of exit route, individuals will move at
their own pace, independent of the speed of others. If the population density exceeds about 0.35 persons/ft 2 (3.8 persons/m2), it
is assumed that no movement will take place until enough of the crowd has passed from the crowded area to reduce the
population density. Between the population density limits of 0.05 and 0.35 persons/ft 2 (0.54 and 3.8 persons/m2), the
relationship between speed and population density is assumed to be represented by a linear function. The equation of this
function is

𝑆 = 𝑘 − 𝑎𝑘𝐷

where
S = speed along the line of travel
D = population density in persons per unit area
k = constant, as shown in Table 59.2
= k1; and a = 2.86 for speed in ft/min and density in persons/ft 2
= k2; and a = 0.266 for speed in m/s and density in persons/m2

This information in this section has been reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Evacuation Speed Constants

Table reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Conversion Factors for Travel Along a Stair

Table reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

127
 Unimpeded Travel Speed

Table reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Specific Flow
Specific flow, Fs, is the flow of evacuating persons past a point in the exit route per unit of time per unit of effective width, We,
of the route involved. The equation for specific flow is

𝐹𝑠 = 𝑆 × 𝐷

where
Fs = specific flow
D = population density
S = speed of movement

Specific Flow Related to Population Density

𝐹𝑠 = (1 − 𝑎 𝐷)𝑘 𝐷

where
k is as listed in the evacuation speed constants table above

Maximum Specific Flow

(Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, Chapter 59, p. 2127, Equation 59.5)

Occurs when the density is 0.175 persons/ft2 (1.9 persons/m2) of exit route space.

128
 Table reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Calculated Flow
The calculated flow, Fc, is the predicted flow rate of persons passing a particular point in an exit route. The equation for
calculated flow is based on the assumption that the achievable flow rate through a component is directly proportional to its
width.
𝐹𝑐 = 𝐹𝑠 × 𝑊𝑒
where
Fc = calculated flow
Fs = specific flow
We = effective width of the component being traversed

𝐹𝑐 = (1 − 𝑎 𝐷)𝑘 𝐷 𝑊𝑒
where
Fc is in persons/min when k = k1 (see Section 10.2.2), D is in persons/ft2, and We is in feet.
Fc is in persons/s when k = k2 (see Section 10.2.2), D is persons/m2, and We is m.

This information in this section has been reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Time for Passage

The time for passage, tp, is the time for a group of persons to pass a point in an exit route and is expressed as
𝑡𝑝 = 𝑃⁄𝐹
𝑐

𝑡𝑝 = 𝑃⁄[(1
− 𝑎 𝐷)𝑘𝐷𝑊𝑒 ]

where
tp is time for passage (tp is in minutes where Fc is in persons/min; tp is in seconds where Fc is persons/s). P is the population size
in persons.

Add travel distance table per NFPA 101 - 2018 A 7.6

129
 Travel Data – UNASSISTED Movement Speeds on Stairs (m/s) for People with Disabilities/Elderly
Source Observational Configuration Sample Results Additional
Conditions Information
(Author,
year) (N:Nature, S:Spatial
Configuration, Collection Description Size Mean(m/s)
Method
P:Participants,

(up/down)
[Standard

Direction

Distance
E:Environment, Deviation, Range]

Slope
V:Variable)

DESCENT
Jiang et al., L: China Down 17.7˚ 1 Video S1: Disability, 40 0.85 #derived from information
2012 N:ET # storey No aid [0.19, 0.32-1.34] in paper
SC: 2 Floors, in
subway station 20 0.43 Measurements to 0.04 sec
P:[S1-3: Mixed S2: Single [0.14, 0.21-0.69] precision. Instructed to
Age/Gender] crutch move ‘at the highest speed
V: Different 40 0.33 could maintain’
mobility capabilities S3: Double [0.13, 0.12-0.68]
(S1-3) crutch Results also presented by
gender and by varying
passage widths
Kuligowski L: USA Down 25.1˚ 13 Video S1: Elderly, 83 0.41 #derived from information
et al., 2012 N: AE # storey no aid [0.17, 0.11-0.91] in paper Low densities
SC: 13 floors, implied, however, speeds
assisted living S2: Disability, 14 0.23 presented may not always be
residential building using cane [0.08, 0.11-0.33] unimpeded movement
P: [S1-2: Mixed speeds.
elderly] Paper also presents localized
V: Different speeds between various
mobility capabilities floor groupings.
(S1-2)

130
Sørensen L: Denmark Down - - Video Visually 46 0.73 Paper also explores and
and N:[ET1-4] impaired [0.09, 0.54-0.92] presents relationship
Dederichs, SC:ET1-2:2/ET3- between speed and density.
2012 4:3.
P: Mix Gender (10-
69 years)
V:-
Jiang et al., L: China Down 17.7˚ 1 Video S1: Disability, 9 0.81 #derived from information
2009 N:ET # storey no aid [0.11, 0.68-1.06] in paper.
SC:[40 m, subway Measurements to 0.04 sec
In Chinese, station] 6 0.28 precision.
data P: [S1-3:Mixed S2:Single [0.08, 0.18-0.40 Instructed to move ‘at the
provided by Age/Gender] crutch highest speed could
author V: Different 10 0.31 maintain’
China. mobility capabilities S3: Double [0.13, 0.12-0.48]
(S1-3) crutch
Fujiyama L: UK Down CS1: 3.5m # Observer 18 CS1,ET1: 0.60 # incline length derived
and Tyler, N:[ET1-2]. ET1: 38.8° [0.16,-] from horizontal and vertical
2004 Normal movement; CS1,ET2:0.79 length given in paper
ET2: fast movement [0.22, -]
SC:[1, various Paper also explores
geometries] CS2: 18 CS2,ET1: 0.72 correlation between physical
P:[S1-8: Age (60- 35° 3.7 m# [0.20,-] characteristics and walking
81), Mix Gender] CS2,ET2; 0.86 speeds and between speed
V: Impact of [0.22,-] on horizontal and stairs.
component slope Asked to walk at both
(CS1-4), with the CS3: 18 CS3,ET1:0.73 ‘normal’ and ‘fast’ speeds
procedure employed 30.5° [0.17,-]
(ET1-2) 4.6 m# CS3,ET2:0.96
[0.21,-]

CS4: 18 CS4,ET1:0.91
24.6° [0.26,-]
3.4 m# CS4,ET2:1.15
[0.30,-]

131
Boyce et al., L: UK Down 37˚ - 1 Observer, S1:locomo- 30 0.33 Measurements to 0.1 sec
1999a N:[ET/ Unimp] 38˚ storey stop- tion disability [0.16, 0.11-0.70] precision.
SC:[1] watch (all)
ª rollator user, not used
P:[S1-5: Mixed 19 0.36
during descent
Age/Gender] S2:locomo- [0.14, 0.13-0.70]
V: Different tion disability, instructed to move in
mobility capabilities no aid 1 0.22 ‘prompt manner’
(S1-5) S3:Crutches
9 0.32
S4:Walking [0.12, 0.11-0.49]
stick
1 0.16
S5: Rollator ª

Proulx et al., L: Canada Down - 6-7 Video UE1, S1 - 0.88ª ª note – all speed
1995 N:[UE1-3] storey UE2, S1 - 0.61 calculations include time at
S:[UE1-3 mid-rise UE3, S1 - 0.57 rest/stop
apartment ]
Speeds measured during low
P: [Mix Age/Gender
density but may not
+disability].S1 UE2, S2 - 0.57
necessarily be unimpeded
included those with UE3, S2 - 0.58
speeds.
movement
disabilities, S2 were
over 65 years old.
V: Different trials
involving
populations with
different mobility
levels (UE1-3) and
age attribute (S1-2)

132
 ASCENT
Jiang et al., L: China Up 17.7˚ 1 Video S1:Disability, 40 0.76 #derived from information
2012 N:[ET/Unimp] # storey No aid [0.18, 0.52-1.19] in paper
SC:[2 floors in
subway station] S2: Single 20 0.39 Measurements to 0.04 sec
P:[S1-3: Mixed crutch [0.14, 0.18-0.67] precision. Instructed to
Age/Gender ] move ‘at the highest speed
V: Different S3:Double 40 0.27 could maintain’
mobility capabilities crutch [0.14, 0.08-0.50]
(S1-3) Results also presented by
gender and by varying
passage widths
Fujiyama L: UK Up CS1:3 3.5# Observer 18 CS1,ET1:0.56 # incline length derived
and Tyler, N: [ET1-2]:ET1 - 8.8° [0.15,-] from paper
2004 normal movement, CS2,ET2:0.77
ET2 – fast [0.23,-] Paper also explores
movement correlation between physical
SC:[1, various CS2: 3.7# 18 CS2,ET1:0.64 characteristics and walking
geometries] 35° [0.15,-] speeds and between speed
P:[S1-8:Age(60-81), CS2,ET2:0.85 on horizontal and stairs.
Mix Gender] [0.25,-] Instructed to walk at both
V: The impact of ‘normal’ and ‘fast’ speeds
the component slope CS3: 4.6# 18 CS3,ET1: 0.68
(CS1-4) given the 30.5° [0.15,-]
procedure employed CS3,ET2:0.91
(ET1-2) [0.23,-]
CS4: 3.4#
24.6° 18 CS4,ET1: 0.83
[0.19,-]
CS4,ET2:1.14
[0.26,-]

133
Jiang et al., L: China Up 17.7˚ 1 Video S1:Disability, 9 0.77
2009 N:[ET/Unimp] storey no aid [0.13, 0.62-1.06]
SC:[40 m, subway
In Chinese, station] S2:Single 6 0.32
data P:[S1-3:Mix crutch [0.09, 0.19-0.43]
provided by Age/Gender]
author V: Different S3:Double 10 0.25
China. mobility capabilities crutch [0.11, 0.10-0.37]
(S1-3)
Boyce et al., L: UK Up 37˚ - 1 Observer, S1:locomo- 30 0.38 #rollator user, not used
1999a, N:[ET / Unimp] 38˚ storey stop- tion disability [0.14, 0.13-0.62] during descent Instructed to
SC:[1] watch (all) move in ‘prompt manner’
P:[S1-5: Mix 19 0.43
Age/Gender] S2:locomo- [0.13, 0.14-0.62]
E:- tion disability,
V: Different no aid 1 0.22 [-, 0.13-0.31]
mobility capabilities S3:Crutches
(S1-5)
9
S4:Walking 0.35
stick [0.11, 0.18-0.49]
1
S5:Rollator 0.14

Table reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

134
 Egress Behavior in Smoke

Smoke Density and Visibility – Jin

1  Lt 
V= log e  
Cs  c aE /  
where
V = visibility of signs at the obscuration threshold [m]
Cs = smoke density expressed by the extinction coefficent [1/m] (hereafter, smoke density will be expressed by the extinction
coefficient in 1/m)
Lt = brightness of signs [cd/m2]
δc = contrast threshold of signs in smoke at the obscuration threshold (0.01~0.05)
a = σs/Cs (0.4~1.0) and Cs = σs + σab (σs: scattering coefficient; σab: absorption coefficient)
E = mean illuminance of illuminating light from all directions in smoke [1m/m 2] or [1x]
This information in this section has been reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

PAGE 2186
10.3.1.1 Extinction Coefficient (Cs)
Note that the extinction coefficient Cs can be obtained by the following equation:

1 I  = Km rho Ysoot
Cs = log e  
D  Io 
where
Io = intensity of the incident light [cd]
Km = 7.6 m2/g, flaming
I = intensity of light through smoke [cd] Km = 4.4 m2/g, pyrolysis
D = light path length [m] Km = 8.7 m2/g flaming combustion of
platics or wood
10.3.1.2 Visibility at 5–15 Meters
The visibility, V, at the obscuration threshold of signs is found to be:

for a light-emitting sign

5 10
𝑉= ~𝑉 = V=8/Cs
𝐶𝑆 𝐶𝑆
And for a reflecting sign
2 4
𝑉=
~𝑉 = V=3/Cs
𝐶𝑆 𝐶𝑆
The visibility of other objects such as walls, floors, doors, and stairways in an underground shopping mall or long corridor
varies depending on the interior and its contrast condition; however, the minimum value for reflecting signs may be applicable.
This information in this section has been reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

135
 Walking Speeds in Smoke

Figure reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Occupant Exposure to Heat

Tolerance limit of 0.25 W/cm2 (2.5 kW/m2) for radiant heat exposure, below which exposure can be tolerated for several
minutes.

5 kW/m2 for a person to get burned in 13 sec on bare skin, 40 sec for second-degree burn

This information in this section has been reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

10.3.3.1 Skin Exposure to Radiant Heat

𝑟
𝑡𝐼,rad =
𝑞̇ "1.33

where
𝑞̇ " = radiant heat flux (kW/m2)
r = radiant heat exposure dose [(kW m–2)4/3 min]

A relationship for time (min) to the second-degree burning of skin due to radinat flux, q (kW/m2), is as follows:
t I , rad = 6.9q −1.56

10.3.3.2 Radiant Heat Endpoint for Exposed Skin

Endpoint Radiant Heat Exposure Dose, r [(kW m-2)4/3 min]

Severe skin pain 1.33–1.67
2nd degree burns 4.0–12.2
3rd degree (full thickness) burns 16.7

Toxicity
In fires three major toxic effects are important.
1. The concentrations of irritant gases likely to impair escape efficiency or cause incapacitation (sensory irritation)
2. The exposure doses (Ct product doses) of asphyxiant gases likely to cause incapacitation through confusion and loss of
consciousness (or to cause death)
3. The exposure doses of irritants likely to cause death through lung edema and inflammation after the fire

This information in this section has been reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

136
10.3.4.1 Fractional Irritant Concentration (FIC)
When FIC = 1, a tenability endpoint (escape impairment) is predicted. Incapacitation is predicted at higher concentrations (FIC
~ 3–5).

FIC = FIC HCl + FIC HBr + FIC HF + FICSO2 + FIC NO2 + FICCH2CHO + FICCH2O +  FIC x
where
FICx is for any other irritants present

10.3.4.2 Irritant Concentrations of Common Fire Gases

Table reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

10.3.4.3 Fractional Effective Dose (FED)

t2 n Needs data for Ci to perform
Ci
FED =   ( Ct ) t operations using this equation
t1 i =1 i

where
Ci is the average concentration of a dose-related toxicant such as an asphyxiant gas "I" over the chosen time increment
∆t is the chosen time increment, expressed in minutes (min)
(Ct)i is the specific exposure dose expressed as concentration × minutes, that would constitute an effective dose (i.e., an
exposure dose producing a defined endpoint such as preventing an occupant's safe escape)

FED= m.fco/(fco2-b)+(21-fo2)/(21-5.4)+fHCN/150 + fHCl/3700 + fHBr/3000 (FPH 6-18)

If fco2<0.05, m=-18; if fco2>0.05, m=23, b = -38,600

137
10.3.4.4 Fractional Effective Dose for Single Species

𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐. 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡 × 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

𝐹𝐼𝑐𝑜 =
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐.× 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

If the fractional doses per each minute are summed throughout the exposure, the dose and time to incapacitation can be
predicted.
(V)(t) are not
10.3.4.5 Carbon Monoxide/Carboxyhemoglobin exponent, 1.036 is
(𝑉)(𝑡)⁄ the only exponent
𝐹𝐼𝑐𝑜 = 3.317 × 10−5 [𝐶𝑂]1.036 𝐷 in this equation!
where
[CO] – carbon monoxide concentration (ppm v/v 20°C)
V = volume of air breathed each minute (L)
t = exposure time (minutes)
D = exposure dose (percent COHb) for incapacitation

The following values may be taken for V and D:

Activity Level of Subject V (L/min) D (percent COHb)

Resting or sleeping 8.5 40
Light work – i.e., walking to escape 25 30
Heavy work – i.e., slow running, walking up stairs 5 20
Table reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

10.3.4.6 Average Concentration of Asphyxiant Gases – Single Armchair Room Burn

For each minute during the first 6 minutes of a single armchair room burn:

Asphyxiant At 1 minute At 2 minutes At 3 minutes At 4 minutes At 5 minutes At 6 minutes

Gas
CO (ppm) 0 0 500 2000 3500 6000
HCN (ppm) 0 0 0 75 125 174
CO2 % 0 0 1.5 3.5 6 8
O2 % 20.9 20.9 19 17.5 15 12
Table reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

10.3.4.7 Time to Incapacitation from Oxygen Depletion

t Io = exp 8.13 − 0.54(20.9 − % O 2 ) 

Dose to incapacitation = ( 20.9 − % O 2 ) t I ( ) o

For a short exposure time, t, fraction of an incapacitating dose of hypoxia:

( 20.9 − % O 2 ) (t )
FIo =
( 20.9 − % O 2 ) ( t Io )
1
FIo = for each minute of exposure
t Io

138
 Emergency Lights

poor printing quality

Table reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Remoteness of Exits
NFPA 101, Life Safety Code (2018)
7.5.1.3.1. Where more than one exit, exit access, or exit discharge is required from a building or portion thereof, such exits, exit
accesses, or exit discharges shall be remotely located from each other and be arranged to minimize the possibility that more
than one has the potential to be blocked by any one fire or other emergency condition.

7.5.1.3.2. Where two exits, exit accesses, or exit discharges are required, they shall be located at a distance from one another
not less than one-half the length of the maximum overall diagonal dimension of the building or area to be served, measured in a
straight line between the nearest edge of the exits, exit accesses, or exit discharges, unless otherwise provided in 7.5.1.3.3
through 7.5.1.3.5.

7.5.1.3.3. In buildings protected throughout by an approved, supervised automatic sprinkler system in accordance with Section
9.7, the minimum separation distance between two exits, exit accesses, or exit discharges, measured in accordance with
7.5.1.3.2, shall be not less than one-third the length of the maximum overall diagonal dimension of the building or area to be
served.

139
11 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
General

Hearing
Threshold of hearing = 0 dB = 0.00002 Pa = 1 × 10-12 W/m2

Properties of Air
Thermal Properties of Air at Ambient Temperatures
Air Properties at 10°C
Density 𝜌a 1.293 kg/m3
Thermal conductivity ka 0.02492 W/m-K
Dynamic viscosity 𝜇a 1.71 x 10-5 kg/m-s
Prandtl number Pra 0.71
Table reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

11.1.3 Properties of Water

Weight 8.34 lb/gal

Density (70ºF)(21ºC) 62.4 lb/ft3 1,000 kg/m3
Specific heat of water 1 Btu to raise 1 lb of
4.186 kJ/kg K
water 1ºF
Latent heat of vaporization for 1 lb (0.45
970.3 Btu 2,254.8 kJ/kg
kg) of water
Heat of fusion of ice to convert 1 lb
143.4 Btu 151.3 kJ
(0.45 kg) of ice into water (32ºF)
Vapor pressure (absolute) at 70ºF (21ºC) 0.361 psia 2.49 kPa
Vapor pressure (head) at 70ºF (21ºC) 0.84 ft 0.26 m
Vapor pressure (absolute) at 90ºF (32ºC) 0.70 psia 4.83 kPa
Vapor pressure (head) at 90ºF (32ºC) 1.6 ft 0.78 m

140
11.1.4 Properties of Metals
Electrical
Heat Conductivity λ
Density ρ Resistivity
Atomic Melting Melting Specific Heat (W/(m˙K))
Metal Symbol (kg/m3) (10−8 Ω˙m)
Weight Point (C) Point (F) (J/(kg˙K)) at 0C
Water = 1000 at 0C
(273.2 K)
(273.2 K)
Aluminum Al 26.98 2,698 660 1,220 895.9 2.5 236
Antimony Sb 121.75 6,692 630 1,166 209.3 39 25.5
Arsenic As 74.92 5,776 subl. 613 subl. 1,135 347.5 26 −
Barium Ba 137.33 3,594 710 1,310 284.7 36 −
Beryllium Be 9.012 1,846 1,285 2,345 2,051.5 2.8 218
Bismuth Bi 208.98 9,803 271 519 125.6 107 8.2
Cadmium Cd 112.41 8,647 321 609 234.5 6.8 97
Caesium Cs 132.91 1,900 29 84 217.7 18.8 36
Calcium Ca 40.08 1,530 840 1,544 636.4 3.2 −
Cerium Ce 140.12 6,711 800 1,472 188.4 7.3 11
Chromium Cr 52 7,194 1,860 3,380 406.5 12.7 96.5
Cobalt Co 58.93 8,800 1,494 2,721 431.2 5.6 105
Copper Cu 63.54 8,933 1,084 1,983 389.4 1.55 403
Gallium Ga 69.72 5,905 30 86 330.7 13.6 41
Gold Au 196.97 19,281 1,064 1,947 129.8 2.05 319
Indium In 114.82 7,290 156 312 238.6 8 84
Iridium Ir 192.22 22,550 2,447 4,436 138.2 4.7 147
Iron Fe 55.85 7,873 1,540 2,804 456.4 8.9 83.5
Lead Pb 207.2 11,343 327 620 129.8 19.2 36
Lithium Li 6.94 533 180 356 4,576.2 8.55 86
Magnesium Mg 24.31 1,738 650 1,202 1,046.7 3.94 157
Manganese Mn 54.94 7,473 1,250 2,282 502.4 138 8
Mercury Hg 200.59 13,547 −39 −38 142.3 94.1 7.8
Molybdenum Mo 95.94 10,222 2,620 4,748 272.1 5 139
Nickel Ni 58.69 8,907 1,455 2,651 439.6 6.2 94
Niobium Nb 92.91 8,578 2,425 4,397 267.9 15.2 53
Osmium Os 190.2 22,580 3,030 5,486 129.8 8.1 88
Palladium Pd 106.4 11,995 1,554 2,829 230.3 10 72
Platinum Pt 195.08 21,450 1,772 3,221 134 9.81 72
Potassium K 39.09 862 63 145 753.6 6.1 104
Rhodium Rh 102.91 12,420 1,963 3,565 242.8 4.3 151
Rubidium Rb 85.47 1,533 38.8 102 330.7 11 58
Ruthenium Ru 101.07 12,360 2,310 4,190 255.4 7.1 117
Silver Ag 107.87 10,500 961 1,760 234.5 1.47 428
Sodium Na 22.989 966 97.8 208 1,235.1 4.2 142
Strontium Sr 87.62 2,583 770 1,418 − 20 −
Tantalum Ta 180.95 16,670 3,000 5,432 150.7 12.3 57
Thallium Tl 204.38 11,871 304 579 138.2 10 10
Thorium Th 232.04 11,725 1,700 3,092 117.2 14.7 54
Tin Sn 118.69 7,285 232 449 230.3 11.5 68
Titanium Ti 47.88 4,508 1,670 3,038 527.5 39 22
Tungsten W 183.85 19,254 3,387 6,128 142.8 4.9 177
Uranium U 238.03 19,050 1,135 2,075 117.2 28 27
Vanadium V 50.94 6,090 1,920 3,488 481.5 18.2 31
Zinc Zn 65.38 7,135 419 786 393.5 5.5 117
Zirconium Zr 91.22 6,507 1,850 3,362 284.7 40 23

