Lecturer: L Lerotholi

Office: Re114 (RE Block)

Topic 4: Basic Equations of fluid flow
 Macroscopic energy equation
Total Energy of a flowing fluid can be divided into the following
components:

 Internal Energy (U) – energy atoms and molecules have because of

their motion and configuration – is a function of temperature

 Potential Energy (EP) – the energy a fluid has because of its position
in earth’s gravitational field

 Pressure Energy (EPRESS) – the energy/work required to introduce

the fluid into the system without change in volume.

 Kinetic Energy (EK) – the energy a fluid has because of its motion
 EP = mgh [J]

 EPRESS = mP/ρ [J]

 EK = ½mu2 [J]

Where: m = mass of the fluid

h = height of the fluid above the reference
P = pressure of the fluid
u = velocity of the fluid
ρ = density of the fluid
g = gravitational field constant (averaged at 9.81 m/s2)
 Assume a fluid is flowing from Point 1 to point 2 through the
pipe

Simplifications:
2  If temperature is constant
U1 = U 2
 Energy is not lost
1 z2
EPOINT 1 = E POINT 2
z1
Base Level Divide through by mg
Result is the Bernoulli Equation:
A fluid element flowing from 1 to 2

OR

Static head (m)

Kinetic head Pressure head
(m) (m)
 Influence of friction
Energy is usually lost in fluid flow due to
• friction within the pipe as the fluid flows
• friction as the fluid flows past valves, elbows and
pumps

A new term (Friction Head) has to be added to the

Bernoulli Equation such that it becomes:
• Remember:
𝑑𝑖 𝑃1 −𝑃2 𝑑𝑖 ×∆𝑃𝑓
𝜏𝑊 = = … (𝑎)
4𝐿 4𝐿

We define a frictional factor (called the fanning frictional factor) such that:
𝜏𝑊
𝑓=
1 𝜌𝑢2
2
Substituting Equation(a) results in:
4𝐿 𝜌𝑢2 NOTE: Differentiate
∆𝑃𝑓 = f between the
𝑑𝑖 2
∆𝑷𝒇 fanning frictional
But: ∆𝑯𝒇 = factor (f) and
𝝆𝒈
moody frictional
Therefore factor (fm): fm = 4f
4𝐿 𝑢 2
∆𝐻𝑓 = f
𝑑𝑖 2𝑔

• The frictional factor can be found from empirical correlations and graphical
tabulations

• Frictional factor is a function of the Reynolds number and the relative roughness
of the pipe
ABSOLUTE ROUGHNESS:

 Friction is dependent on the

roughness of the pipe through which
the fluid flows Type of pipe Absolute
Roughness (ε)
 This dependence is measured as the
absolute roughness (ε) Smooth pipe 0.0 m
Commercial steel 1.5 × 10 -6 m
 In order to read off the Moody
frictional factor/coefficient on the Cast iron 2.6 × 10 -4 m
Moody Diagram the Relative Concrete 3.0 × 10 -4 m
Roughness is needed:
Wrought iron 4.5 × 10 -5 m

Where di is the inside diameter of the

pipe
fm

For Laminar Flow: fm = 64/ NRE and f = 16/ NRE

Basic friction factor jF ---(fm= 8jF)

Laminar Flow:

Turbulent Flow in smooth pipes:

Turbulent flow in rough pipes ----- Refer to previous

diagram

The frictional term has to be adjusted when dealing with

fluid flow through bends, valves, flow meters etc…we
will see this later in the course!!!
 Using a pump
Pumps are used in fluid flow to add energy to the fluid via mechanical
action