141
11.1.5 Typical Material Properties
Table 1 - Typical Material Properties
(Use these values if the specific alloy and temper are not listed on Table 2 below)
Modulus of Coefficient of Thermal
Modulus of Rigidity, G Density, ρ
Material Elasticity, E Poisson's Ratio, v Expansion, α
[Mpsi (GPa)] [lb/in3 (Mg/m3)]
[Mpsi (GPa)] [10−6/ºF (10−6/ºC)]
Steel 29.0 (200.0) 11.5 (80.0) 0.30 6.5 (11.7) 0.282 (7.8)
Aluminum 10.0 (69.0) 3.8 (26.0)  13.1 (23.6) 0.098 (2.7)
Cast Iron 14.5 (100.0) 6.0 (41.4)  6.7 (12.1) 0.246−0.282 (6.8−7.8)
Wood (Fir) 1.6 (11.0) 0.6 (4.1)  1.7 (3.0) −
Brass 14.8−18.1 (102−125) 5.8 (40)  10.4 (18.7) 0.303−0.313 (8.4−8.7)
Copper 17 (117) 6.5 (45)  9.3 (16.6) 0.322 (8.9)
Bronze 13.9−17.4 (96−120) 6.5 (45)  10.0 (18.0) 0.278−0.314 (7.7−8.7)
Magnesium 6.5 (45) 2.4 (16.5)  14 (25) 0.061 (1.7)
Glass 10.2 (70) −  5.0 (9.0) 0.090 (2.5)
Polystyrene 0.3 (2) −  38.9 (70.0) 0.038 (1.05)
Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) <0.6 (<4) − − 28.0 (50.4) 0.047 (1.3)
Alumina Fiber 58 (400) − − − 0.141 (3.9)
Aramide Fiber 18.1 (125) − − − 0.047 (1.3)
Boron Fiber 58 (400) − − − 0.083 (2.3)
Beryllium Fiber 43.5 (300) − − − 0.069 (1.9)
BeO Fiber 58 (400) − − − 0.108 (3.0)
Carbon Fiber 101.5 (700) − − − 0.083 (2.3)
Silicon Carbide Fiber 58 (400) − − − 0.116 (3.2)
Hibbeler, R.C., Mechanics of Materials, 4 ed., 2000. Pearson Education, Inc., New York, New York.

Table 2 - Average Mechanical Properties of Typical Engineering Materials (U.S. Customary Units)
(Use these values for the specific alloys and temper listed. For all other materials refer to Table 1 above.)
Specific Modulus of Modulus of Yield Strength (ksi) Ultimate Strength (ksi) Coef. of Therm.
Materials Weight  Elasticity E Rigidity G y u % Elongation in Poisson's Expansion 
(lb/in3) (103 ksi) (103 ksi) Tens. Comp. Shear Tens. Comp. Shear 2 in. specimen Ratio v (−)
Metallic

Aluminum 2014-T6 0.101 10.6 3.9 60 60 25 68 68 42 10 0.35 12.8

Wrought Alloys 6061-T6 0.098 10.0 3.7 37 37 19 42 42 27 12 0.35 13.1

Cast Iron Gray ASTM 20 0.260 10.0 3.9 — — — 26 97 — 0.6 0.28 6.70
Alloys Malleable ASTM A-197 0.263 25.0 9.8 — — — 40 83 — 5 0.28 6.60

Copper Red Brass C83400 0.316 14.6 5.4 11.4 11.4 — 35 35 — 35 0.35 9.80
Alloys Bronze C86100 0.319 15.0 5.6 50 50 — 95 95 — 20 0.34 9.60
Magnesium
[ Am 1004-T611] 0.066 6.48 2.5 22 22 — 40 40 22 1 0.30 14.3
Alloy

Structural A36
Steel 0.284 29.0 11.0 36 36 — 58 58 — 30 0.32 6.60
Alloys Stainless 304
0.284 28.0 11.0 30 30 — 75 75 — 40 0.27 9.60
Tool L2
0.295 29.0 11.0 102 102 — 116 116 — 22 0.32 6.50
Titanium [ Ti-6Al-4V]
Alloy 0.160 17.4 6.4 134 134 — 145 145 — 16 0.36 5.20

Nonmetallic

Low Strength 0.086 3.20 — — — 1.8 — — — — 0.15 6.0

Concrete
High Strength 0.086 4.20 — — — 5.5 — — — — 0.15 6.0

Plastic Kevlar 49 0.0524 19.0 — — — — 104 70 10.2 2.8 0.34 —

Reinforced 30% Glass 0.0524 10.5 — — — — 13 — — 0.34 —
19
Wood Douglas Fir 0.017 1.90 — 0.30c 3.78d 0.90d 0.29c
— — — — —
Select Structural
Grade White Spruce 0.130 1.40 — — — — 0.36c 5.18d 0.97d — 0.31c —

a SPECIFIC VALUES MAY VARY FOR A PARTICULAR MATERIAL DUE TO ALLOY OR MINERAL COMPOSITION, MECHANICAL WORKING OF THE SPECIMEN, O R HEAT TREATMENT. FOR A MORE EXACT VALUE REFERENCE BOOKS FOR THE
MATERIAL SHOULD BE CONSULTED.
b
THE YIELD AND ULTIMATE STRENGTHS FOR DUCTILE MATERIALS CAN BE ASSUMED EQUAL FOR BOTH TENSION AND COMPRESSION.
c MEASURED PERPENDICULAR TO THE GRAIN.
d MEASURED PARALLEL TO THE GRAIN.
e DEFORMATION MEASURED PERPENDICULAR TO THE GRAIN WHEN THE LOAD IS APPLIED ALONG THE GRAIN.
Hibbeler, R.C., Mechanics of Materials, 4 ed., 2000. Pearson Education, Inc., New York, New York.

142
 Thermodynamics
Thermal and Physical Property Tables (at Room Temperature)
GASES

Mol cp cv R
Substance wt  
k
kJ/(kg·K) Btu/(lbm- R) kJ/(kg·K) Btu/(lbm- R) kJ/(kg·K) ft-lbf/(lbm-°R)
Gases
Air 29 1.00 0.240 0.718 0.171 1.40 0.2870 53.34
Argon 40 0.520 0.125 0.312 0.0756 1.67 0.2081 38.68
Butane 58 1.72 0.415 1.57 0.381 1.09 0.1430 26.58
Carbon dioxide 44 0.846 0.203 0.657 0.158 1.29 0.1889 35.10
Carbon monoxide 28 1.04 0.249 0.744 0.178 1.40 0.2968 55.16

Ethane 30 1.77 0.427 1.49 0.361 1.18 0.2765 51.38

Helium 4 5.19 1.25 3.12 0.753 1.67 2.0769 386.0
Hydrogen 2 14.3 3.43 10.2 2.44 1.40 4.1240 766.4
Methane 16 2.25 0.532 1.74 0.403 1.30 0.5182 96.35
Neon 20 1.03 0.246 0.618 0.148 1.67 0.4119 76.55

Nitrogen 28 1.04 0.248 0.743 0.177 1.40 0.2968 55.15

Octane vapor 114 1.71 0.409 1.64 0.392 1.04 0.0729 13.53
Oxygen 32 0.918 0.219 0.658 0.157 1.40 0.2598 48.28
Propane 44 1.68 0.407 1.49 0.362 1.12 0.1885 35.04
Steam 18 1.87 0.445 1.41 0.335 1.33 0.4615 85.76

SELECTED LIQUIDS AND SOLIDS

cp Density
Substance

kJ/(kg·K) Btu/(lbm-R) kg/m3 lbm/ft3

Liquids

Ammonia 4.80 1.146 602 38

Mercury 0.139 0.033 13,560 847
Water 4.18 1.000 997 62.4

Solids

Aluminum 0.900 0.215 2,700 170

Copper 0.386 0.092 8,900 555
Ice (0C; 32F) 2.11 0.502 917 57.2
Iron 0.450 0.107 7,840 490
Lead 0.128 0.030 11,310 705

Howell, John, R. and Richard O. Bukins, Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics, 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill, 1992, p. 896.

143
 Physical and Combustion Properties of Selected Fuels
Flammability
Limits
Stoichiometry (% stoichio.) Ign. Energy Quenching Dist.

Flame
Fuel for Temp.
Max. at
Spont. Flame Max. Max.
Heat of Heat of Ign. Speed Flame Fl.
Mol. Spec. TBoil vap. comb. Temp. (% Speed Speed
Fuel wt. grav. (°C) (kJ/kg) (MJ/kg) % Vol. fa Lean Rich (°C)b stoichio.) (cm/s) (K) Stoich. Min. Stoich. Min.
(10–5 cal.) (mm)
Acetaldehyde 44.1 0.783 –56.7 569.4 — 0.0772 0.1280 — — — — — — 8.99 — 2.29 —
Acetone 58.1 0.792 56.7 523.0 30.8 0.0497 0.1054 59 233 561.1 131 50.18 2121 27.48 — 3.81 —
Acetylene 26.0 0.621 –83.9 — 48.2 0.0772 0.0755 31 — 305.0 133 155.25 — 0.72 — 0.76 —
Acrolein 56.1 0.841 52.8 — — 0.0564 0.1163 48 752 277.8 100 61.75 — 4.18 — 1.52 —
Acrylonitrile 53.1 0.797 78.3 — — 0.0528 0.1028 87 — 481.1 105 46.75 2461 8.60 3.82 2.29 1.52
Ammonia 17.0 0.817 –33.3 1373.6 — 0.2181 0.1645 — — 651.1 — — 2600 — — — —
Aniline 93.1 1.022 184.4 432.6 — 0.0263 0.0872 — — 593.3 — — — — — — —
Benzene 78.1 0.885 80.0 431.8 39.9 0.0277 0.0755 43 336 591.7 108 44.60 2365 13.15 5.38 2.79 1.78
Benzyl alcohol 108.1 1.050 205.0 — — 0.0240 0.0923 — — 427.8 — — — — — — —
1,2-Butadiene 54.1 0.658 11.1 — 45.5 0.0366 0.0714 — — — 117 63.90 2419 5.60 — 1.30 —
(methylallene)
n-Butane 58.1 0.584 –0.5 385.8 45.7 0.0312 0.0649 54 330 430.6 113 41.60 2256 18.16 6.21 3.05 1.78
Butanone 72.1 0.805 79.4 — — 0.0366 0.0951 — — — 100 39.45 — 12.67 6.69 2.54 2.03
(methylethyl
ketone)
1-Butene 56.1 0.601 –6.1 443.9 45.3 0.0377 0.0678 53 353 443.3 116 47.60 2319 — — — —
d-Camphor 152.2 0.990 203.4 — — 0.0153 0.0818 — — 466.1 — — — — — — —
Carbon disulfide 76.1 1.263 46.1 351.0 — 0.0652 0.1841 18 1120 120.0 102 54.46 — 0.36 — 0.51 —
Carbon monoxide 28.0 — –190.0 211.7 — 0.2950 0.4064 34 676 608.9 170 42.88 — — — — —
Cyclobutane 56.1 0.703 12.8 — — 0.0377 0.0678 — — — 115 62.18 2308 — — — —
Cyclohexane 84.2 0.783 80.6 258.1 43.8 0.0227 0.0678 48 401 270.0 117 42.46 2250 32.98 5.33 4.06 1.78
Cyclohexene 82.1 0.810 82.8 — — 0.0240 0.0701 — — — — 44.17 — 20.55 — 3.30 —
Cyclopentane 70.1 0.751 49.4 388.3 44.2 0.0271 0.0678 — — 385.0 117 41.17 2264 19.84 — 3.30 —
Cyclopropane 42.1 0.720 –34.4 — — 0.0444 0.0678 58 276 497.8 113 52.32 2328 5.74 5.50 1.78 1.78
trans-Decalin 138.2 0.874 187.2 — — 0.0142 0.0692 — — 271.7 109 33.88 2222 — — — —
n-Decane 142.3 0.734 174.0 359.8 44.2 0.0133 0.0666 45 356 231.7 105 40.31 2286 — — 2.06 —
Diethyl ether 74.1 0.714 34.4 351.6 — 0.0337 0.0896 55 2640 185.6 115 43.74 2253 11.71 6.69 2.54 2.03
Ethane 30.1 — –88.9 488.3 47.4 0.0564 0.0624 50 272 472.2 112 44.17 2244 10.04 5.74 2.29 1.78
Ethyl acetate 88.1 0.901 77.2 — — 0.0402 0.1279 61 236 486.1 100 35.59 — 33.94 11.47 4.32 2.54
Ethanol 46.1 0.789 78.5 836.8 26.8 0.0652 0.1115 — — 392.2 — — — — — — —
Ethylamine 45.1 0.706 16.7 611.3 — 0.0528 0.0873 — — — — — — 57.36 — 5.33 —
Ethylene oxide 44.1 1.965 10.6 581.1 — 0.0772 0.1280 — — 428.9 125 11.35 2411 2.51 1.48 1.27 1.02
Furan 68.1 0.936 32.2 400.0 — 0.0444 0.1098 — — — — — — 5.40 — 1.78 —
n-Heptane 100.2 0.688 98.5 364.9 44.4 0.0187 0.0661 53 450 247.2 122 42.46 2214 27.49 5.74 3.81 1.78
n-Hexane 86.2 0.664 68.0 364.9 44.7 0.0216 0.0659 51 400 260.6 117 42.46 2239 22.71 5.50 3.56 1.78

144
 Flammability
Limits
Stoichiometry (% stoichio.) Ign. Energy Quenching Dist.

Flame
Fuel for Temp.
Max. at
Spont. Flame Max. Max.
Heat of Heat of Ign. Speed Flame Fl.
Mol. Spec. TBoil vap. comb. Temp. (% Speed Speed
Fuel wt. grav. (°C) (kJ/kg) (MJ/kg) % Vol. fa Lean Rich (°C)b stoichio.) (cm/s) (K) Stoich. Min. Stoich. Min.
–5
(10 cal.) (mm)
Hydrogen 2.0 — –252.7 451.0 119.9 0.2950 0.0290 — — 571.1 170 291.19 2380 0.36 0.36 0.51 0.51
iso-Propanol 60.1 0.785 82.2 664.8 — 0.0444 0.0969 — — 455.6 100 38.16 — 15.54 — 2.79 —
Kerosene 154.0 0.825 250.0 290.8 43.1 — — — — — — — — — — — —
Methane 16.0 — –161.7 509.2 50.0 0.0947 0.0581 46 164 632.2 106 37.31 2236 7.89 6.93 2.54 2.03
Methanol 32.0 0.793 64.5 1100.9 19.8 0.1224 0.1548 48 408 470.0 101 52.32 — 5.14 3.35 1.78 1.52
Methyl formate 60.1 0.975 31.7 472.0 — 0.0947 0.2181 — — — — — — 14.82 — 2.79 —
n-Nonane 128.3 0.772 150.6 288.3 44.6 0.0147 0.0665 47 434 238.9 — — — — — — —
n-Octane 114.2 0.707 125.6 300.0 44.8 0.0165 0.0633 51 425 240.0 — — 2251 — — — —
n-Pentane 72.1 0.631 36.0 364.4 45.3 0.0255 0.0654 54 359 284.4 115 42.46 2250 19.60 5.26 3.30 1.78
1-Pentene 70.1 0.646 30.0 — 45.0 0.0271 0.0678 47 370 298.3 114 46.75 2314 — — — —
Propane 44.1 0.508 –42.2 425.5 46.3 0.0402 0.0640 51 283 504.4 114 42.89 2250 7.29 — 2.03 1.78
Propene 42.1 0.522 –47.7 437.2 45.8 0.0444 0.0678 48 272 557.8 114 48.03 2339 6.74 — 2.03 —
n-Propanol 60.1 0.804 97.2 685.8 — 0.0444 0.0969 — — 433.3 — — — — — — —
Toluene 92.1 0.872 110.6 362.8 40.9 0.0227 0.0743 43 322 567.8 105 38.60 2344 — — — —
Triethylamine 101.2 0.723 89.4 — — 0.0210 0.0753 — — — — — — 27.48 — 3.81 —
Turpentine — — — — — — — — — 252.2 — — — — — — —
Xylene 106.0 0.870 130.0 334.7 43.1 — — — — — — — — — — — —
Gasoline 120.0 0.720 155.0 338.9 44.1 — — — — 298.9 — — — — — — —
73 octane
Gasoline — — — — — — — — — 468.3 106 37.74 — — — — —
100 octane
Jet fuel JP1 150.0 0.810 — — 43.0 0.0130 0.0680 — — 248.9 107 36.88 — — — — —
JP3 112.0 0.760 — — 43.5 0.0170 0.0680 — — — — — — — — — —
JP4 126.0 0.780 — — 43.5 0.0150 0.0680 — — 261.1 107 38.17 — — — — —
JP5 170.0 0.830 — — 43.0 0.0110 0.0690 — — 242.2 — — — — — — —
a
f is the stoichiometric air/fuel ratio; i.e., f = 1/r.
For additional information, see Table C.5 and Chapter 18, “Ignition of Liquids.” In the SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition.
b

Table reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

145
Heat of Combustion

Selected Fuels
Heat of Combustion for Selected Fuels at 25ºC (298K)
Hc Hc Hcc Hc
Fuel (kJ/mol) (kJ/g) (kJ/g[O2]) (kJ/g[air])
Carbon monoxide (CO) 283 10.10 17.69 4.10
Methane (CH4) 800 50.00 12.54 2.91
Ethane (C2H6) 1423 47.45 11.21 2.96
Ethene (C2H4) 1411 50.53 14.74 3.42
Ethyne (C2H2) 1253 48.20 15.73 3.65
Propane (C3H8) 2044 46.45 12.80 2.97
n-Butane (n-C4H10) 2650 45.69 12.80 2.97
n-Pentane (n-C5H12) 3259 45.27 12.80 2.97
n-Hexane 3861 44.90
c-Hexane (c-C6H12) 3680 43.81 12.80 2.97
n-Octane (n-C8H18) 5104 44.77 12.80 2.97
Benzene (C6H6) 3120 40.00 13.06 3.03
Methanol (CH3OH) 635 19.83 13.22 3.07
Ethanol (C2H5OH) 1232 26.78 12.88 2.99
Acetone (CH3COCH3) 1786 30.79 14.00 3.25
D-glucose (C6H12O6) 2772 15.40 13.27 3.08
Celluloseb — 16.09 13.59 3.15
Polyethylene — 43.28 12.65 2.93
Polypropylene — 43.31 12.66 2.94
Polystyrene — 39.85 12.97 3.01
Polyvinylchloride — 16.43 12.84 2.98
Polymethylmethacrylate — 24.89 12.98 3.01
Polyacrylonitrile — 30.80 13.61 3.16
Polyoxymethylene — 15.46 14.50 3.36
Polyethyleneterephthalate — 22.00 13.21 3.06
Polycarbonate — 29.72 13.12 3.04
Nylon 6,6 — 29.58 12.67 2.94
Polyester — 23.8 — —
Wool — 20.5 — —
Wood (European Beech) — 19.5 — —
Wood volatiles (European 16.6
— — —
Beech)
Wood char (European Beech) — 34.3 — —
Wood (Ponderosa Pine) — 19.4 — —
a
Apart from the solids (D-glucose, etc.), the initial state of the fuel and of all the products is taken
to be gaseous.
b
Cotton and rayon are virtually pure cellulose and can be assumed to have the same heat of
combustion.
c
Hc(O2) = 13.1 kJ/g is used in the oxygen consumption method for calculating rate of heat
release.

Table reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

146
 Net Heats of Combustion Per Unit Mass of Fuel

H c * H * H c * H *
H O CO H CO H O CO H CO
T 2 T 2
d b d b
Fuel Formula (kJ/g) (kJ/g) (kJ/g) (kJ/g) Fuel Formula (kJ/g) (kJ/g) (kJ/g) (kJ/g)
Normal alkanes Normal alkenes
Methane CH4 50.1 12.5 (18.2) (18.6) Ethylene C2H4 48.0 13.8 15.0 13.6
Ethane C2H6 47.1 12.7 16.2 15.4 Propylene C3H6 46.4 13.4 14.6 12.9
Propane C3H8 46.0 12.9 15.3 14.0 Butylene C4H8 45.6 14.3 14.3 12.5
Butane C4H10 45.4 12.7 15.1 13.7 Pentene C5H10 45.2 14.3 14.3 12.5
Pentane C5H12 45.0 12.6 14.7 13.2 Hexene C6H12 44.9 12.9 14.1 12.2
Hexane C6H14 44.8 12.7 14.6 12.9 Heptene C7H14 44.6 12.9 14.1 12.2
Heptane C7H16 44.6 12.7 14.5 12.8 Octene C8H16 44.5 12.9 14.1 12.1
Octane C8H18 44.5 12.6 14.4 12.7 Nonene C9H18 44.3 12.9 14.1 12.1
Nonane C9H20 44.3 12.7 14.3 12.5 Decene C10H20 44.2 12.9 14.1 12.2
Decane C10H22 44.4 12.7 14.3 12.4 Dodecene C12H24 44.1 12.9 14.1 12.2
Undecane C11H24 44.3 12.7 14.3 12.4 Tridecene C13H26 44.0 12.9 14.1 12.2
Dodecane C12H26 44.2 12.7 14.2 12.3 Tetradecene C14H28 44.0 12.9 14.1 12.2
Tridecane C13H28 44.2 12.7 14.2 12.3 Hexadecene C16H32 43.9 12.9 14.1 12.1
Kerosene C14H30 44.1 12.7 14.1 12.2 Octadecene C18H36 43.8 12.9 14.1 12.1
Hexadecane C16H34 44.1 12.7 14.2 12.3 Average 13.2 14.2 12.4
Average 12.7 14.6 12.9 Cyclic alkenes
Substituted alkanes Cyclohexene C6H10 43.0 13.0 13.4 11.0
Methylbutane C5H12 45.0 12.6 14.7 13.1 Methylcyclohexene C7H12 43.1 12.9 13.4 11.1
Dimethylbutane C6H14 44.8 12.7 14.6 13.0 Average 13.0 13.4 11.1
Methylpentane C6H14 44.8 12.7 14.6 12.9 Dienes
Dimethylpentane C7H16 44.6 12.7 14.5 12.9 1,3-Butadiene C4H6 44.6 13.7 13.7 11.5
Methylhexane C7H16 44.6 12.6 14.4 12.7 Cyclooctadiene C8H12 43.2 13.3 13.3 10.9
Isooctane C8H18 44.5 12.6 14.4 12.7 Average 13.5 13.5 11.2
Methylethylpentane C8H18 44.5 12.6 14.4 12.7 Normal alkynes
Ethylhexane C8H18 44.5 12.6 14.4 12.7 Acetylene C2H2 47.8 (15.6) 14.3 12.4
Dimethylhexane C8H18 44.5 12.7 14.5 12.8 Heptyne C7H12 44.8 13.4 13.9 11.8
Methylheptane C8H18 44.5 12.6 14.4 12.7 Octyne C8H14 44.7 13.3 14.0 11.9
Average 12.6 14.6 12.8 Decyne C10H18 44.5 13.2 13.9 11.9
Cyclic alkanes Dodecyne C12H22 44.3 13.2 14.0 12.0
Cyclopentane C5H10 44.3 12.8 13.9 11.9 Average 13.3 14.0 12.0
Methylcyclopentane C6H12 43.8 12.7 13.9 11.9 Arenes
Cyclohexane C6H12 43.8 12.7 13.8 11.7 Benzene C6H6 40.1 13.0 11.9 8.7
Methylcyclohexane C7H14 43.4 12.7 13.8 11.7 Toluene C7H8 39.7 12.9 12.1 9.0
Ethylcyclohexane C8H16 43.2 12.7 13.8 11.7 Styrene C8H8 39.4 13.1 12.0 8.8
Dimethylcyclohexane C8H16 43.2 12.7 13.8 11.7 Ethylbenzene C8H10 39.4 12.9 12.3 9.4
Cyclooctane C8H16 43.2 12.7 13.9 11.9 Xylene C8H10 39.4 13.0 12.4 9.5
Decalin C10H18 42.8 12.7 13.4 11.0 Propylbenzene C9H12 39.4 12.9 12.5 9.6
Bicyclohexyl C12H22 42.6 12.6 13.3 11.0 Trimethylbenzene C9H12 39.2 12.9 12.5 9.7
Average 12.7 13.8 11.6 Cumene C9H12 39.2 12.9 12.9 9.6
Naphthalene C10H8 39.0 12.9 11.3 7.7
Tetralin C10H12 39.0 12.9 12.2 9.2
Arenes (continued)

147
 H c * H * H c * H *
H O CO H CO H O CO H CO
T 2 T 2
d b d b
Fuel Formula (kJ/g) (kJ/g) (kJ/g) (kJ/g) Fuel Formula (kJ/g) (kJ/g) (kJ/g) (kJ/g)
Butylbenzene C10H14 39.0 12.9 12.7 9.9 Ketones (continued)
Diethylbenzene C10H14 39.0 13.7 13.5 11.1 Di-acetone alcohol C6H12O2 37.3 (16.9) (16.4) (15.7)
p-Cymene C10H14 39.0 13.0 12.5 9.6 Dipropyl ketone C7H14O 38.6 13.8 14.3 12.5
Methylnaphthalene C11H10 38.9 12.9 11.5 8.1 Phenylbutyl ketone C11H14O 34.8 12.6 11.6 (8.4)
Pentylbenzene C11H16 38.8 13.0 12.8 10.2 Average 13.2 13.2 11.1
Triethylbenzene C12H18 38.7 12.7 12.7 10.0 Acids
Average 13.0 12.4 9.4 Formic acid CH2O2 5.7 16.4 5.96 0
Alcohols Acetic acid C2H4O2 14.6 13.7 9.95 5.65
Methyl alcohol CH4O 20.0 13.4 14.5 12.9 Benzoic acid C7H6O2 24.4 12.4 9.66 5.18
Ethyl alcohol C2H6O 27.7 13.2 14.5 12.7 Cresylic acid C8H802 34.0 (16.0) 13.1 10.6
n-Propyl alcohol C3H8O 31.8 13.3 14.5 12.7 Esters
Isopropyl alcohol C3H8O 31.8 13.3 14.5 12.7 Ethyl formate C2H6O2 20.2 13.3 11.3 7.8
Allyl alcohol C3H6O 31.4 14.2 13.8 11.7 n-Propyl formate C4H8O2 23.9 13.2 12.0 8.8
n-Butyl alcohol C4H10O 34.4 13.3 14.5 12.8 n-Butyl formate C5H10O2 26.6 13.0 12.3 9.4
Isobutyl alcohol C4H10O 34.4 13.3 14.5 12.8 Methyl acetate C3H6O2 20.2 13.3 11.3 7.8
Sec-butyl alcohol C4H10O 34.4 13.3 14.5 12.8 Ethyl acetate C4H8O2 23.9 13.2 12.0 8.8
Ter-butyl alcohol C4H10O 34.4 13.3 14.5 12.8 n-Propyl acetate C5H10O2 26.6 13.0 12.3 9.4
n-Amyl alcohol C5H12O 36.2 13.3 14.5 12.8 n-Butyl acetate C6H12O2 28.7 13.0 12.6 9.8
Isobutyl carbinol C5H12O 36.2 13.3 14.5 12.8 Isobutyl acetate C6H12O2 28.7 13.0 12.6 9.8
Sec-butyl carbinol C5H12O 36.2 13.3 14.5 12.8 Amyl acetate C7H14O2 30.3 13.0 12.8 10.1
Methylpropylcarbinol C5H12O 36.2 13.3 14.5 12.8 Cyclohexyl acetate C8H14O2 31.5 13.3 12.7 10.0
Dimethylethylcarbinol C5H12O 36.2 13.3 14.5 12.8 Octyl acetate C10H20O2 33.6 12.9 13.1 10.6
n-Hexyl alcohol C6H14O 37.4 13.3 14.5 12.7 Ethylacetoacetate C6H10O3 30.3 (17.6) (14.9) (13.5)
Dimethylbutylalcohol C6H14O 37.4 13.3 14.5 12.7 Methyl propionate C4H8O2 23.9 13.2 12.0 7.4
Ethylbutyl alcohol C6H14O 37.4 13.3 14.5 12.7 Ethyl propionate C5H10O2 26.6 13.0 12.3 9.4
Cyclohexanol C6H12O 37.3 13.7 14.1 12.2 n-Butyl propionate C7H14O2 30.3 13.0 12.8 10.1
Benzyl alcohol C7H8O 32.4 13.0 11.4 8.0 Isobutyl propionate C7H14O2 30.3 13.0 12.8 10.1
n-Heptyl alcohol C7H16O 39.8 13.7 15.0 13.6 Amyl propionate C8H18O2 31.6 12.9 12.9 10.3
n-Octyl alcohol C8H18O 40.6 13.7 15.0 13.6 Methyl butyrate C5H10O2 26.6 13.0 12.3 9.4
n-Nonyl alcohol C9H20O 40.3 13.4 14.7 13.0 Ethyl butyrate C6H12O2 28.7 13.0 12.6 9.8
Average 13.3 14.5 12.8 Propyl butyrate C7H14O2 30.3 13.0 12.8 10.1
Aldehydes n-Butyl butyrate C8H16O2 31.6 12.9 12.9 10.3
Formaldehyde CH2O 18.7 (17.5) 12.7 10.1 Isobutyl butyrate C8H16O2 31.6 12.9 12.9 10.3
Acetaldehyde C2H4O 25.1 13.8 12.6 9.7 Ethyl laurate C14H28O2 37.2 13.3 13.8 11.6
Butyraldehyde C4H8O 33.8 13.9 13.9 11.7 Ethyl lactate C5H10O3 30.8 (18.9) (16.5) (16.0)
Crotonaldehyde C4H6O 34.8 15.2 13.8 11.8 Butyl lactate C7H14O3 33.3 (16.8) (15.8) (14.8)
Benzaldehyde C7H6O 32.4 13.4 11.2 7.5 Amyl lactate C8H16O3 34.3 (16.4) (15.6) (14.5)
Ethyl hexaldehyde C8H16O 39.4 13.7 12.7 9.9 Ethyl benzoate C9H10O2 34.5 (15.4) 13.1 10.5
Average 14.2 13.3 10.6 Ethyl carbonate C5H10O3 30.8 (18.9) (16.5) (16.0)
Ketones Ethyl oxalate C6H10O4 28.7 (20.2) (16.6) (20.2)
Acetone C3H6O 29.7 13.4 13.1 10.5 Ethyl malonate C5H8O4 32.2 (17.9) (19.3) (20.4)
Methylethyl ketone C4H8O 32.7 13.4 13.4 11.0 Average 13.0 12.5 9.7
Diethyl ketone C5H10O 33.7 12.9 13.2 10.7
Cyclohexanone C6H10O 35.9 13.8 13.3 11.0
Methyl butyl ketone C6H12O 35.2 12.9 13.3 11.0

148
 H c * H * H c * H *
H O CO H CO H O CO H CO
T 2 T 2
d b d b
Fuel Formula (kJ/g) (kJ/g) (kJ/g) (kJ/g) Fuel Formula (kJ/g) (kJ/g) (kJ/g) (kJ/g)
Others Carbon-hydrogen atoms in the structure (continued)
Camphor C10H16O 38.8 13.7 13.4 11.1 GM49 CH1.1 38.1 12.4 11.3 7.7
Cresol C7H8O 34.6 13.7 12.1 9.1 GM51 CH 35.6 11.6 10.8 7.0
Resorcinol C6H6O2 26.0 13.7 10.8 5.9 GM53 CH1.1 37.6 12.4 11.3 7.7
Acrolein C3H4O 29.1 14.6 12.3 9.4 Average 12.5 12.4 9.5
C-H-N fuels Carbon-hydrogen-oxygen-nitrogen atoms in the structure
Acrylonitrile C3H3N 24.5 8.5 9.8 5.4 Polyoxy-methylene CH2O 15.4 14.4 10.5 6.6
Diethylamine C4H11N 38.0 11.2 15.8 14.8 Polymethyl-
n-Butylamine C4H11N 38.0 11.2 15.8 14.8 methacrylate CH1.6O0.4 25.2 13.1 11.5 8.0
sec-Butylamine C4H11N 38.0 11.2 15.8 14.8 Polyester CH1.4O0.22 32.5 13.9 12.5 9.6
Pyridine C5H9N 32.2 11.0 11.6 8.2 Epoxy CH1.3O0.20 28.8 12.1 10.8 6.9
Aniline C6H7N 33.8 11.2 11.9 8.7 Polycarbonate CH0.88O0.19 29.7 13.1 10.7 6.9
Picoline C6H7N 33.8 11.2 11.9 8.7 Cellulose
Triethylamine C6H15N 39.6 11.6 15.2 13.8 triacetate CH1.3O0.67 17.6 13.3 9.6 5.1
Toluidine C7H9N 34.9 11.3 12.1 9.1 Polyethylene-
Dimethylaniline C8H11N 35.7 11.5 12.3 9.3 terephthalate CH0.80O0.40 22.0 13.2 9.6 5.1
Di-n-butylamine C8H19N 40.6 11.9 14.9 13.4 Rigid phenolic foam CH1.1O0.24 36.4 (16.8) (14.0) (12.0)
Quinoline C9H7N 36.1 12.4 11.8 8.5 Polyacrylonitrile (PAN) CHN0.33 30.8 10.7 12.3 9.4
Quinaldine C10H9N 36.7 12.4 11.9 8.7 Red oak CH1.7O0.72N0.001 17.1 13.2 10.2 6.0
Butylaniline C10H15N 37.0 11.7 12.5 9.7 Douglas fir CH1.7O0.74N0.002 16.4 12.4 9.5 5.0
Tri-n-butylamine C12H27N 41.6 12.1 14.6 12.9 Nylon CH1.8O0.17N0.17 30.8 11.9 13.3 10.8
Average 11.5 15.4 14.1 Flexible polyurethane foams
C-H-S fuels GM21 CH1.8O0.30N0.05 26.2 12.1 11.5 8.0
Carbon disulfide CS2 13.6 10.8 (23.5) (27.0) GM23 CH1.8O0.35N0.06 27.2 13.7 12.5 9.7
Thiophene C4H4S 31.9 14.0 15.2 14.0 GM25 CH1.7O0.32N0.07 24.6 12.0 11.1 7.5
Methylthiophene C5H6S 33.2 13.6 14.8 13.2 GM27 CH1.7O0.03N0.08 23.2 11.2 10.4 6.2
Thiophenol C6H6S 34.1 13.8 14.2 12.3 Carbon-hydrogen-oxygen-nitrogen atoms in the structure (continued)
Hexyl mercaptan C6H14S 33.0 11.6 14.8 13.2 Rigid polyurethane foams
Thiocresol C7H8S 34.9 13.5 14.1 12.1 GM29 CH1.100.23N0.10 26.0 12.6 10.7 6.8
Heptyl mercaptan C7H16S 33.7 11.6 14.4 12.7 GM31 CH1.200.22N0.10 25.0 11.9 10.2 6.1
Cresolmethylsulfide C8H11S 36.2 13.4 15.9 15.0 GM37 CH1.200.20N0.08 28.0 12.7 11.2 7.5
Decylmercaptan C10H22S 34.9 11.5 13.8 11.7 Rigid polyisocyanurate foams
Dodecyl mercaptan C12H26S 35.5 11.5 13.6 11.4 GM41 CH1.0O0.19N0.11 26.2 12.5 10.4 6.4
Hexyl sulfide C12H26S 35.5 11.5 13.6 11.4 GM43 CH0.93O0.20N0.11 22.2 10.8 8.9 (4.0)
Heptyl sulfide C14H30S 35.9 11.5 13.4 11.1 Average 12.5 10.9 7.2
Octyl sulfide C16H34S 36.3 11.5 13.3 10.9 Carbon-hydrogen-chlorine atoms in the structure
Decyl sulfide C20H42S 36.8 11.4 13.1 10.7 Polyethylene with
Average 11.3 13.1 11.5 25% chlorine CH1.9CI0.13 31.6 12.7 13.4 10.8
Carbon-hydrogen atoms in the structure 36% chlorine CH1.8CI0.22 26.3 12.8 12.9 10.2
Polyethylene CH2 43.6 12.8 13.9 11.8 48% chlorine CH1.7CI0.36 20.6 12.8 12.3 9.4
Polypropylene CH 43.4 12.7 13.8 11.7 Polychloroprene CH1.3CI0.30 25.3 13.3 12.7 9.5
Polyisobutylene CH2 43.7 12.7 13.9 11.9 Polyvinylchloride CH1.5CI0.50 16.4 11.7 11.7 8.2
Polybutadiene CH1.5 42.8 13.1 13.1 10.7 Polyvinyl-
Polystyrene CH 39.2 12.7 12.2 9.2 idenechloride CHCI 9.0 13.5 9.8 (5.5)
Expanded polystyrene Average 12.8 12.1 9.6
GM47 CH1.1 38.1 12.4 11.3 7.7

149
 H c * H *
H O CO H CO
T 2
d b
Fuel Formula (kJ/g) (kJ/g) (kJ/g) (kJ/g)
Carbon-hydrogen-fluorine atoms in the structured
Teflon TFE CF2 6.2 9.7 (7.1) (1.1)
Teflon FEP CF1.8 4.8 (6.9) (5.0) (0)
Tefzel ETFE CHF 12.6 12.6 9.2 (4.4)
Teflon PFA CF1.7O0.01 5.0 (8.0) (5.3) (0)
Kel-F (CTFE) CF1.5CI0.50 6.5 11.8 8.6 (3.5)
Halar (E-CTFE) CHF0.75CI0.25 12.0 9.8 9.8 (5.4)
Kynar (PVF2) CHF 13.3 12.4 9.1 (4.2)
Tedlar (PVF) CH1.5F0.50 13.5 (6.5) (7.1) (1.1)
Carbon-hydrogen-oxygen-silicone atoms in the structure
Silicone-1 CH1.3O0.25Si0.18 21.7 12.6 11.0 7.4
Silicone-2 CH1.5O0.30Si0.26 21.3 13.9 12.4 9.4
Silicone-3 CH3O0.50Si0.50 25.1 14.5 21.0 23.0
Note: Numbers in parentheses not used for averaging.
a
From the data measured in the FM Global Research Flammability Laboratory.
b
From the data for the elemental composition of the polymeric materials measured in the FM Global
Research Flammability Laboratory.
c
From the data measured by the FM Global Research Flammability Laboratory in the oxygen bomb
calorimeter and corrected for water as a gas and for the residue.
d
Trade names from Harper CA (ed) (1975) Handbook of Plastics and Elastomers. McGraw-Hill Book
Company, New York.

Table reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with
permission from SFPE.

150
 Pure Substances
Heat of Combustion and Related Properties of Pure Substances

Oxygen Liquid Vapor

Net, Fuel Boiling Latent Heat Heat
Molecular Gross, hcl hc /ro
l
Mass Temp., Heat of Capacity, Capacity,
Weight, hcu (MJ/k (MJ/kg Ratio, Tb Vaporization, Cpl Cpv
Material Composition W (MJ/kg) g) O2) ro (°C) hv (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg·°C) (kJ/kg·°C)
Acetaldehyde C2H4O 44.05 27.07 25.07 13.81 1.816 20.8 — 1.94 1.24
Acetic acid C2H4O2 60.05 14.56 13.09 12.28 1.066 118.1 395 1.11
Acetone C3H6O 58.08 30.83 28.56 12.96 2.204 56.5 501 2.12 1.29
Acetylene C2H2 26.04 49.91 48.22 15.70 3.072 –84.0 — — 1.69
Acrolein C3H4O 56.06 29.08 27.51 13.77 1.998 52.5 505 — 1.17
Acrylonitrile C3H3N 53.06 33.16 31.92 14.11 2.262 77.3 615 2.10 1.20
(Allene) → propadiene
Ammonium perchlorate *
NH4ClO4 117.49 2.35 2.16 3.97 0.545 — — —
iso-Amyl alcohol C5H12O 88.15 37.48 34.49 12.67 2.723 132.0 501 2.90 1.50
Aniline C6H7N 93.12 36.44 34.79 13.06 2.663 184.4 478 2.08 1.16
Benzaldehyde C7H6O 106.12 33.25 32.01 13.27 2.412 179.2 385 1.61
Benzene C6H6 78.11 41.83 40.14 13.06 3.073 80.1 389 1.72 1.05
Benzoic acid* C7H6O2 122.12 26.43 25.35 12.90 1.965 250.8 415 — 0.85
Benzyl alcohol C7H8O 108.13 34.56 32.93 13.09 2.515 205.7 467 2.00 1.19
Bicyclohexyl C12H22 166.30 45.35 42.44 12.61 3.367 236.0 263
1,2-Butadiene C4H6 54.09 47.95 45.51 13.99 3.254 10.8 — — 1.48
1,3-Butadiene C4H6 54.09 46.99 44.55 13.69 3.254 –4.4 — — 1.47
(1,3-Butadiyne) → diacetylene
n-Butane C4H10 58.12 49.50 45.72 12.77 3.579 –0.5 — 2.30 1.68
iso-Butane C4H10 58.12 48.95 45.17 12.62 3.579 –11.8 — — 1.67
1-Butene C4H8 56.10 48.44 45.31 13.24 3.422 –6.2 — — 1.53
n-Butylamine C4H11N 73.14 41.75 38.45 12.84 2.994 77.8 372 2.57 1.62
d-Camphor* C10H16O 152.23 38.75 36.44 12.84 2.838 203.4 — — 0.82
Carbon* C 12.01 32.80 32.80 12.31 2.664 4200.0 — — 0.71
Carbon disulfide CS2 76.13 6.34 6.34 5.03 1.261 46.5 351 1.00 0.60
Carbon monoxide CO 28.01 10.10 10.10 17.69 0.571 –191.3 — — 1.04
Cellulose* C6H10O5 162.14 17.47 16.12 13.61 1.184 — — 1.16 —
(Chloroethylene) → vinyl chloride
(Chloroform) → trichloromethane
Chlorotrifluoroethylene C2F3Cl 116.47 2.00 2.00 3.64 0.549 –28.3 188 1.34 0.72
m-Cresol C7H8O 108.13 34.26 32.64 12.98 2.515 202.2 399 2.00 1.13
Cumene C9H12 120.19 43.40 41.20 12.90 3.195 152.3 312 1.77 1.26
Cyanogen C2N2 52.04 21.06 21.06 17.12 1.230 –21.2 — — 1.12
Cyclobutane C4H8 56.10 48.91 45.77 13.38 3.422 12.9 — — 1.29
Cyclohexane C6H12 84.16 46.58 43.45 12.70 3.422 80.7 357 1.84 1.26
Cyclohexene C6H10 82.14 45.67 42.99 12.99 3.311 82.8 371 1.80 1.28
Cyclohexylamine C6H13N 99.18 41.05 38.17 12.79 2.984 134.5
Cyclopentane C5H10 70.13 46.93 43.80 12.80 3.422 49.3 389 2.23 1.18
Cyclopropane C3H6 42.08 49.70 46.57 13.61 3.422 –32.9 — 1.92 1.33
(Decahydronaphthalene) → cis-decalin
cis-Decalin C10H18 138.24 45.49 42.63 12.70 3.356 195.8 309 1.67 1.21
n-Decane C10H22 142.28 47.64 44.24 12.69 3.486 174.1 276 2.19 1.85
Diacetylene C4H2 50.06 46.60 45.72 15.89 2.877 10.3 — — 1.47
(Diamine) hydrazine
Diborane H6B2 27.69 79.80 79.80 23.02 3.467 –92.5 — — 1.75
Dichloromethane CH2Cl2 84.94 6.54 6.02 10.65 0.565 39.7 330 1.18 0.80
Diethyl cyclohexane C10H20 140.26 46.30 43.17 12.58 3.422 174.0 1.87
Diethyl ether C4H10O 74.12 36.75 33.79 13.04 2.590 34.6 360 2.34 1.52
(2,4 Diisocyanotoulene) → toluene diisocyanate
(Diisopropyl ether) → iso-propyl ether
Dimethylamine C2H7N 45.08 38.66 35.25 13.24 2.662 6.9 — — 1.80
(Dimethyl aniline) → xylidene
Dimethyldecalin C12H22 166.30 45.70 42.79 13.15 3.254 220.0 260
(Dimethyl ether) → methyl ether
1,1-Dimethylhydrazine
(UDMH) C2H8N2 60.10 32.95 30.03 14.10 2.130 25.0 578 2.73
Dimethyl sulfoxide C2H6SO 78.13 29.88 28.19 15.30 1.843 189.0 677 1.89 1.14
1,3 Dioxane C4H8O2 88.10 26.57 24.58 9.66 2.543 105.0 404
1,4 Dioxane C4H8O2 88.10 26.83 24.84 9.77 2.543 101.1 406 1.74 1.07
Ethane C2H6 30.07 51.87 47.49 12.75 3.725 –88.6 — — 1.75
Ethanol C2H6O 46.07 29.67 26.81 12.87 2.084 78.5 837 2.43 1.42
(Ethene) → ethylene
Ethyl acetate C4H8O2 88.10 25.41 23.41 12.89 1.816 77.2 367 1.94 1.29
Ethyl acrylate C5H8O2 100.12 27.44 25.69 13.39 1.918 100.0 290 1.14
Ethylamine C2H7N 45.08 38.63 35.22 13.23 2.662 16.5 — 2.89 1.61
Ethyl benzene C8H10 106.16 43.00 40.93 12.93 3.165 136.1 339 1.75 1.21
Ethylene C2H4 28.05 50.30 47.17 13.78 3.422 –103.9 — 2.38 1.56
Ethylene glycol C2H6O2 62.07 19.17 17.05 13.22 1.289 197.5 800 2.43 1.56

151
 Oxygen Liquid Vapor
Net, Fuel Boiling Latent Heat Heat
Molecular Gross, hcl hcl /ro Mass Temp., Heat of Capacity, Capacity,
Weight, hcu (MJ/k (MJ/kg Ratio, Tb Vaporization, Cpl Cpv
Material Composition W (MJ/kg) g) O2) ro (°C) hv (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg·°C) (kJ/kg·°C)
Ethylene oxide C2H4O 44.05 29.65 27.65 15.23 1.816 10.7 — 1.97 1.10
(Ethylene trichloride) → trichloroethylene
(Ethyl ether) → diethyl ether
Formaldehyde CH2O 30.03 18.76 17.30 16.23 1.066 –19.3 — — 1.18
Formic acid CH2O2 46.03 5.53 4.58 13.15 0.348 100.5 476 2.15 0.98
Furan C4H4O 68.07 30.61 29.32 13.86 2.115 31.4 398 1.69 0.96
a-D-glucose *
C6H12O6 180.16 15.55 14.08 13.21 1.066 — — — —
(Glycerine) → glycerol
Glycerol C3H8O3 92.10 17.95 16.04 13.19 1.216 290.0 800 2.42 1.25
(Glycerol trinitrate) → nitroglycerin
n-Heptane C7H16 100.20 48.07 44.56 12.68 3.513 98.4 316 2.20 1.66
n-Heptene C7H14 98.18 47.44 44.31 12.95 3.422 93.6 317 2.17 1.58
Hexadecane C16H34 226.43 47.25 43.95 12.70 3.462 286.7 226 2.22 1.64
Hexamethyldisiloxane C6H18Si2O 162.38 38.30 35.80 15.16 2.364 100.1 192 2.01 —
(Hexamethylenetetramine) → methenamine
n-Hexane C6H14 86.17 48.31 44.74 12.68 3.528 68.7 335 2.24 1.66
n-Hexene C6H12 84.16 47.57 44.44 12.99 3.422 63.5 333 2.18 1.57
Hydrazine H4N2 32.05 52.08 49.34 49.40 0.998 113.5 1180 3.08 1.65
Hydrazoic acid HN3 43.02 15.28 14.77 79.40 0.186 35.7 690 — 1.02
Hydrogen H2 2.00 141.79 130.80 16.35 8.000 –252.7 — — 14.42
(Hydrogen azide) → hydrazoic acid —
Hydrogen cyanide HCN 27.03 13.86 13.05 8.82 1.480 25.7 933 2.61 1.33
Hydrogen sulfide H2S 34.08 48.54 47.25 16.77 2.817 –60.3 548 — 1.00
Maleic anhydride* C4H2O3 74.04 18.77 18.17 14.01 1.297 202.0 — — —
Melamine* C3H6N6 126.13 15.58 14.54 12.73 1.142 — — — —
Methane CH4 16.04 55.50 50.03 12.51 4.000 –161.5 — — 2.23
Methanol CH4O 32.04 22.68 19.94 13.29 1.500 64.8 1101 2.37 1.37
Methenamine* C6H12N4 140.19 29.97 28.08 13.67 2.054 — — — —
2-Methoxyethanol C3H8O2 76.09 24.23 21.92 13.03 1.682 124.4 583 2.23 —
Methylamine CH5N 31.06 34.16 30.62 13.21 2.318 –6.3 — — 1.61
(2-Methyl 1-butanol) → iso-amyl alcohol
(Methyl chloride) → dichloromethane
Methyl ether C2H6O 46.07 31.70 28.84 13.84 2.084 –24.9 — — 1.43
Methyl ethyl ketone C4H8O 72.10 33.90 31.46 12.89 2.441 79.6 434 2.30 1.43
1-Methylnaphthalene C11H10 142.19 40.88 39.33 12.95 3.038 244.7 323 1.58 1.12
Methyl methacrylate C5H8O2 100.11 27.37 25.61 12.33 2.078 101.0 360 1.91 —
Methyl nitrate CH3NO3 77.04 8.67 7.81 75.10 0.104 64.6 409 2.04 0.99
(2-Methyl propane) → iso-butane
Naphthalene *
C10H8 128.16 40.21 38.84 12.96 2.996 217.9 — 1.18 1.03
Nitrobenzene C6H5NO2 123.11 25.11 24.22 14.90 1.625 210.7 330 1.52 —
Nitroglycerin C3H5N3O9 227.09 6.82 6.34 — — Unstable 462 1.49 —
Nitromethane CH3NO2 61.04 11.62 10.54 15.08 0.699 101.1 567 1.74 0.94
n-Nonane C9H20 128.25 47.76 44.33 12.69 3.493 150.6 295 2.10 1.65
Octamethyl-
cyclotetrasiloxane C8H24Si4O4 296.62 26.90 25.10 14.56 1.725 175.0 127 1.88 —
n-Octane C8H18 114.22 47.90 44.44 12.69 3.502 125.6 301 2.20 1.65
iso-Octane C8H18 114.22 47.77 44.31 12.65 3.502 117.7 272 2.15 1.65
1-Octene C8H10 112.21 47.33 44.20 12.92 3.422 121.3 301 2.19 1.59
(1-Octylene) → 1-octene
1,2-Pentadiene C5H8 68.11 47.31 44.71 13.60 3.288 44.9 405 2.21 1.55
n-Pentane C5H12 72.15 48.64 44.98 12.68 3.548 36.0 357 2.33 1.67
1-Pentene C5H10 70.13 47.77 44.64 13.04 3.422 30.0 359 2.16 1.56
Phenol* C6H6O 94.11 32.45 31.05 13.05 2.380 181.8 433 1.43 1.10
Phosgene COCl2 98.92 1.74 1.74 10.74 0.162 8.3 247 1.02 0.58
Propadiene C3H4 40.06 48.54 46.35 14.51 3.195 –34.6 — — 1.44
Propane C3H8 44.09 50.35 46.36 12.78 3.629 –42.2 — 2.23 1.67
n-Propanol C3H8O 60.09 33.61 30.68 12.81 2.396 97.2 686 2.50 1.45
iso-Propanol C3H8O 60.09 33.38 30.45 12.71 2.396 80.3 663 2.42 1.48
Propene C3H6 42.08 48.92 45.79 13.38 3.422 –47.7 — — 1.52
(iso-Propylbenzene) → cumene
(Propylene) → propene
iso-Propyl ether C6H14O 102.17 39.26 36.25 12.86 2.819 67.8 286 2.14 1.55
Propyne C3H4 40.06 48.36 46.17 14.45 3.195 –23.3 — — 1.51
Styrene C8H8 104.14 42.21 40.52 13.19 3.073 145.2 356 1.76 1.17
Sucrose *
C12H22O11 342.30 16.49 15.08 13.44 1.122 — — 1.24 —
(1,2,3,4-Tetrahydronaphthalene) → tetralin
Tetralin C10H12 132.20 42.60 40.60 12.90 3.147 207.0 425 1.64 1.19
Tetranitromethane CN4O8 196.04 2.20 2.20 — — 125.7 196 — —
Toluene C7H8 92.13 42.43 40.52 12.97 3.126 110.4 360 1.67 1.12
Toluene diisocyanate C9H6N2O2 174.16 24.32 23.56 13.50 1.746 120.0 — 1.65 —
Triethanolamine C6H15NO3 149.19 29.29 27.08 15.30 1.770 360.0 — — —

152
 Oxygen Liquid Vapor
Net, Fuel Boiling Latent Heat Heat
Molecular Gross, hcl hcl /ro Mass Temp., Heat of Capacity, Capacity,
Weight, hcu (MJ/k (MJ/kg Ratio, Tb Vaporization, Cpl Cpv
Material Composition W (MJ/kg) g) O2) ro (°C) hv (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg·°C) (kJ/kg·°C)
Triethylamine C6H15N 101.19 43.19 39.93 12.95 3.083 89.5 303 2.22 1.59
1,1,2-Trichloroethane C2H3Cl3 133.42 7.77 7.28 11.02 0.660 114.0 260 1.11 0.67
Trichloroethylene C2HCl3 131.40 6.77 6.60 12.05 0.548 86.9 245 1.07 0.61
Trichloromethane CHCl3 119.39 3.39 3.21 9.60 0.335 61.7 249 0.97 0.55
Trinitromethane CHN3O6 151.04 3.41 3.25 — — Unstable — — —
Trinitrotoluene* C7H5N3O6 227.13 15.12 14.64 19.80 0.740 240.0 322 1.40 —
Trioxane C3H6O3 90.08 16.57 15.11 14.17 1.066 114.5 450 — —
Urea* CH4ON2 60.06 10.52 9.06 11.34 0.799 — — — 1.55
Vinyl acetate C4H6O2 86.09 24.18 22.65 13.54 1.673 72.5 167 2.00 1.05
Vinyl acetylene C4H4 52.07 47.05 45.36 14.76 3.073 5.1 — — 1.41
Vinyl bromide C2H3Br 106.96 12.10 11.48 13.95 0.823 15.6 — 2.42 0.53
Vinyl chloride C2H3Cl 62.50 20.02 16.86 11.97 1.408 –13.8 — — 0.86
(Vinyl trichloride) → 1,1,2-trichlorolthane
Xylenes C8H10 106.16 42.89 40.82 12.90 3.165 138–144 343 1.72 1.21
Xylidene C8H11N 121.22 38.28 36.29 12.79 2.838 192.7 366 1.77 —
*
Denotes substance in crystalline solid form; otherwise, liquid if Tb > 25°C, gaseous if Tb > 25°C.

Table reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Plastics
Heats of Combustion and Related Properties of Plastics
Oxygen Heat
Fuel Capacity
Molecular Gross, Net, hc /ro
l
Mass Solid,
Unit Weight, hcu hcl (MJ/kg Ratio, Cps
Material Composition W (MJ/kg) (MJ/kg) O2) ro (kJ/kg·°C)
Acrylonitrile-butadiene styrene — — 35.25 33.75 1.41–1.59
copolymer
Bisphenol A epoxy C11.85H20.37O2.83N0.3 212.10 33.53 31.42 13.41 2.343
Butadiene-acrylonitrile 37% — — 39.94
copolymer
Butadiene/styrene 8.58% copolymer C4.18H6.09 56.30 44.84 42.49 13.11 3.241 1.94
Butadiene/styrene 25.5% copolymer C4.60H6.29 61.55 44.19 41.95 13.07 3.209 1.82
Cellulose acetate (triacetate) C12H16O8 288.14 18.88 17.66 13.25 1.333 1.34
Cellulose acetate-butyrate C12H18O7 274.27 23.70 22.30 14.67 1.517 1.70
Epoxy, unhardened C31H36O5.5 496.63 32.92 31.32 13.05 2.400
Epoxy, hardened C39H40O8.5 644.74 30.27 28.90 13.01 2.221
Melamine formaldehyde (Formica™) C6H6N6 162.08 19.33 18.52 12.51 1.481 1.46
Nylon 6 C6H11NO 113.08 30.1–31.7 28.0–29.6 12.30 2.335 1.52
Nylon 6,6 C12H22N2O2 226.16 31.6–31.7 29.5–29.6 12.30 2.405 1.70
Nylon 11 (Rilsan) C11H21NO 183.14 36.99 34.47 12.33 2.796 1.70–2.30
Phenol formaldehyde C15H12O2 224.17 27.9–31.6 26.7–30.4 11.80 2.427 1.70
foam 21.6–27.4 20.2–26.2
Polyacenaphthalene C12H8 152.14 39.23 38.14 12.95 2.945
Polyacrylonitrile C3H3N 53.04 32.22 30.98 13.70 2.262 1.50
Polyallylphthalate C14H14O 198.17 27.74 26.19 9.54 2.745
(Polyamides) → nylon
Poly-1,4-butadiene C4H6 54.05 45.19 42.75 13.13 3.256
Poly-1-butene C4H8 56.05 46.48 43.35 12.65 3.426 1.88
Polycarbonate C16H14O3 254.19 30.99 29.78 13.14 2.266 1.26
Polycarbon suboxide C3O2 68.03 13.78 13.78 14.64 0.941
Polychlorotrifluorethylene C2F3Cl 116.47 1.12 1.12 2.04 0.549 0.92
Polydiphenylbutadiene C16H10 202.18 39.30 38.20 13.05 2.928
Polyester, unsaturated C5.77H6.25O1.63 101.60 21.6–29.8 20.3–28.5 11.90 2.053 1.20–2.30
Polyether, chlorinated C5H8OCl2 154.97 17.84 16.71 12.45 1.342
Polyethylene C2H4 28.03 46.2–46.5 43.1–43.4 12.63 3.425 1.83–2.30
Polyethylene oxide C2H4O 44.02 26.65 24.66 13.57 1.817
Polyethylene terephthalate C10H8O4 192.11 22.18 21.27 12.77 1.666 1.00
Polyformaldehyde CH2O 30.01 16.93 15.86 14.88 1.066 1.46
Poly-1-hexene sulfone C6H12SO2 148.13 29.78 28.00 14.40 1.944
Polyhydrocyanic acid HCN 27.02 23.26 22.45 15.17 1.480
(Polyisobutylene) → poly-1-butene
Polyisocyanurate foam — 26.30 22.2–26.2
Polyisoprene C5H8 68.06 44.90 42.30 12.90 3.291
Poly-3-methyl-1-butene C5H10 70.06 46.55 43.42 12.67 3.426
Polymethyl methacrylate C5H8O2 100.06 26.64 24.88 12.97 1.919 1.44
Poly-4-methyl-1-pentene C6H12 84.08 46.52 43.39 12.67 3.425 2.18
Poly-α-methylstyrene C9H10 118.11 42.31 40.45 13.00 3.116

153
 Oxygen Heat
Fuel Capacity
Molecular Gross, Net, hcl /ro Mass Solid,
Unit Weight, hcu hcl (MJ/kg Ratio, Cps
Material Composition W (MJ/kg) (MJ/kg) O2) ro (kJ/kg·°C)
Polynitroethylene C2H3O2N 73.03 15.96 15.06 19.64 0.767
Polyoxymethylene CH2O 30.01 16.93 15.65 14.68 1.066
Polyoxytrimethylene C3H6O 58.04 31.52 29.25 13.27 2.205
Poly-1-pentene C5H10 70.06 45.58 42.45 12.39 3.426
Polyphenylacetylene C8H6 102.09 40.00 38.70 13.00 2.978
Polyphenylene oxide C8H8O 120.09 34.59 33.13 13.09 2.531 1.34
Polypropene sulfone C3H6SO2 106.10 23.82 22.58 16.64 1.357
Poly--propiolactone C3H4O2 72.14 19.35 18.13 13.62 1.331
Polypropylene C3H6 42.04 46.37 43.23 12.62 3.824 2.10
Polypropylene oxide C3H6O 58.04 31.17 28.90 13.11 2.205
Polystyrene C8H8 104.10 41.4–42.5 39.7–39.8 12.93 3.074 1.40
Polystyrene-foam — 39.70 35.6–40.8
Polystyrene-foam, FR — 41.2–42.9
Polysulfones, butene C4H8SO2 120.11 24.04– 22.25– 14.79 1.598 1.30
26.47 25.01
Polysulfur S 32.06 9.72 9.72 9.74 0.998
Polytetrafluoroethylene C2F4 100.02 5.00 5.00 7.81 0.640 1.02
Polytetrahydrofuran C4H8O 72.05 34.39 31.85 13.04 2.443
Polyurea C15H18O4N4 318.20 24.91 23.67 13.45 1.760
Polyurethane C6.3H7.1NO2.1 130.30 23.90 22.70 13.16 1.725 1.75–1.84
Polyurethane-foam — 26.1–31.6 23.2–28.0
Polyurethane-foam, FR — 24.0–25.0
Polyvinyl acetate C4H6O2 86.05 23.04 21.51 12.86 1.673
Polyvinyl alcohol C2H4 44.03 25.00 23.01 12.66 1.817 1.70
Polyvinyl butyral C8H14O2 142.10 32.90 30.70 13.00 2.365
Polyvinyl chloride C2H3Cl 62.48 17.95 16.90 12.00 1.408 0.90–1.20
Polyvinyl-foam — 22.83 1.30–2.10
Polyvinyl fluoride C2H3F 46.02 21.70 20.27 10.60 1.912
Polyvinylidene chloride C2H2Cl2 96.93 10.52 10.07 12.21 0.825 1.34
Polyvinylidene fluoride C2H2F2 64.02 14.77 14.08 11.26 1.250 1.38
Urea formaldehyde C3H6O2N2 102.05 15.90 14.61 13.31 1.098 1.60–2.10
Urea formaldehyde-foam — — 14.80

Table reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Miscellaneous Materials
Heats of Combustion of Miscellaneous Materials
Gross, Net,
hcu hcl
Material (MJ/kg) (MJ/kg)
Acetate (see cellulose acetate)
Acrylic fiber 30.6–30.8
Blasting powder 2.1–2.4
Butter 38.5
Celluloid (cellulose nitrate and camphor) 17.5–20.6 16.4–19.2
Cellulose acetate fiber, C8H12O6 17.8–18.4 16.4–17.0
Cellulose diacetate fiber, C10H14O7 18.7
Cellulose nitrate, C6H9N1O7/C6H8N2O9/C6H7N3O11 9.11–13.48
Cellulose triacetate fiber, C12H16O8 18.8 17.6
Charcoal 33.7–34.7 33.2–34.2
Coal—anthracite 30.9–34.6 30.5–34.2
—bituminous 24.7–36.3
Coke 28.0–31.0 23.6–35.2
Cork 26.1 28.0–31.0
Cotton 16.5–20.4
Dynamite 5.4
Epoxy, C11.9H20.4O2.8N0.3/C6.064H7.550O1.222 32.8–33.5 31.1–31.4
Fat, animal 39.8
Flint powder 3.0–3.1
Fuel oil—No. 1 46.1
—No. 6 42.5

154
 Gross, Net,
hcu hcl
Material (MJ/kg) (MJ/kg)
Gasketing—chlorosulfonated 28.5
polyethylene (Hypalon)
—vinylidene fluoride/ 14.0–15.1
hexafluoropropylene
(Fluorel, Viton A)
Gasoline 46.8 43.7
Jet fuel—JP1 43.0
—JP3 43.5
—JP4 46.6 43.5
—JP5 45.9 43.0
Kerosene (jet fuel A) 46.4 43.3
Lanolin (wool fat) 40.8
Lard 40.1
Leather 18.2–19.8
Lignin, C2.6H3O 24.7–26.4 23.4–25.1
Lignite 22.4–33.3
Modacrylic fiber 24.7
Naphtha 43.0–47.1 40.9–43.9
Neoprene, C5H5Cl—gum 24.3
—foam 9.7–26.8
Nomex™ (polymethaphenylene 27.0–28.7
isophthalamide) fiber, C14H10O2N2
Oil—castor 37.1
—linseed 39.2–39.4
—mineral 45.8–46.0
—olive 39.6
—solar 41.8
Paper—brown 16.3–17.9
—magazine 12.7
—newsprint 19.7
—wax 21.5
Paraffin wax 46.2 43.1
Peat 16.7–21.6
Petroleum jelly (C7.118H12.957O0.091) 45.9
Rayon fiber 13.6–19.5
Rubber—buna N 34.7–35.6
—butyl 45.8
—isoprene (natural) C5H8 44.9 42.3
—latex foam 33.9–40.6
—GRS 44.2
—tire, auto 32.6
Silicone rubber (SiC2H6O) 15.5–16.8
—foam 14.0–19.5
Sisal 15.9
Spandex fiber 31.4
Starch 17.6 16.2
Straw 15.6
Sulfur—rhombic 9.28
—monoclinic 9.29
Tobacco 15.8
Wheat 15.0
Wood—beech 20.0 18.7
—birch 20.0 18.7
—douglas fir 21.0 19.6
—maple 19.1 17.8
—red oak 20.2 18.7
—spruce 21.8 20.4
—white pine 19.2 17.8
—hardboard 19.9
Woodflour 19.8
Wool 20.7–26.6
Table reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

155
 Selected Metals and Nonmetallic Elements
Heats of Combustion of Selected Metals and Nonmetallic Elements
Element Symbol Element Name Oxide Formed Δhc (MJ/kg)
Al Aluminum Al2O3 31.06
B Boron B2O3 58.83
Ba Barium BaO 4.03
Beq Beryllium BeO 67.48
Ca Calcium CaO 15.58
Cd Cadmium CdO 2.30
Ce Cerium CeO2 7.77
Cr Chromium Cr2O3 10.78
Cu Copper CuO 2.48
Fe Iron FeO 4.87
Hf Hafnium HfO2 6.42
Li Lithium Li2O 43.08
Mg Magnesium MgO 24.73
Na Sodium Na2O 9.00
Sr Strontium SrO 6.76
Th Thorium ThO2 5.29
Ti Titanium ThO2 19.6
U Uranium UO2 4.56
W Tungsten WO3 4.59
Zn Zinc ZnO 5.37
Zr Zirconium ZrO2 12.03
Table reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Autoignition Temperatures for Liquids

Autoignition Temperatures for Liquids
Fuel Autoignition Temperature (°C)

Acetaldehyde 185.0
Acetone 537.8
Acetylene 305.0
Acrolein 233.9
Acrylonitrile (564) 481.1
Ammonia 651.1
Aniline 617.2
Benzene 562.2
Benzyl alcohol 436.1
1,2-Butadiene 428.9
Butanone (methyl ethyl ketone) 515.6
1-Butene 383.9
n-Butene 405.0
d-Camphor 466.1
Carbon disulfide 90.0
Carbon monoxide 608.9
Cyclobutane 426.7
Cyclohexane 260.0
Cyclohexene 265.0
Cyclopentane 361.1
Cyclopropane 497.8
n-Decane 207.8
Diethyl ether 180.0
Ethane 515.0
Ethanol 422.8
Ethyl acetate 426.7

156
 Fuel Autoignition Temperature (°C)

Ethylamine 383.9
Ethylene oxide 428.9
n-Heptane 222.8
n-Hexane 408.9
Hydrogen 400.0
iso-Propanol 398.9
Methane 600.0
Methanol 463.9
Methyl formate 456.1
n-Nonane 206.1
n-Octane 220.0
n-Pentane 260.0
1-Pentene 217.2
Propane 450.0
n-Propanol 371.1
Propene 455.0
Toluene 536.1
m-Xylene 527.8
o-Xylene 463.9
p-Xylene 528.9
For more information, see Table C.1 and Chapter 18, “Ignition of Liquids” in the SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition.

Table reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Critical Heat Flux and Thermal Response Parameter of Materials

CHF TRP
(kW/m2) (kW⋅s1/2/m2)
ASTM ASTM ASTM ASTM
E2058 E1354 E2058 E1354
Material FPA Cone FPA Cone
Natural
Flour 10 — 218 —
Sugar 10 — 255 —
Tissue paper 10 — 95 —
Newspaper 10 — 108 —
Wood (red oak) 10 — 134 —
Wood (Douglas fir) 10 — 138 —
Wood (Douglas fir)/fire retarded (FR) 10 — 251 —
Wood (hemlock) — — — 175
Corrugated paper (light) 10 — 152 —
Corrugated paper (heavy) — — — —
No coating 10 — 189 —
Coating (10% by weight) 15 — 435 —
Coating (15% by weight) 15 — 526 —
Coating (20% by weight) 15 — 714 —
Wool 100% — — — 252
Synthetic (Ordinary Polymers)
Acrylic fiber 100% — — — 180
Acrylic (modified)/FR — — — 526
Acrylonitrile-butadiene- styrene (ABS) — 9–15 — 317–365
ABS-FR — 13 — 330
Butyl rubber (BR, polyisobutylene) — 19 — 211
Epoxy (EP) 13 20 162 —
Isophthalic polyester — — — 296
Nitrile-butadiene (Buna-N, NBR) — 26 — 308

157
 CHF TRP
(kW/m2) (kW⋅s1/2/m2)
ASTM ASTM ASTM ASTM
E2058 E1354 E2058 E1354
Material FPA Cone FPA Cone
Polyamide (PA, Nylon) 6 15 15–20 154–270 379–461
PA66 — 15–21 — 352
PA 11 — 15–21 — 352
PPO-PS — — — 455
Polyethylenephthalate (PEN) — 24 — 545
Polyethyleneterephthalate (PET) 10 — 174 —
Polyethylene (PE) high density (HD) 15 15 321–454 343
PE (cross-linked) 15 — 224–301 442
PE (cross-linked)/ nonhalogenated FR 15 — 652–700 581
Polyisoprene (natural rubber, NR) 10 17 174 294
Polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) 10 6–23 274 274
Polymethylpentene (PMP) — — — —
Polyoxymethylene (POM) 13 — 250–269 —
Polypropylene (PP) 10–15 15 277–333 193–336
PP/FR panel 15 — 315 —
Polyphenyleneether (PPE) — — — 323
Polystyrene (PS) 13 — 162 —
PS-FR — — 221–667 —
Polyvinyl ester — — — 263
Polyvinyl ester panels 13–15 — 440–700 —
Styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR) — 10–15 — 198
Unsaturated polyester (UPT) — — 343 —
Vinyl ester (VE) — — — 285
Vinyl thermoplastic elastomer — — 294 —
Foams (Wall, Ceiling Insulation Materials, etc.)
Polyurethanes 13–40 — 55–221 —
Polystyrenes 10–15 — 111–317 —
Latex 16 — 113–172 —
Phenolic 20 — 610 —

Synthetic High-Temperature Engineered Polymers

Melamine formaldehyde (MF) — 25 — 324
Phenol formaldehyde (PF) — 15–26 — 537
Polyamideimide (PAI, Torlon®) — 40–50 — 378
Polybenzimidazole (PBI) — ∼60 — —
Polybenzoylphenylene (PX) — — — 626
Polycarbonate (PC) 15 15–20 357–455 455
PC panel 16 — 420 —
PC/ABS (70/30) — — — 344
PC/ABS-FR — — — 391
Polydimethylphenyleneoxide (PPO) — 19 — 342
Polyethylenephthalate (PEN) — — 545 —
Polyethersulfone (PESU, Radel-A®) — 19–30 — 360
Polyether ether ketone (PEEK) 30 30–40 550 623
Polyetherimide (PEI) 25 25–40 435 435
Polyphenyleneether (PPE) — — — 323
Polyphenylenesulfide (PPS) — 35–38 — 395
Polyphenylsulfone — 32–35 512 512
(Radel-R® PPSU)
Polyphenyleneether (PPE) — — — 323
Polysulfone (PSU) 30 26 469 424
Polydimethylsiloxane (SIR) — 34 — 429
Halogenated
Polychloroprene (neoprene, CR) — 20–37 — 245
Polytetrafluoroethylene-perfluoroether (PFA) — — — 787

Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) 50 — 680 —

158
 CHF TRP
(kW/m2) (kW⋅s1/2/m2)
ASTM ASTM ASTM ASTM
E2058 E1354 E2058 E1354
Material FPA Cone FPA Cone
Polytrifluoroethylene (P3FE) — — — 504
Polyvinylidenefluoride (PVDF) — — 609 —
Polyvinylfluoride (PVF) — — — 303
Polychlorotrifluoroethylene (CTFE) — 30 — 460
Polyethylene-tetrafluoroethyl-ene (ETFE, Tefzel®) 25 17–27 481 478

Polyethylenechlorotrifluoro- ethylene (ECTFE) 38 38–74 450 410

Fluorinated ethylene propylene (FEP, Teflon®) 38–50 — 680 —
FEP fabric 50 — 299 —
FEP coated on metal 20 — 488 —
Polytrifluoroethylene (P3FE) — — — 504
Polyvinylchloride (PVC, flexible) 10 21 215–263 194
PVC flexible (LOI = 0.20) — — — 285
PVC flexible (LOI = 0.25) — — — 401
PVC flexible, FR (alkyl aryl phosphate, LOI = — — — 401
0.28)
PVC flexible, FR (Sb2O3, LOI = 0.30) — — — 397
PVC flexible, FR (tertiary phosphate, LOI = 0.34) — — — 345
PVC flexible, FR — — — 222–263
PVC, rigid 15 15–28 357 357–418
PVC, rigid (LOI = 0.50) — — — 388
PVC sheets 15 — 446–590 —
PVC panel 17 — 321 —
PVC fabric 26 — 217 —
Chlorinated PVC (CPVC) 40 40 435 590–1111
Polyvinylfluoride (PVF) — — — 303

Composite and Fiber Reinforced (Glass—Gl and Graphite—Gr)

Acrylic/Gl — — — 180
Bismaleimide (BMI)/Gr — — — 513–608
Cyanate ester/Gl — — — 302
Epoxy (EP)/Gl (thin sheet) 10 — 156 198
EP/Gl 10–15 — 388–540 288–665
EP/Gr 15 — 395–481 395–554
EP/Gr/intumescent coating (IC) — — 962 —
EP/Gr/ceramic coating (CC) — — 2273 —
EP/Gr/CC/IC — — 1786 —
EP/Kevlar (thin sheet) — — — 120
Graphite composite 40 — 400 —
Isophthalic polyester/Gl (77%) — — — 426
Polyarylsulfone/Gr — — — 360
Polyamide (PA6)/Gl (10%) — — — 303
PA6/Gl (20%) — — — 315
PA6/Gl (30%) — — — 318
PA6/Gl (50%) — — — 359–371
Polybutyleneterephthalate (PBT)/Gl (10%) — — — 317
PBT/Gl (20%) — — — 308
PBT/Gl (30%) — — — 325
PBT/Gl (50%) — — — 381
Polycarbonate (PC)/Gl (10%) — — — 383
PC/Gl (20%) — — — 362
PC/Gl (30%) — — — 373
PC/Gl (50%) — — — 402
Polyether ether ketone (PEEK)/Gl (30%) — — — 301
PEEK/Gr — — — 514
Polyester (PEST)/Gl 10–15 — 275–406 —
Polyether ketoneketone (PEKK)/Gl — — — 710

159
 CHF TRP
(kW/m2) (kW⋅s1/2/m2)
ASTM ASTM ASTM ASTM
E2058 E1354 E2058 E1354
Material FPA Cone FPA Cone
Polyethersulfone (PESU)/Gl (30%) — — — 256
Polyethersulfone (PESU)/Gr — — — 352
Polyimide/Gl — — 844 —
Phenol formaldehyde (PF)/Gl 20 — — 610
Phenol/Gl (thin sheet) 33 — 105 172
Phenol/Gl (thick sheet) 20 — 610 —
Phenolic/Gl — — — 382–998
Phenolic/Gl (45%) — — — 683
Phenolic/Gr 20 — 333 398–982
Phenolic/PE fibers — — — 267
Phenolic/aramid fibers — — — 287
Phenolic/Kevlar (thin sheet) 20 — 185 258
Phenolic/Kevlar (thick sheet) 15 — 403 —
Phenolic/Gr/ceramic coating — — 807 —
Phenolic/Gr/intumescent coating — — 1563 —
Phenolic laminate/Gl (45%) — — — 683
Polypropylene (PP)/Gl panel — — — 315–377
Polyvinylester/Gl — — 281 312–429
Polyvinylester/Gl (69%) — — — 444
Polyvinylester/Gl/ceramic coating (CC) — — 676 —
Polyvinylester/Gl/intumescent coating (IC) — — 1471 —
Polyvinylester/Gl/IC/CC — — 1923 —
Polyphenylenesulfide (PPS)/ Gl — — — 588–623
PPS/Gr — — — 330–510

Materials with Fiberweb, Netlike, and Multiplex Structures

Polypropylenes 8–15 — 108–417 —
Polyester-polypropylene 10 — 139 —
Wood pulp-polypropylene 8 — 90 —
Polyester 8–18 — 94–383 —
Rayon 14–17 — 161–227 —
Polyester-rayon 13–17 — 119–286 —
Wool-nylon 15 — 293 —
Nylon 13–16 — 149–217 —
Cellulose 15 — 264 —
Cellulose-polyester 13 — 159 —

Electrical Cables—Power
PVC/PVC 13–25 — 156–341 —
PE/PVC 15 — 221–244 —
PVC/PE 15 — 263 —
Silicone (Si)/PVC 19 — 212 —
Si/cross-linked Polyolefin (XLPO) 25–30 — 435–457 —
Ethylene-propylene rubber (EPR)/EPR 20–23 — 467–567 —
Cross-linked PE (XLPE)/ XLPE 20–25 — 273–386 —
XLPE/ethyl-vinyl acetate (EVA) 12–22 — 442–503 —
XLPE/neoprene 15 — 291 —
XLPO/XLPO 16–25 — 461–535 —
XLPO/polyvinylidine fluoride (PVF)/XLPO 14–17 — 413–639 —
EPR/chlorosulfonated PE 14–19 — 283–416 —
EPR, FR 14–28 — 289–448 —

Electrical Cables— Communications

PVC/PVC 15 — 131 —
PE/PVC 20 — 183 —
XLPE/XLPO 20 — 461–535 —

160
 CHF TRP
(kW/m2) (kW⋅s1/2/m2)
ASTM ASTM ASTM ASTM
E2058 E1354 E2058 E1354
Material FPA Cone FPA Cone
Si/XLPO 20 — 457 —
EPR-FR 19 — 295 —
Chlorinated PE 12 — 217 —
Polyethylene-tetrafluoroethylene (ETFE)/EVA 22 — 454 —
PVC/PVF 30 — 264
Fluorinated ethylene propylene (FEP)/FEP 36 — 638–652 —
Conveyor Belts
Styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR) 10–15 — 336–429 —
Chloroprene rubber (CR) 20 — 760 —
CR/SBR 15 — 400 —
PVC 15–20 — 343–640 —

Table reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Thermal Properties and Thermal Response Properties of

Polymers

k TRP (kW⋅s1/2/m2)

cP (103
Material Tig (°C) (10-3 kg/m3) (kJ/kg·K) kW/m·K) Measured Calculated

Synthetic (Ordinary Polymers)

Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS) 394 1.05 1.50 0.26 317–365 212
Polybutadiene (BDR) 378 0.97 1.96 0.22 — 205
Butyl rubber (BR, polyisobutylene) 330 0.92 1.96 0.13 211 133
Cellulose acetate (CA) 348 1.25 1.67 0.25 — 210
Cellulose acetate butyrate (CAB) — 1.20 1.46 0.25 — —
Cellulose acetate propionate (CAP) — 1.21 1.46 0.25 — —
Cyanate ester (typical) (CE) 468 1.23 1.11 0.19 — 202
Cellulose nitrate (CN) — 1.38 1.46 0.23 — —
Cellulose propionate (CP) — 1.30 1.46 0.20 — —
Diallylphthalate (DAP) — 1.35 1.32 0.21 — —
DAP/glass fibers — 1.80 1.69 0.42 — —
Ethylene-acrylic acid salt (EAA ionomer) — 0.95 1.62 0.26 — —
Epoxy (EP) 427 1.20 1.70 0.19 162 225
EP/Gl — 1.80 1.60 0.42 — —
Epoxy novolac (EPN) — 1.21 1.26 0.19 — —
Ethylene-propylene diene (EPDM) — 0.93 2.00 0.20 — —
Ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA) — 0.93 1.37 0.34 — —
Nitrile-butadiene (Buna-N, NBR) — 1.35 1.33 0.25 308 —
Polyamide (PA, nylon) 6 432–497 1.13–1.20 1.55–2.19 0.24 154–461 236–336
PA6/glass fibers 390 1.38 1.34 0.22 — —
PA 66 456 1.14 1.57 0.23 352 248
PA 11 — 1.12 1.74 0.28 352 —
PA 11/glass fibers — 1.35 1.76 0.37 — —
PA 12 — 1.04–1.01 1.69–1.79 0.18–0.25 — —
PA 610 — 1.10 1.51 0.23 — —
PA 612 — 1.08 1.59 0.22 — —
Polyacrylonitrile (PAN) 460 1.15 1.30 0.26 — 243
Polyarylate (PAR) — 1.21 1.20 0.18 — —
Polyamideimide (PAI) 526 1.42 1.00 0.24 — 262
Polybutene (PB) — 0.92 2.09 0.22 — —
Polybutyleneterephthalate (PBT) 382 1.35 1.61 0.22 — 222

161
 k TRP (kW⋅s1/2/m2)

cP (103
Material Tig (°C) (10-3 kg/m3) (kJ/kg·K) kW/m·K) Measured Calculated
Polyimide (PI) — 1.40 1.10 0.11 — —
Polyethyleneterephthalate (PET) 407 1.35 1.15 0.20 174 191
PET/glass fibers — 1.70 1.20 0.29 — —
Polyethylene (PE) high density (HD) 380–443 0.94–0.96 2.00–2.15 0.42–0.43 321–454 283–353
PE low density 377 0.93 1.55 0.30–0.38 — 208–234
PE medium density — 0.93 1.70 0.40 — —
Polyethyleneoxide (PEO) — 1.13 2.01 0.21 — —
Polyisoprene (natural rubber, NR) 297 0.92 1.55 0.14 174–294 110
Polyethylmethacrylate (PEMA) — 1.13 1.47 0.18 — —
Polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) 378–383 1.19 2.09 0.27 274 264
Polymethylpentene (PMP) — 0.83 1.73 0.17 — —
Polymethyl styrene (PMS) — 1.02 1.28 0.20 — —
Polyoxymethylene (POM) 374 1.42 1.92 0.27 250–269 269
Polypropylene (PP) 443 0.96 2.16 0.20 193–336 242
Polystyrene (PS) 356 1.05 1.25 0.14 162 128
PS/glass fibers — 1.29 1.05 0.13 — —
Polyisocyanurate (PU) rigid 378 1.27 1.67 0.21 — —
Polyurethane rubber (PUR) 356 1.10 1.76 0.19 — 181
Polyurethane thermoplastic (TPU) 271 1.27 1.67 0.21 — 149
Polyvinyl acetate (PVAC) — 1.19 1.33 0.16 — —
Polyvinylalcohol (PVOH) — 1.35 1.55 0.20 — —
Styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR) — 1.10 1.88 0.17 198 —
Styrene-acrylonitrile (SAN) 368 1.07 1.38 0.15 — 145
Unsaturated polyester (UPT) 380 1.23 1.30 0.17 343 166
UPT/glass fibers — 1.65 1.05 0.42 — —
Vinyl ester (VE) — 1.11 1.30 0.25 285 —

Synthetic High-Temperature Engineered Polymers

Melamine formaldehyde (MF) 350 1.25 1.67 0.25 324 211
MF/glass fibers — 1.75 1.67 0.44 — —
Phenol formaldehyde (PF) 429 1.30 1.42 0.25 537 246
PF/glass fibers 580 1.85 1.26 0.40 610 479
Polyamideimide (PAI, Torlon®) 526 1.42 1.00 0.24 378 262
Polybenzimidazole (PBI) — 1.30 0.93 0.41 — —
Polybenzoylphenylene (PX) — 1.22 1.30 0.32 626 —
Polycarbonate (PC) 500–580 1.20 1.20–1.22 0.20–0.21 357–455 228–296
PC/glass fibers — 1.43 1.10 0.21 402 —
Polyethersulfone (PESU, Radel-A®) 502 1.40 1.12 0.18 360 227
Polyaryl ether ketone (PAEK) — 1.30 1.02 0.30 — —
Polyether ether ketone (PEEK) 570–580 1.31–1.32 1.70–1.80 0.20–0.25 550 325–383
Polyetherketoneketone (PEKK) — 1.28 1.00 0.22 — —
Polyetherimide (PEI) 528–540 1.27 1.22–1.40 0.22–0.23 435 262–295
Polyphthalamide (PPA) — 1.17 1.40 0.15 — —
Polyphenyleneether (PPE) 426 1.10 1.19 0.23 323 198
Polydimethyleneoxide (PPO) 418 1.11 1.25 0.16 342 166
PPO/glass fibers — 1.32 1.31 0.17 — —
Polyphenylenesulfide (PPS) 575 1.30 1.02 0.29 395 305
Polyphenylsulfone (Radel-R® PPSU) 575 1.32 1.01 0.18 512 241
Polyphenyleneether (PPE) 426 1.10 1.19 0.23 323 —
Polysulfone (PSU) 510–580 1.24 1.11–1.30 0.26–0.28 424–469 259–334
Polydimethylsiloxane (SI) — 1.24 1.30 0.28 — —
Silicone/glass fibers (Si/G) — 1.90 1.17 0.30 — —
Silicone rubber (SIR) 407 0.97 1.59 0.23 429 204
Urea formaldehyde (UF) — 1.25 1.55 0.25 — —

Halogenated Polymers
Polychloroprene (neoprene, CR) 406 1.42 1.12 0.19 245 188
Polytetrafluoroethylene-perfluoroether (PFA) — 2.15 1.00 0.25 787 —
PFA/glass fibers — 1.85 1.26 0.40 — —
Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) 630–700 2.15–2.18 1.00–1.05 0.25 680 396–456

162
 k TRP (kW⋅s1/2/m2)

cP (103
Material Tig (°C) (10-3 kg/m3) (kJ/kg·K) kW/m·K) Measured Calculated
Polytrifluoroethylene (P3FE) — 1.83 1.08 0.31 504 —
Polyvinylidenefluoride (PVDF) 643 1.76 1.30 0.13 609 301
Polyvinylfluoride (PVF) 476 1.48 1.30 0.13 303 202
Polychlorotrifluoroethylene (CTFE) 580 1.67–2.11 0.90–0.92 0.22–0.23 460 285–332
Polyethylene-tetrafluoroethylene (ETFE, 540 1.70 0.90–1.00 0.23–0.24 478–481 273–294
Tefzel®)
Polyethylenechlorotrifluoroethylene 613 1.69 1.00–1.17 0.15–0.16 410–450 264–296
(ECTFE)
Fluorinated ethylene propylene 630–700 2.15 1.17–1.20 0.25 680 428–484
(FEP, Teflon®)
Polyvinylchloride (PVC, flexible) 318–374 1.26–1.95 1.14–1.38 0.17–0.26 194–263 130–263
PVC, rigid 395 1.42 0.98 0.19 357–418 171
Chlorinated PVC (CPVC) 643 1.50 0.78 0.22 435 280
Polyvinylidenechloride (PVDC) 468 1.70 1.07 0.13 — 193

Table reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Yields of Fire Products and Heats of Combustion for Well-

Ventilated Fires
Yields of Fire Products and Chemical, Convective, and Radiative Heats of Combustion for Well-Ventilated Fires
yCO 2 yCO ych yS ch con rad
 
Material (kJ/g) (g/g) (kJ/g)

Common gases
Methane 50.1 2.72 — — — 49.6 42.6 7.0
Ethane 47.1 2.85 0.001 0.001 0.013 45.7 34.1 11.6
Propane 46.0 2.85 0.005 0.001 0.024 43.7 31.2 12.5
Butane 45.4 2.85 0.007 0.003 0.029 42.6 29.6 13.0
Ethylene 48.0 2.72 0.013 0.005 0.043 41.5 27.3 14.2
Propylene 46.4 2.74 0.017 0.006 0.095 40.5 25.6 14.9
1,3-Butadiene 44.6 2.46 0.048 0.014 0.125 33.6 15.4 18.2
Acetylene 47.8 2.60 0.042 0.013 0.096 36.7 18.7 18.0

Common liquids
Methyl alcohol 20.0 1.31 0.001 — — 19.1 16.1 3.0
Ethyl alcohol 27.7 1.77 0.001 0.001 0.008 25.6 19.0 6.5
Isopropyl alcohol 31.8 2.01 0.003 0.001 0.015 29.0 20.6 8.5
Acetone 29.7 2.14 0.003 0.001 0.014 27.9 20.3 7.6
Methylethyl ketone 32.7 2.29 0.004 0.001 0.018 30.6 22.1 8.6
Heptane 44.6 2.85 0.010 0.004 0.037 41.2 27.6 13.6
Octane 44.5 2.84 0.011 0.004 0.038 41.0 27.3 13.7
Kerosene 44.1 2.83 0.012 0.004 0.042 40.3 26.2 14.1
Benzene 40.1 2.33 0.067 0.018 0.181 27.6 11.0 16.5
Toluene 39.7 2.34 0.066 0.018 0.178 27.7 11.2 16.5
Styrene 39.4 2.35 0.065 0.019 0.177 27.8 11.2 16.6
Hydrocarbon 43.9 2.64 0.019 0.007 0.059 36.9 24.5 12.4
Mineral oil 41.5 2.37 0.041 0.012 0.097 31.7 — —
Polydimethyl siloxane 25.1 0.93 0.004 0.032 0.232 19.6 — —
Silicone 25.1 0.72 0.006 0.008 — 15.2 12.7 2.5

Chemicals and solvents

Tetrahydrofuran (C4H8O) 32.2 2.29 0.021 — — 30.3 — —
Phenol (C6H6O) 31.0 2.63 0.057 — 0.099 27.6 13.3 14.3
Acetonitrile (C2H3N) 29.6 2.04 0.025 — 0.026 29.0 23.0 6.0
Ethylisonicotate (C8H9O2N) 26.3 2.37 0.029 — 0.142 24.3 12.8 11.5
Adiponitrile (C6H8N2) 33.1 2.35 0.045 — 0.045 31.1 22.1 9.0
Hexamethylenediamine (C6H16N2) 35.3 2.28 0.029 — 0.045 32.6 15.7 16.9
Toluenediisocyanate (C9H6O2N2) 23.6 1.77 0.052 — 0.141 19.3 11.1 8.2

163
 yCO 2 yCO ych yS ch con rad
 
Material (kJ/g) (g/g) (kJ/g)
Chemicals and solvents (continued)
Diphenylmethanediisocyanate MDI
(C15H10O2N2) 27.1 0.95 0.042 — 0.154 19.6 13.7 5.9
Polymeric MDI (C23H19O3N3) 29.6 1.22 0.032 — 0.165 23.3 15.0 8.3
Isoproturon (C12H18ON2) 32.8 1.70 0.056 — 0.115 23.9 14.0 9.9
3-Chloropropene (C3H5Cl) 23.0 0.75 0.076 — 0.179 10.8 6.9 3.9
Monochlorobenzene (C6H5Cl) 26.4 0.86 0.083 — 0.232 11.2 — —
Dichloromethane (CH2Cl2) 6.0 0.11 0.088 — 0.081 2.0 — —
1,3-Dichloropropene (C3H4Cl2) 14.2 0.35 0.090 — 0.169 5.6 — —
Ethylmonochloroacetate (C4H7O2Cl) 15.7 1.24 0.019 — 0.138 14.1 10.1 4.0
Chloronitrobenzoic acid (C7H4O4NCl) 15.9 0.39 0.057 — — 4.4 — —
Aclonifen (C12H9O3N2Cl) 19.7 0.68 0.063 — 0.186 7.0 — —
2,6-Dichlorobenzonitrile (dichlobenil)
(C7H3NCl2) 17.8 0.39 0.068 — — 4.3 — —
Diuron (C9H10ON2Cl2) 20.3 0.76 0.080 — 0.159 10.2 7.7 2.5
Trifluoromethylbenzene (C6H5CF3) 18.7 1.19 0.069 — 0.185 10.8 5.1 5.7
Metatrifluoromethylphenylacetonitrile
(C9H6NF3) 16.0 0.89 0.058 — 0.168 7.3 4.0 3.3
Tetramethylthiurammonosulfide
(C6H12N2S3) 22.6 1.06 0.041 — — 19.6 — —
Methylthiopropionylaldehyde
(C4H8OS) 25.0 1.62 0.001 — 0.005 23.8 18.8 5.0

Pesticides
2,4-D acid (herbicide, C8H6O3Cl2) 11.5 0.50 0.074 — 0.163 4.5 3.0 1.5
Mancozeb (C4H6N2S4Mn)iZn0,4) 14.0 0.50 — — — 9.5 — —
Folpel (C9H4O2NSCl3) 9.1 0.37 0.072 — 0.205 3.6 — —
Chlorfenvinphos (C12H24O4Cl3P) 18.0 0.43 0.011 — 0.288 7.7 — —
Chlormephos (C5H12O2S2CIP) 19.1 0.51 0.075 — 0.055 13.9 — —
Natural materials
Tissue paper — — — — — 11.4 6.7 4.7
Newspaper — — — — — 14.4 — —
Wood (red oak) 17.1 1.27 0.004 0.001 0.015 12.4 7.8 4.6
Wood (Douglas fir) 16.4 1.31 0.004 0.001 — 13.0 8.1 4.9
Wood (pine) 17.9 1.33 0.005 0.001 — 12.4 8.7 3.7
Corrugated paper — — — — — 13.2 — —
Wood (hemlock)b — — — — 0.015 13.3 — —
Wool 100%b — — — — 0.008 19.5 — —

Synthetic materials—solids (abbreviations/names in the nomenclature)

ABSb — — — — 0.105 30.0 — —
POM 15.4 1.40 0.001 0.001 — 14.4 11.2 3.2
PMMA 25.2 2.12 0.010 0.001 0.022 24.2 16.6 7.6
PE 43.6 2.76 0.024 0.007 0.060 38.4 21.8 16.6
PP 43.4 2.79 0.024 0.006 0.059 38.6 22.6 0
PS 39.2 2.33 0.060 0.014 0.164 27.0 11.0 16.0
Silicone 21.7 0.96 0.021 0.006 0.065 10.6 7.3 3.3
Polyester-1 32.5 1.65 0.070 0.020 0.091 20.6 10.8 9.8
Polyester-2 32.5 1.56 0.080 0.029 0.089 19.5 — —
Epoxy-1 28.8 1.59 0.080 0.030 — 17.1 8.5 8.6
Epoxy-2 28.8 1.16 0.086 0.026 0.098 12.3 — —
Nylon 30.8 2.06 0.038 0.016 0.075 27.1 16.3 10.8
Polyamide-6b — — — — 0.011 28.8 — —
IPSTb — — — — 0.080 23.3 — —
PVESTb — — — — 0.076 22.0 — —
Silicone rubber 21.7 0.96 0.021 0.005 0.078 10.9 — —
Polyether ether ketone
(PEEK-CH0.63O0.16) 31.3 1.6 0.029 — 0.008 17.5 — —
Polysulfone (PSO-CH0.81O0.15S0.04) 29.0 1.8 0.034 — 0.020 24.3 — —

164
 yCO 2 yCO ych yS ch con rad
 
Material (kJ/g) (g/g) (kJ/g)
Synthetic materials—solids (continued)
Polyethersulfone
(PES-CH0.67O0.21S0.08) 25.2 1.5 0.040 — 0.021 20.4 — —
Polyetherimide
(PEI-CH0.68N0.05O0.14) 30.1 2.0 0.026 — 0.014 27.2 — —
Polycarbonate (PC-CH0.88O0.13) 31.6 1.5 0.054 — 0.112 18.4 — —

Polyurethane (flexible) foams

GM21 26.2 1.55 0.010 0.002 0.131 17.8 8.6 9.2
GM23 27.2 1.51 0.031 0.005 0.227 19.0 10.3 8.7
GM25 24.6 1.50 0.028 0.005 0.194 17.0 7.2 9.8
GM27 23.2 1.57 0.042 0.004 0.198 16.4 7.6 8.8

Polyurethane (rigid) foams

GM29 26.0 1.52 0.031 0.003 0.130 16.4 6.8 9.6
GM31 25.0 1.53 0.038 0.002 0.125 15.8 7.1 8.8
GM35 28.0 1.58 0.025 0.001 0.104 17.6 7.8 9.8
GM37 28.0 1.63 0.024 0.001 0.113 17.9 8.7 9.2
GM41 26.2 1.18 0.046 0.004 — 15.7 5.7 10.0
GM43 22.2 1.11 0.051 0.004 — 14.8 6.4 8.4

Polystyrene foams
GM47 38.1 2.30 0.060 0.014 0.180 25.9 11.4 14.5
GM49 38.2 2.30 0.065 0.016 0.210 25.6 9.9 15.7
GM51 35.6 2.34 0.058 0.013 0.185 24.6 10.4 14.2
GM53 37.6 2.34 0.060 0.015 0.200 25.9 11.2 14.7

Polyethylene foams
1 41.2 2.62 0.020 0.004 0.056 34.4 20.2 14.2
2 40.8 2.78 0.026 0.008 0.102 36.1 20.6 15.5
3 40.8 2.60 0.020 0.004 0.076 33.8 18.2 15.6
4 40.8 2.51 0.015 0.005 0.071 32.6 19.1 13.5

Phenolic foams
1b — — — — 0.002 10.0 — —
2b — — — — — 10.0 — —

Halogenated materials (abbreviations/names in the nomenclature)

Polyethylene with
25% chlorine 31.6 1.71 0.042 0.016 0.115 22.6 10.0 12.6
36% chlorine 26.3 0.83 0.051 0.017 0.139 10.6 6.4 4.2
48% chlorine 20.6 0.59 0.049 0.015 0.134 7.2 3.9 3.3
PVC 16.4 0.46 0.063 0.023 0.172 5.7 3.1 2.6
PVC-1b (LOI = 0.50) — — — — 0.098 7.7 — —
PVC-2b (LOI = 0.50) — — — — 0.076 8.3 — —
PVCb (LOI = 0.20) — — — — 9.099 11.3 — —
PVCb (LOI = 0.25) — — — — 0.078 9.8 — —
PVCb (LOI = 0.30) — — — — 0.098 10.3 — —
PVC (LOI = 0.35) — — — — 0.088 10.8 — —
PVC panel — — — — — 7.3 — —
CPVC (CH1.3Cl0.70) 12.8 0.48 0.052 — 0.043 4.4 — —
PVDF (CHF) 13.3 0.53 0.055 — 0.037 3.8 — —
ECTFE (CHF0.75Cl0.25) 12.0 0.41 0.095 — 0.038 4.6 — —
ETFE (Tefzel, CHF) 12.6 0.78 0.035 — 0.028 7.3 — —
PFA (Teflon, CF1.6O0.01) 5.0 0.42 0.099 — 0.002 2.2 — —
FEP (Teflon, CF1.8) 4.8 0.25 0.116 — 0.003 1.3 — —
TFE (Teflon, CF1.8) 6.2 0.38 0.092 — 0.003 2.0 — —

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Material (kJ/g) (g/g) (kJ/g)

Building productsc
Particleboard (PB) — 1.2 0.004 — — 14.0 — —
Fiberboard (FB) — 1.4 0.015 — — 14.0 — —
Medium-density FB — 1.2 0.002 — — 14.0 — —
Wood panel — 1.2 0.002 — — 15.0 — —
Melamine-faced PB — 0.8 0.025 — — 10.7 — —
Gypsumboard (GB) — 0.3 0.027 — — 4.3 — —
Paper on GB — 0.4 0.028 — — 5.6 — —
Plastic on GB — 0.4 0.028 — — 14.3 — —
Textile on GB — 0.4 0.025 — — 13.0 — —
Textile on rock wool — 1.8 0.091 — — 25.0 — —
Paper on PB — 1.2 0.003 — — 12.5 — —
Rigid PU — 1.1 0.200 — — 13.0 — —
EPS — 1.9 0.054 — — 28.0 — —

Composite and fiberglass-reinforced materials (FGR) (abbreviations/names in the nomenclature)

PEEK/FGRb — — — — 0.042 20.5 — —
IPST/FGRb — — — — 0.032 27.0 — —
PES/FGRb — — — — 0.049 27.5 — —
PEST1/FGRb — — — — — 16.0 — —
PEST2/FGRb — — — — — 12.9 — —
PEST1/FGR — — — — — 19.0 — —
PEST2/FGR — — — — — 13.9 — —
PEST3/FGR — 1.47 0.055 0.007 0.070 17.9 10.7 7.2
PEST4/FGR — 1.24 0.039 0.004 0.054 16.0 9.9 6.1
PEST5/FGR — 0.71 0.102 0.019 0.068 9.3 6.5 2.8
Epoxy/FGb — — — — 0.056 27.5 — —
PVEST/FGR — — — — 0.079 26.0 — —
Kevlar/phenolic — 1.27 0.025 0.002 0.041 14.8 11.1 3.7
Phenolic-1/FGR — 0.98 0.066 0.003 0.023 11.9 8.9 3.0
Phenolic-2/FGRb — — — — 0.016 22.0 — —

Aircraft panel materials

Epoxy/FGR/paint — 0.828 0.114 0.016 0.166 11.3 6.2 5.1
Epoxy/Kevlar/paint — 0.873 0.091 0.016 0.126 11.4 6.3 5.1
Phenolic/FGR/paint — 1.49 0.027 0.002 0.059 22.9 11.5 11.4
Phenolic/Kevlar/paint — 1.23 0.088 0.011 0.094 18.6 8.9 9.7
Phenolic/graphite/paint — 1.67 0.026 0.003 0.062 24.6 14.0 10.6
Polycarbonate — — — — — 20.5 — —

Electric cables (abbreviations/names in the nomenclature)

Polyethylene/Polyvinylchloride
1 — 2.08 0.100 0.021 0.076 31.3 11.6 19.7
2 — 1.75 0.050 0.013 0.115 25.1 11.1 14.0
3 — 1.67 0.048 0.012 — 24.0 13.0 11.0
4 — 1.39 0.166 0.038 — 22.0 14.0 8.1
5 — 1.29 0.147 0.042 0.136 20.9 10.7 10.2
EPR/Hypalon
1 — 1.95 0.072 0.014 — 29.6 15.8 13.9
2 — 1.74 0.076 0.022 — 26.8 17.0 9.8
3 — 1.21 0.072 0.014 — 19.0 12.3 6.7
4 — 0.99 0.090 0.085 0.082 17.4 6.6 10.8
5 — 0.95 0.122 0.024 — 17.3 7.5 9.8
6 — 0.89 0.121 0.022 0.164 13.9 9.2 4.7
Silicone
1 — 1.65 0.011 0.001 — 25.0 17.5 7.3
2 — 1.47 0.029 0.001 — 24.0 20.0 4.0

Electric cables (continued)

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Material (kJ/g) (g/g) (kJ/g)

XLPE/XLPE
1 — 1.78 0.114 0.029 0.120 28.3 12.3 16.0
2 — 0.83 0.110 0.024 0.120 12.5 7.5 5.0
XLPE/neoprene
1 — 0.68 0.122 0.031 — 12.6 5.9 6.7
2 — 0.63 0.082 0.014 0.175 10.3 4.9 5.5
Silicone/PVC
1 16.4 0.76 0.110 0.015 0.111 10.0 — —
2 16.4 1.19 0.065 0.005 0.119 15.6 — —
PVC/nylon/PVC-nylon
1 — 0.63 0.084 0.024 — 10.2 5.0 5.2
2 — 0.49 0.082 0.032 0.115 9.2 4.8 4.4
PTFE
1 — 0.180 0.091 0.012 0.011 3.2 2.7 0.4
2 6.2 0.383 0.103 — 0.005 5.7 — —

Materials with fiberweb, netlike, and multiplex structure (abbreviations/names in the nomenclature)
Olefin — 1.49 0.006 — — 16.5 13.3 3.2
PP-1 — 1.25 0.0029 — — 14.0 10.8 3.2
PP-2 — 1.56 0.0048 — — 17.2 10.5 6.7
Polyester-1 — 2.21 0.015 — — 24.6 8.9 15.7
Polyester-2 — 1.51 0.0079 — — 16.8 9.1 7.7
Polyester-3 — 2.55 0.020 — — 28.5 22.6 5.9
Polyester-4 — 1.92 0.014 — — 21.4 12.4 9.0
Rayon-1 — 1.80 0.043 — — 20.3 14.1 6.2
Rayon-2 — 1.91 0.043 0.002 — 21.5 13.3 8.2
Rayon-3 — 1.18 0.047 — — 13.5 8.3 5.2
Polyester-rayon — 1.52 0.005 — — 16.8 9.1 7.7
Polyester-polyamide — 1.82 0.008 — — 20.2 10.4 9.8
Two to eight 100-mm × 100-mm × 100-mm corrugated paper boxes with and without the polymers with three-dimensional arrangement
(abbreviations/names in the nomenclature)d
Empty — 1.53 0.023 0.001 — 14.2 10.7 3.5
With PVC (62%-thick) — 1.01 0.073 0.007 0.119 10.7 9.5 1.2
With PC (59%-thick) — 1.73 0.047 0.002 0.061 18.4 13.5 4.9
With PS (58%-thick) — 1.40 0.138 0.026 0.285 16.2 12.5 3.7
With PS (60%-thin) — 1.88 0.068 0.020 0.140 19.4 10.1 9.3
With PS (40%-thin) — 1.74 0.042 0.005 0.167 18.0 11.7 6.7
With ABS (59%-thick) — 1.53 0.089 0.006 0.143 16.1 12.7 3.4
With PET (41%-thin) — 1.87 0.050 0.006 0.053 19.9 11.8 8.1
With PU (40%-foam) — 1.56 0.024 — — 14.4 8.6 5.8
e
High-pressure liquid spray combustion
Hydraulic fluids
Organic polyol esters
1 36.6 — — — — 35.5 — —
2 35.7 — — — — 35.1 — —
3 40.3 — — — — 37.2 — —
4 37.0 — — — — 35.7 — —
Phosphate esters
1 31.8 — — — — 29.3 — —
2 32.0 — — — — 29.6 — —
Water-in-oil emulsions
1 27.6 — — — — 2.5 — —

Hydraulic fluids (continued)

167
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Material (kJ/g) (g/g) (kJ/g)

Polyglycol-in-water
1 11.0 — — — — 10.4 — —
2 11.9 — — — — 11.1 — —
3 14.7 — — — — 12.2 — —
4 12.1 — — — — 10.6 — —

Liquid fuels
Mineral oil 46.0 — — — — 44.3 — —
Methanol 20.0 — — — — 19.8 — —
Ethanol 27.7 — — — — 26.2 — —
Heptane 44.4 — — — — 40.3 — —
Note: Dashes = either not measured or are less than 0.001.
a
Data measured in the ASTM E2058 fire propagation apparatus. Data measured in the cone calorimeter are identified by superscripts b and
c
. Some of the data are corrected to reflect well-ventilated fire conditions. All the data are reported for turbulent fires, that is, materials exposed
to higher external heat flux values.
b
Calculated from the data measured in the cone calorimeter as reported in [16, 17].
c
Calculated from the data measured in the cone calorimeter as reported in [18].
d
100-mm × 100-mm × 100-mm corrugated paper boxes with and without the 99-mm × 99-mm × 99-mm polymer boxes or pieces on corrugated
paper compartments. The boxes are arranged in one and two layers, about 12 mm apart, with one to four boxes in each layer, separated by
about 12 mm. All the boxes are placed on a very light metal frame made of rods with screen base. Measurements made in the ASTM E2058
fire propagation apparatus; numbers in parentheses are the weight percents.
e
Data from [19] measured in high-pressure liquid spray combustion in the fire products collector (5,000-kW scale apparatus).

Table reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Combustion Properties of Fuels

(Shaded cells show measurements by Tewarson, refer to SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth
edition, for reference information)
Lsp M Heat of Combustion (kJ/g) Yield (g/g)
Fuel Formula (m) (g/mol) S ΔHT ΔHch ΔHcon ΔHrad CO Smoke
Normal alkanes
Ethane C2H6 0.243 30 16.0 47.1 47.0 37.4 9.6 <0.001 0.002
n-Propane C3H8 0.162 44 15.6 46.0 44.1 31.6 12.5 0.005 0.019
n-Butane C4H10 0.160 58 15.4 45.4 43.5 31.0 12.4 0.005 0.020
n-Pentane C5H12 0.155 72 15.3 45.0 42.3 29.3 13.1 0.006 0.022
n-Hexane C6H14 0.125 86 15.2 44.8 41.7 28.2 13.4 0.009 0.031
n-Heptane C7H16 0.110 100 15.1 44.6 41.2 27.6 13.6 0.012 0.042
n-Octane C8H18 0.118 114 15.1 44.5 41.3 27.5 13.8 0.010 0.034
n-Nonane C9H20 0.110 128 15.0 44.4 40.9 26.9 14.1 0.012 0.037
n-Decane C10H22 0.110 142 15.0 44.3 40.9 26.8 14.0 0.012 0.037
n-Undecane C11H24 0.110 156 15.0 44.3 40.9 26.8 14.0 0.012 0.037
n-Dodecane C12H26 0.108 170 14.9 44.2 40.7 26.6 14.1 0.012 0.038
n-Tridecane C13H28 0.106 184 14.9 44.2 40.6 26.5 14.1 0.012 0.039
n-Tetradecane C14H30 0.109 198 14.9 44.1 40.6 26.6 14.0 0.012 0.037
Hexadecane C16H34 0.118 226 14.9 44.1 41.0 27.3 13.7 0.010 0.034
Branched alkanes
Methylbutane C5H12 0.113 72 15.3 45.0 41.6 27.5 14.1 0.011 0.035
Dimethylbutane C6H14 0.089 86 15.2 44.8 40.4 25.5 15.0 0.015 0.046
Methylpentane C6H14 0.094 86 15.2 44.8 40.7 25.9 14.8 0.014 0.043
Dimethylpentane C7H16 0.096 100 15.1 44.6 40.6 25.9 14.6 0.014 0.043
Methylhexane C7H16 0.109 100 15.1 44.6 41.1 26.9 14.2 0.012 0.037
Isooctane
(trimethylpentane) C8H18 0.080 114 15.1 44.5 40.5 26.7 13.8 0.016 0.051
Methylethylpentane C8H18 0.082 114 15.1 44.5 39.9 24.7 15.1 0.016 0.049
Ethylhexane C8H18 0.093 114 15.1 44.5 40.4 25.6 14.7 0.014 0.044
Dimethylhexane C8H18 0.089 114 15.1 44.5 40.2 25.3 14.9 0.015 0.046
Methylheptane C8H18 0.101 114 15.1 44.5 40.7 26.3 14.4 0.013 0.040
Cyclic alkanes

168
 Lsp M Heat of Combustion (kJ/g) Yield (g/g)
Fuel Formula (m) (g/mol) S ΔHT ΔHch ΔHcon ΔHrad CO Smoke
Cyclo-pentane C5H10 0.067 70 14.7 44.3 38.9 23.2 15.6 0.020 0.059
Methylcyclopentane C6H12 0.052 84 14.7 43.8 37.5 21.5 16.0 0.025 0.070
Cyclohexane C6H12 0.085 84 14.7 43.8 39.9 24.5 15.3 0.016 0.049
Methylcyclohexane C7H14 0.075 98 14.7 43.4 38.5 23.5 15.0 0.018 0.054
Ethylcyclohexane C8H16 0.082 112 14.7 43.2 38.7 24.0 14.7 0.017 0.050
Dimethylcyclohexane C8H16 0.057 112 14.7 43.2 37.3 21.7 15.6 0.023 0.066
Cyclooctane C8H16 0.085 112 14.7 43.2 38.8 24.2 14.6 0.016 0.049
Decalin C10H18 — 138 14.4 42.8 34.2 17.9 16.3 0.015 0.097
Bicyclohexyl C12H22 — 166 14.5 42.6 36.2 20.9 15.3 0.010 0.071
Alkenes
Ethylene C2H4 0.106 28 14.7 48.0 44.2 29.8 14.4 0.013 0.045
Propylene C3H6 0.029 42 14.7 46.4 37.6 19.0 18.6 0.036 0.103
Butylene C4H8 0.019 56 14.7 45.6 35.3 17.3 18.0 0.042 0.115
Pentene C5H10 0.053 70 14.7 45.2 38.7 22.3 16.5 0.024 0.070
Hexene C6H12 0.063 84 14.7 44.9 39.2 23.2 16.0 0.021 0.062
Heptene C7H14 0.073 98 14.7 44.6 39.5 24.0 15.5 0.019 0.055
Octene C8H16 0.080 112 14.7 44.5 39.8 24.5 15.2 0.017 0.051
Nonene C9H18 0.084 126 14.7 44.3 39.8 24.8 15.0 0.016 0.049
Decene C10H20 0.079 140 14.7 44.2 39.4 24.3 15.2 0.017 0.052
Dodecene C12H24 0.080 168 14.7 44.1 39.4 24.3 15.1 0.017 0.051
Tridecene C13H26 0.084 182 14.7 44.0 39.5 24.6 14.9 0.016 0.049
Tetradecene C14H28 0.079 196 14.7 44.0 39.3 24.2 15.1 0.017 0.052
Hexadecene C16H32 0.080 224 14.7 43.9 39.2 24.2 15.0 0.017 0.051
Octadecene C18H36 0.075 252 14.7 43.8 38.9 23.7 15.2 0.018 0.054
Polyethylene (C2H4)n 0.045 601 14.7 43.6 37.9 21.8 16.1 0.024 0.060
Polypropylene (C3H6)n 0.050 720 14.7 43.4 37.0 21.1 15.9 0.024 0.058
Cyclic alkenes
36.2 20.2 16.0 0.028 0.080
Cyclohexene C6H10 0.044 82 14.2 43.0
Methylcyclohexene C7H12 0.043 96 14.3 43.1 36.2 20.1 16.1 0.028 0.080
Pinene C10H16 0.024 136 14.1 36.0 28.5 14.5 14.0 0.039 0.108
Alkynes and Butadiene
Acetylene C2H2 0.019 26 13.2 47.8 37.0 18.2 18.8 0.045 0.124
Heptyne C7H12 0.035 96 14.3 44.8 36.8 19.8 17.0 0.032 0.090
Octyne C8H14 0.030 110 14.4 44.7 36.2 19.0 17.2 0.035 0.096
Decyne C10H18 0.043 138 14.4 44.5 37.4 20.7 16.6 0.028 0.080
Dodecyne C12H22 0.030 166 14.5 44.3 35.9 18.8 17.0 0.034 0.096
1,3-Butadiene C4H6 0.015 54 14.0 44.6 33.7 16.0 17.7 0.048 0.130
Arenes
Benzene C6H6 0.007 78 13.2 40.1 28.1 11.9 16.2 0.064 0.171
Toluene C7H8 0.005 92 13.4 39.7 27.0 11.1 15.9 0.064 0.173
Styrene C8H8 0.006 104 13.2 39.4 27.2 11.2 16.0 0.066 0.178
Ethylbenzene C8H10 0.005 106 13.6 39.4 26.7 10.7 16.0 0.069 0.184
Xylene C8H10 0.006 106 13.6 39.4 27.2 11.2 16.0 0.065 0.175
Indene C9H8 0.008 116 13.0 39.2 27.8 12.0 15.8 0.062 0.166
Propylbenzene C9H12 0.009 120 13.7 39.2 28.1 12.4 15.8 0.057 0.155
Trimethylbenzene C9H12 0.006 120 13.7 39.2 27.0 11.2 15.9 0.065 0.174
Cumene C9H12 0.006 120 13.7 39.2 27.0 11.2 15.9 0.065 0.174
Naphthalene C10H8 0.005 128 12.9 39.0 26.4 10.6 15.8 0.071 0.190
Tetralin C10H12 0.006 132 13.5 39.0 26.9 11.1 15.8 0.065 0.176
Butylbenzene C10H14 0.007 134 13.8 39.0 27.3 11.5 15.8 0.062 0.166
Diethylbenzene C10H14 0.007 134 13.8 39.0 27.3 11.5 15.8 0.062 0.166
p-Cymene C10H14 0.007 134 13.8 39.0 27.3 11.5 15.8 0.062 0.166
Methylnaphthalene C11H10 0.006 142 13.0 38.9 26.8 11.1 15.8 0.067 0.180
Pentylbenzene C11H16 0.009 148 13.9 38.8 27.9 12.2 15.6 0.057 0.154
Dimethylnaphthalene C12H12 0.006 156 13.2 38.8 26.8 11.0 15.7 0.066 0.178
Cyclohexylbenzene C12H16 0.007 160 13.7 38.7 27.1 11.5 15.6 0.062 0.167
Diisopropylbenzene C12H18 0.007 162 14.0 38.7 27.1 11.5 15.6 0.061 0.165
Triethylbenzene C12H18 0.006 162 14.0 38.7 26.7 11.0 15.7 0.064 0.172

169
 Lsp M Heat of Combustion (kJ/g) Yield (g/g)
Fuel Formula (m) (g/mol) S ΔHT ΔHch ΔHcon ΔHrad CO Smoke
Triamylbenzene C21H36 0.007 288 14.3 38.1 26.7 11.3 15.4 0.060 0.162
Polystyrene (C8H8)n 0.015 200 13.2 39.2 27.0 11.0 16.1 0.060 0.166
Aliphatic esters
Ethyl formate C3H6O2 0.137 74 6.5 20.2 19.0 13.1 5.9 0.005 0.016
n-Propyl formate C4H8O2 0.114 88 7.8 23.9 22.1 14.6 7.5 0.007 0.023
n-Butyl formate C5H10O2 0.099 102 8.8 26.6 24.3 15.6 8.7 0.009 0.029
Methyl acetate C3H6O2 0.137 74 6.5 20.2 19.0 13.1 5.9 0.005 0.016
Ethyl acetate C4H8O2 0.114 88 7.8 23.9 22.1 14.6 7.5 0.007 0.023
n-Propyl acetate C5H10O2 0.099 102 8.8 26.6 24.3 15.6 8.7 0.009 0.029
n-Butyl acetate C6H12O2 0.093 116 9.5 28.7 26.0 16.5 9.5 0.011 0.032
Isobutyl acetate C6H12O2 0.093 116 9.5 28.7 26.0 16.5 9.5 0.011 0.032
Amyl acetate C7H14O2 0.086 130 10.0 30.3 27.3 17.1 10.2 0.012 0.036
Cyclohexyl acetate C8H14O2 0.083 142 10.2 31.5 28.2 17.6 10.7 0.013 0.039
Octyl acetate C10H20O 0.077 172 11.2 33.6 29.9 18.3 11.6 0.015 0.043
Ethyl acetoacetate C6H10O3 0.086 130 7.4 30.3 27.3 17.1 10.2 0.010 0.031
Methyl propionate C4H8O2 0.114 88 7.8 23.9 22.1 14.6 7.5 0.007 0.023
Ethyl propionate C5H10O2 0.099 102 8.8 26.6 24.3 15.6 8.7 0.009 0.029
n-Butyl propionate C7H14O2 0.086 130 10.0 30.3 27.3 17.1 10.2 0.012 0.036
Isobutyl propionate C7H14O2 0.086 130 10.0 30.3 27.3 17.1 10.2 0.012 0.042
Amyl propionate C8H16O2 0.082 144 10.5 31.6 28.3 17.5 10.8 0.013 0.024
Methyl butyrate C5H10O2 0.099 102 8.8 26.6 24.3 15.6 8.7 0.009 0.035
Ethyl butyrate C6H12O2 0.093 116 9.5 28.7 26.0 16.5 9.5 0.011 0.038
Propyl butyrate C7H14O2 0.086 130 10.0 30.3 27.3 17.1 10.2 0.012 0.042
n-Butyl butyrate C8H16O2 0.082 144 10.5 31.6 28.3 17.5 10.8 0.013 0.039
Isobutyl butyrate C8H16O2 0.082 144 10.5 31.6 28.3 17.5 10.8 0.013 0.069
C14H28O
Ethyl laurate 2 0.196 228 12.0 37.2 36.3 27.3 9.1 0.002 0.004
Ethyl oxalate C6H10O4 0.224 146 6.1 28.7 33.0 25.7 7.3 <0.001 0.003
Ethyl malonate C5H8O4 0.210 132 7.7 32.2 31.7 24.2 7.5 <0.001 0.005
Ethyl lactate C5H10O3 0.214 118 7.0 30.8 30.4 23.3 7.0 <0.001 0.005
Butyl lactate C7H14O3 0.206 146 8.5 33.3 32.7 24.9 7.8 0.001 0.007
Amyl lactate C8H16O3 0.203 160 9.0 34.3 33.6 25.5 8.1 0.001 0.007
Ethyl carbonate C5H10O3 0.214 118 7.0 30.8 30.4 23.3 7.0 <0.001 0.005
Aliphatic alcohols
Methyl alcohol CH4O 0.305 32 6.4 20.0 19.4 16.6 2.8 0.001 <0.001
Ethyl alcohol C2H6O 0.225 46 9.0 27.7 26.9 20.5 6.4 0.001 0.008
n-Propyl alcohol C3H8O 0.155 60 10.3 31.8 30.3 21.5 8.8 0.004 0.016
Isopropyl alcohol C3H8O 0.148 60 10.3 31.8 29.9 20.7 9.2 0.003 0.017
n-Butyl alcohol C4H10O 0.141 74 11.1 34.4 32.5 22.5 10.0 0.006 0.020
Isobutyl alcohol C4H10O 0.141 74 11.1 34.4 32.5 22.5 10.0 0.006 0.020
Sec butyl alcohol C4H10O 0.141 74 11.1 34.4 32.5 22.5 10.0 0.006 0.020
Ter butyl alcohol C4H10O 0.141 74 11.1 34.4 32.5 22.5 10.0 0.006 0.020
n-Amyl alcohol C5H12O 0.131 88 11.7 36.2 34.0 23.2 10.8 0.007 0.024
Isobutyl carbinol C5H12O 0.131 88 11.7 36.2 34.0 23.2 10.8 0.007 0.024
Sec butyl carbinol C5H12O 0.131 88 11.7 36.2 34.0 23.2 10.8 0.007 0.024
Methylpropyl carbinol C5H12O 0.131 88 11.7 36.2 34.0 23.2 10.8 0.007 0.024
Dimethylethyl carbinol C5H12O 0.131 88 11.7 36.2 34.0 23.2 10.8 0.007 0.024
n-Hexyl alcohol C6H14O 0.125 102 12.1 37.4 34.9 23.6 11.4 0.008 0.026
Dimethylbutyl alcohol C6H14O 0.125 102 12.1 37.4 34.9 23.6 11.4 0.008 0.026
Ethylbutyl alcohol C6H14O 0.125 102 12.1 37.4 34.9 23.6 11.4 0.008 0.026
Allyl alcohol C3H6O 0.159 58 9.5 31.4 30.0 21.4 8.6 0.004 0.015
Cyclohexanol C6H12O 0.124 100 11.7 37.3 34.8 23.5 11.4 0.008 0.027
Aliphatic ketones
Acetone C3H6O 0.205 58 9.5 29.7 28.5 21.7 6.8 0.001 0.009
Methyl ethyl ketone C4H8O 0.169 72 10.5 32.7 31.5 22.8 8.7 0.003 0.014
Cyclohexanone C6H10O 0.164 98 11.2 35.9 34.5 24.7 9.7 0.004 0.017
Di-acetone alcohol C6H12O2 0.161 116 9.5 37.3 35.7 25.5 10.2 0.004 0.015
Other aliphatic fuels
Monoethyl ether C4H10O2 0.232 90 8.4 26.7 26.5 20.8 5.7 <0.001 0.003
Monoethylether
acetate C6H12O3 0.204 132 7.8 32.2 31.6 24.0 7.6 0.001 0.006

170
 Lsp M Heat of Combustion (kJ/g) Yield (g/g)
Fuel Formula (m) (g/mol) S ΔHT ΔHch ΔHcon ΔHrad CO Smoke
Monoethylether
diacetate C6H10O4 0.208 146 6.1 33.3 32.7 25.0 7.8 <0.001 0.005
Glycerol triacetate C9H14O6 0.195 218 6.0 36.9 36.0 27.0 9.0 0.001 0.007
Other aromatic fuels
Benzaldehyde C7H6O 0.010 106 10.4 32.4 23.5 10.5 13.0 0.049 0.132
Benzyl alcohol C7H8O 0.010 108 10.8 32.6 23.7 10.6 13.1 0.048 0.130
Cresylic acid C8H8O 0.015 136 9.1 34.0 25.7 12.2 13.5 0.038 0.103
Ethyl benzoate C9H10O2 0.029 150 9.6 34.5 27.8 14.6 13.3 0.029 0.081
Aliphatic fuels with carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen
Diethylamine C4H11N 0.089 73 14.6 38.0 34.3 21.6 12.7 0.012 0.036
n-Butylamine C4H11N 0.089 73 14.6 38.0 34.3 21.6 12.7 0.012 0.036
Sec-Butylamine C4H11N 0.089 73 14.6 38.0 34.3 21.6 12.7 0.012 0.036
Triethylamine C6H15N 0.085 101 14.6 39.6 35.6 22.2 13.4 0.013 0.041
Di-n-butylamine C8H19N 0.083 129 14.6 40.6 36.4 22.6 13.8 0.014 0.043
Tri-n-butylamine C12H27N 0.082 185 14.7 41.6 37.3 23.1 14.2 0.015 0.046
Aromatic fuels with carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen
Pyridine C5H5N 0.022 79 12.6 32.2 25.3 12.7 12.6 0.035 0.096
Aniline C6H7N 0.018 93 12.9 33.8 26.0 12.7 13.3 0.039 0.106
Picoline C6H7N 0.018 93 12.9 33.8 26.0 12.7 13.3 0.039 0.106
Toluidine C7H9N 0.014 107 13.2 34.9 26.2 12.3 13.9 0.043 0.118
Dimethylaniline C8H11N 0.013 121 13.3 35.7 26.6 12.4 14.2 0.045 0.122
Quinoline C9H7N 0.012 129 12.5 36.1 26.7 12.2 14.4 0.049 0.132
Quinaldine C10H9N 0.011 143 12.7 36.7 26.9 12.2 14.7 0.050 0.136
Butylaniline C10H15N 0.009 149 13.6 37.0 26.6 11.7 14.9 0.051 0.139
Aliphatic fuels with carbon, hydrogen, and sulfur
Hexyl mercaptan C6H14S 0.062 118 12.2 33.0 28.7 16.9 11.8 0.015 0.045
Heptyl mercaptan C7H16S 0.063 132 12.5 33.7 29.4 17.4 12.0 0.016 0.046
Decyl mercaptan C10H22S 0.062 174 13.0 34.9 30.4 17.9 12.5 0.017 0.050
Dodecyl mercaptan C12H26S 0.063 202 13.3 35.5 31.0 18.3 12.7 0.018 0.052
Hexyl sulfide C12H26S 0.063 202 13.3 35.5 31.0 18.3 12.7 0.018 0.052
Heptyl sulfide C14H30S 0.061 230 13.4 35.9 31.2 18.4 12.9 0.019 0.054
Octyl sulfide C16H34S 0.061 258 13.6 36.3 31.6 18.6 13.0 0.019 0.055
Decyl sulfide C20H42S 0.062 314 13.8 36.8 32.0 18.9 13.1 0.019 0.056
Aromatic fuels with carbon,
hydrogen, and sulfur
Thiophene C4H4S 0.016 84 9.8 31.9 24.3 11.6 12.6 0.030 0.082
Methylthiophene C5H6S 0.014 98 10.5 33.2 24.9 11.7 13.2 0.034 0.092
Thiophenol C6H6S 0.013 110 10.6 34.1 25.4 11.8 13.6 0.037 0.101
Thiocresol C7H8S 0.011 124 11.1 34.9 25.6 11.6 14.0 0.041 0.110
Cresolmethyl sulfide C8H11S 0.011 155 11.6 36.2 26.5 12.0 14.5 0.041 0.112

Table reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

171
 Flammability Limits of Premixed and Diffusion Flames
Limits of Flammability (vol %) Limits of Flammability (vol %)
y y
Combustible LFL UFL TL (°C) AIT (°C) Combustible LFLy UFLy TL (°C) AIT (°C)
Acetal 1.6 10 37 230 Cumene 0.88a 6.5a — 425
Acetaldehyde 4.0 60 — 175 Cyanogen 6.6 — — —
Acetic acid 5.4a — 40 465 Cycloheptane 1.1 6.7 — —
Acetic anhydride 2.7b 10c 47 390 Cyclohexane 1.3 7.8 — 245
Acetanilide 1.0d — — 545 Cyclohexanol 1.2d — — 300
Acetone 2.6 13 — 465 Cyclohexene 1.2a — — —
Acetophenone 1.1d — — 570 Cyclohexyl acetate 1.0d — — 335
Acetylacetone 1.7d — — 340 Cyclopropane 2.4 10.4 — 500
Acetyl chloride 5.0d — — 390 Cymene 0.85a 6.5a — 435
Acetylene 2.5 100 — 305 Decaborane 0.2 — — —
Acrolein 2.8 31 — 235 Decalin 0.74a 4.9a 57 250
Acrylonitrile 3.0 — –6 — n-Decane 0.75l 5.6m 46 210
Acetone-cyanohydrin 2.2 12 — — Deuterium 4.9 75 — —
Adipic acid 1.6d — — 420 Diborane 0.8 88 — —
Aldol 2.0d — — 250 Diesel fuel (60 cetane) — — — 225
Allyl alcohol 2.5 18 22 — Diethyl amine 1.8 10 — —
Allyl amine 2.2 22 — 375 Diethyl analine 0.8d — 80 630
Allyl bromide 2.7d — — 295 1,4-Diethyl benzene 0.8a — — 430
Allyl chloride 2.9 — –32 485 Diethyl cyclohexene 0.75 — — 240
o-Aminodiphenyl 0.66 4.1 — 450 Diethyl ether 1.9 36 — 160
Ammonia 15.0 28 — — 3,3-Diethyl pentane 0.7a — — 290
n-Amyl acetate 1.0a 7.1a 25 360 Diethyl ketone 1.6 — — 450
n-Amyl alcohol 1.4a 10a 38 300 Diisobutyl carbinol 0.82a 6.1j — —
tert-Amyl alcohol 1.4d — — 435 Diisobutyl ketone 0.79a 6.2a — —
n-Amyl chloride 1.6e 8.6a — 260 2-4,Diisocyanate — — 120 —
tert-Amyl chloride 1.5f — –12 345 Diisopropyl ether 1.4 7.9 — —
n-Amyl ether 0.7d — — 170 Dimethyl amine 2.8 — — 400
Amyl nitrite 1.0d — — 210 2,2-Dimethyl butane 1.2 7.0 — —
n-Amyl propionate 1.0d — — 380 2,3-Dimethyl butane 1.2 7.0 — —
Amylene 1.4 8.7 — 275 Dimethyl decalin 0.69a 5.3i — 235
Aniline 1.2g 8.3g — 615 Dimethyl dichlorosilane 3.4 — — —
Anthracene 0.65d — — 540 Dimethyl ether 3.4 27 — 350
n-Amyl nitrate 1.1 — — 195 n,n-Dimethyl formamide 1.8a 14a 57 435
Benzene 1.3a 7.9a — 560 2,3-Dimethyl pentane 1.1 6.8 — 335
Benzyl benzoate 0.7d — — 480 2,2-Dimethyl propane 1.4 7.5 — 450
Benzyl chloride 1.2d — — 585 Dimethyl sulfide 2.2 20 — 205
Bicyclohexyl 0.65a 5.1h 74 245 Dimethyl sulfoxide — — 84 —
Biphenyl 0.70i — 110 540 Dioxane 2.0 22 — 265
2-Biphenylamine 0.8d — — 450 Dipentene 0.75h 6.1h 45 237
Bromobenzene 1.6d — — 565 Diphenylamine 0.7d — — 635
Butadiene (1,3) 2.0 12 — 420 Diphenyl ether 0.8d — — 620
n-Butane 1.8 8.4 –72 405 Diphenyl methane 0.7d — — 485
1,3-Butandiol 1.9d — — 395 Divinyl ether 1.7 27 — —
Butene-1 1.6 10 — 385 n-Dodecane 0.60d — 74 205
Butene-2 1.7 9.7 — 325 Ethane 3.0 12.4 –130 515
n-Butyl acetate 1.4e 8.0a — 425 Ethyl acetate 2.2 11 — —
n-Butyl alcohol 1.7a 12a — — Ethyl alcohol 3.3 19k — 365
sec-Butyl alcohol 1.7a 9.8a 21 405 Ethyl amine 3.5 — — 385
tert-Butyl alcohol 1.9a 9.0a 11 480 Ethyl benzene 1.0a 6.7a — 430
tert-Butyl amine 1.7a 8.9a — 380 Ethyl chloride 3.8 — — —
n-Butyl benzene 0.82a 5.8a — 410 Ethyl cyclobutane 1.2 7.7 — 210
sec-Butyl benzene 0.77a 5.8a — 420 Ethyl cyclohexane 2.0n 6.6n — 260
tert-Butyl benzene 0.77a 5.8a — 450 Ethyl cyclopentane 1.1 6.7 — 260
n-Butyl bromide 2.5a — — 265 Ethyl formate 2.8 16 — 455
Butyl cellosolve 1.1h 11j — 245 Ethyl lactate 1.5 — — 400
n-Butyl chloride 1.8 10a — — Ethyl mercaptan 2.8 18 — 300
n-Butyl formate 1.7 8.2 — — Ethyl nitrate 4.0 — — —
n-Butyl stearate 0.3d — — 355 Ethyl nitrite 3.0 50 — —
Butyric acid 2.1d — — 450 Ethyl propionate 1.8 11 — 440
-Butryolactone 2.0h — — — Ethyl propyl ether 1.7 9 — —
Carbon disulfide 1.3 50 — 90 Ethylene 2.7 36 — 490
Carbon monoxide 12.5 74 — — Ethyleneimine 3.6 46 — 320
Chlorobenzene 1.4 — 21 640 Ethylene glycol 3.5d — — 400
m-Cresol 1.1h — — — Ethylene oxide 3.6 100 — —
Crotonaldehyde 2.1 16k — — Furfural alcohol 1.8o 16p 72 390

172
Limits of Flammability (vol %) Limits of Flammability (vol %)

Combustible LFLy UFLy TL (°C) AIT (°C) Combustible LFLy UFLy TL (°C) AIT (°C)
Gasoline: n-Nonane 0.85u — 31 205
100/130 1.3 7.1 — 440 n-Octane 0.95 — 13 220
115/145 1.2 7.1 — 470 Paraldehyde 1.3 — — —
Glycerine — — — 370 Pentaborane 0.42 — — —
n-Heptane 1.05 6.7 –4 215 n-Pentane 1.4 7.8 –48 260
n-Hexadecane 0.43d — 126 205 Pentamethylene glycol — — — 335
n-Hexane 1.2 7.4 –26 225 Phthalic anhydride 1.2g 9.2v 140 570
n-Hexyl alcohol 1.2a — — — 3-Picoline 1.4d — — 500
n-Hexyl ether 0.6d — — 185 Pinane 0.74w 7.2w — —
Hydrazine 4.7 100 — — Propadiene 2.16 — — —
Hydrogen 4.0 75 — 400 Propane 2.1 9.5 –102 450
Hydrogen cyanide 5.6 40 — — 1,2-Propandiol 2.5d — — 410
Hydrogen sulfide 4.0 44 — — b-Propiolactone 2.9c — — —
Isoamyl acetate 1.1 7.0a 25 360 Propionaldehyde 2.9 17 — —
Isoamyl alcohol 1.4 9.0a — 350 n-Propyl acetate 1.8 8 — —
Isobutane 1.8 8.4 –81 460 n-Propyl alcohol 2.2k 14a — 440
Isobutyl alcohol 1.7a 11a — — Propyl amine 2.0 — — —
Isobutyl benzene 0.82a 6.0j — 430 Propyl chloride 2.4d — — —
Isobutyl formate 2.0 8.9 — — n-Propyl nitrate 1.8q 100q 21 175
Isobutylene 1.8 9.6 — 465 Propylene 2.4 11 — 460
Isopentane 1.4 — — — Propylene dichloride 3.1d — — —
Isophorone 0.84 — — 460 Propylene glycol 2.6x — — —
Isopropylacetate 1.7d — — — Propylene oxide 2.8 37 — —
Isopropyl alcohol 2.2 — — — Pyridine 1.8k 12y — —
Isopropyl biphenyl 0.6d — — 440 Propargyl alcohol 2.4e — — —
Jet fuel: Quinoline 1.0d — — —
JP-4 1.3 8 — 240 Styrene 1.1z — — —
JP-6 — — — 230 Sulfur 2.0aa — 247 —
Kerosene — — — 210 p-Terphenyl 0.96d — — 535
Methane 5.0 15.0 –187 540 n-Tetradecane 0.5d — — 200
Methyl acetate 3.2 16 — — Tetrahydrofurane 2.0 — — —
Methyl acetylene 1.7 — — — Tetralin 0.84a 5.0h 71 385
Methyl alcohol 6.7 36k — 385 2,2,3,3-Tetramethyl pentane 0.8 — — 430
Methyl amine 4.2d — — 430 Tetramethylene glycol — — — 390
Methyl bromide 10 15 — — Toluene 1.2a 7.1a — 480
3-Methyl butene-1 1.5 9.1 — — Trichloroethane — — — 500
Methyl butyl ketone S51.2 8.0a — — Trichloroethylene 12bb 40y 30 420
Methyl cellosolve 2.5q 20g — 380 Triethyl amine 1.2 8.0 — —
Methyl cellosolve acetate 1.7h — 46 — Triethylene glycol 0.9g 9.2bb — —
Methyl ethyl ether 2.2d — — — 2,2,3-Trimethyl butane 1.0 — — 420
Methyl chloride 7d — — — Trimethyl amine 2.0 12 — —
Methyl cyclohexane 1.1 6.7 — 250 2,2,4-Trimethyl pentane 0.95 — — 415
Methyl cyclopentadiene 1.3a 7.6a 49 445 Trimethylene glycol 1.7d — — 400
Methyl ethyl ketone 1.9 10 — — Trioxane 3.2d — — —
Methyl ethyl ketone peroxide — — 40 390 Turpentine 0.7a — — —
Methyl formate 5.0 23 — 465 Unsymmetrical
2.0 95 — —
Methyl cyclohexanol 1.0d — — 295 dimethylhydrazine
Methyl isobutyl carbinol 1.3d — 40 — Vinyl acetate 2.6 — — —
Methyl isopropenyl ketone 1.8e 9.0e — — Vinyl chloride 3.6 33 — —
Methyl lactate 2.2a — — — m-Xylene 1.1a 6.4a — 530
-Methyl naphthalene 0.8d — — 530 o-Xylene 1.1a 6.4a — 465
2,Methyl pentane 1.2d — — — p-Xylene 1.1a 6.6a — 530
a i q y
Methyl propionate 2.4 13 — — T = 100°C. T = 110°C. T = 125°C. T = 70°C.
b j r z
Methyl propyl ketone 1.6 8.2 — — T = 75°C. T = 175°C. T = 200°C. T = 29°C.
Methyl styrene 1.0d — 49 495 c
T = 75°C. k
T = 60°C. s
T = 78°C. aa
T = 247°C.
Methyl vinyl ether 2.6 39 — — d
Calculated. l
T = 53°C. t
T = 122°C. bb
T = 30°C.
Methylene chloride — — — 615 e
T = 50°C. m
T = 86°C. u
T = 43°C. cc
T = 203°C.
Monoisopropyl bicyclohexyl 0.52 4.1r 124 230 f
T = 85°C. n
T = 130°C. v
T = 195°C.
2-Monoisopropyl biphenyl 0.53j 3.2r 141 435 g
T = 140°C. o
T = 72°C. w
T = 160°C.
Monomethylhydrazine 4 — — — h p x
T = 150°C. T = 117°C. T = 96°C.
Naphthalene 0.88s 5.9t — 526
Nicotine 0.75a — — — Table reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth
Nitroethane 3.4 — 30 — edition, with permission from SFPE.
Nitromethane 7.3 — 33 —
1-Nitropropane 2.2 — 34 —
2-Nitropropane 2.5 — 27 —

173
 Limiting Oxygen Concentrations
Limiting Oxygen Concentrations at Normal Temperature and Pressure
Limiting Oxidant Concentration Limiting Oxidant Concentration
N2/Air (volume % O2 above which CO2/Air (volume % O2 above
Gas or Vapor deflagration can take place) which deflagration can take place) Reference
Ethane 11 13.5 Coward and Jones19
Propane 11.5 14.5 Coward and Jones19
n-Butane 12 14.5 Coward and Jones19
Isobutane 12 15 Coward and Jones19
n-Pentane 12 14.5 Coward and Jones19
Isopentane 12 14.5 Jones et al.20
n-Hexane 12 14.5 Coward and Jones19
n-Heptane 11.5 14.5 Jones et al.20
Ethylene 10 11.5 Coward and Jones19
Propylene 11.5 14 Coward and Jones19
1-Butene 11.5 14 Coward and Jones19
Isobutylene 12 15 Jones et al.20
Butadiene 10.5 13 Coward and Jones19
3-Methyl-1-butene 11.5 14 Zabetakis22
Benzene 11.4 14 Coward and Jones19
Gasoline
(73/100) 12 15 Jones et al.20
(100/130) 12 15 Jones et al.20
(115/145) 12 14.5 Jones et al.20
Kerosene 10 (150°C) 13 (150°C) Zabetakis and Rosen23
JP-1 fuel 10.5 (150°C) 14 (150°C) Jones et al.20
JP-3 fuel 12 14.5 Jones et al.20
JP-4 fuel 11.5 14.5 Jones et al.20
Natural gas
(Pittsburgh) 12 14.5 Coward and Jones19
n-Butyl chloride 14 — Kuchta et al.21
12 (100°C) — Kuchta et al.21
Methylene chloride 19 (30°C) — Kuchta et al.21
17 (100°C) — Kuchta et al.21
Ethylene dichloride 13 — Kuchta et al.21
11.5 (100°C) — Kuchta et al.21
1,1,1-Trichloroethane 14 — Kuchta et al.21
Trichloroethylene 9 (100°C) — Kuchta et al.21
Acetone 11.5 14 Zabetakis22
n-Butanol — 16.5 (150°C) Zabetakis22
Carbon disulfide 5 7.5 Zabetakis22
Carbon monoxide 5.5 5.5 Zabetakis22
Ethanol 10.5 13 Zabetakis22
2-Ethyl butanol 9.5 (150°C) — Zabetakis22
Ethyl ether 10.5 13 Zabetakis22
Hydrogen 5 5.2 Zabetakis22
Hydrogen sulfide 7.5 11.5 Zabetakis22
Isobutyl formate 12.5 15 Zabetakis22
Methanol 10 12 Zabetakis22
Methyl acetate 11 13.5 Zabetakis22
Methyl ether 10.5 13 Zabetakis22
Methyl formate 10 12.5 Zabetakis22
Methyl ethyl ketone 11 13.5 Zabetakis22

Table reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

174
 Pool Burning: Thermochemical and Empirical Constants for a Number of
Common Organic Fuels
Density Δhg Δhc 
m  kβ
Material
(kg m-3) (kJ kg-1) (MJ kg-1) -2 -1
(kg m s ) (m-1)
Cryogenics
liquid H2 70 442 120.0 0.017 (±0.001) 6.1 (±0.4)
LNG (most CH4) 415 619 50.0 0.078 (±0.018) 1.1 (±0.8)
LPG (mostly C3H8) 585 426 46.0 0.099 (±0.009) 1.4 (±0.5)
Alcohols
methanol (CH3OH) 796 1195 20.0 * *
ethanol (C2H5OH) 794 891 26.8 * *
Simple organic fuels
butane (C4H10) 573 362 45.7 0.078 (±0.003) 2.7 (±0.3)
benzene (C6H6) 874 484 40.1 0.085 (±0.002) 2.7 (±0.3)
hexane (C6H14) 650 433 44.7 0.074 (±0.005) 1.9 (±0.4)
heptane (C7H16) 675 448 44.6 0.101 (±0.009) 1.1 (±0.3)
xylenes (C8H10) 870 543 40.8 0.090 (±0.007) 1.4 (±0.3)
acetone (C3H6O) 791 668 25.8 0.041 (±0.003) 1.9 (±0.3)
dioxane (C4H8O2) 1035 552 26.2 0.018 5.4
diethyl ether (C4H10O) 714 382 34.2 0.085 (±0.018) 0.7 (±0.3)
Petroleum products
benzine 740 -- 44.7 0.048 (±0.002) 3.6 (±0.4)
gasoline 740 330 43.7 0.055 (±0.002) 2.1 (±0.3)
kerosene 820 670 43.2 0.039 (±0.003) 3.5 (±0.8)
JP-4 760 -- 43.5 0.051 (±0.002) 3.6 (±0.1)
JP-5 810 700 43.0 0.054 (±0.002) 1.6 (±0.3)
transformer oil, hydrocarbon 760 -- 46.4 0.039 0.7
fuel oil, heavy 940-1000 -- 39.7 0.035 (±0.003) 1.7 (±0.6)
crude oil 830-880 -- 42.5-42.7 0.060 0.62
Solids
polymethylmethacrylate 1184 1611 24.9 0.020 (±0.002) 3.3 (±0.8)
polyoxymethylene (CH2O)n 1425 2430 15.7
polypropylene (C3H6)n 905 2030 43.2
polystyrene (C8H8)n 1050 1720 39.7
Table reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

175
Effective Opposed-Flow Flame Spread Properties
Tig kρc  Ts,min /kρc
Material (°C) (kW2s/m4K2) (kW2/m3) (°C) (mK2/s)
PMMA polycast (1.59 mm) 278 0.73 5.4 120 8
Polyurethane (S353M) 280 — — 105 82
Hardboard (6.35 mm) 298 1.87 4.5 170 2
Carpet (acrylic) 300 0.42 9.9 165 24
Fiberboard, low density (S119M) 330 — — 90 42
Fiber insulation board 355 0.46 2.2 210 5
Hardboard (3.175 mm) 365 0.88 10.9 40 12
Hardboard (S159M) 372 — — 80 18
PMMA type g (1.27 cm) 378 1.02 14.4 90 14
Asphalt shingle 378 0.70 5.3 140 8
Douglas fir particle board (1.27 cm) 382 0.94 12.7 210 14
Wood panel (S178M) 385 — — 155 43
Plywood, plain (1.27 cm) 390 0.54 12.9 120 24
Chipboard (S118M) 390 — — 180 11
Plywood, plain (0.635 cm) 390 0.46 7.4 170 16
Foam, flexible (2.54 cm) 390 0.32 11.7 120 37
GRP (2.24 mm) 390 0.32 9.9 80 31
Mineral wool, textile paper (S160M) 400 — — 105 34
Hardboard (gloss paint) (3.4 mm) 400 1.22 3.5 320 3
Hardboard (nitrocellulose paint) 400 0.79 9.8 180 12
GRP (1.14 mm) 400 0.72 4.2 365 6
Particle board (1.27 cm stock) 412 0.93 4.2 275 5
Gypsum board, wallpaper (S142M) 412 0.57 0.79 240 1
Carpet (nylon/wool blend) 412 0.68 11.1 265 16
Carpet #2 (wool, untreated) 435 0.25 7.3 335 30
Foam, rigid (2.54 cm) 435 0.03 4.0 215 141
Polyisocyanurate (5.08 cm) 445 0.02 4.9 275 201
Fiberglass shingle 445 0.50 9.0 415 18
Carpet #2 (wool, treated) 455 0.24 0.8 365 4
Carpet #1 (wool, stock) 465 0.11 1.8 450 17
Aircraft panel epoxy Fiberite 505 0.24 * 505 *
Gypsum board, FR (1.27 cm) 510 0.40 9.2 300 23
Polycarbonate (1.52 mm) 528 1.16 14.7 455 13
Gypsum board, (common) (1.27 565 0.45 14.4 425 32
mm)
Plywood, FR (1.27 cm) 620 0.76 * 620 *
Polystyrene (5.08 cm) 630 0.38 * 630 *
Note: Values are only significant to two places.
*Flame spread was not measurable.

Table reprinted from SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Add Equivalent pipe schedule 40 Pipe length Chart per NFPA 13

- 2016 Table 23.4.1.1

176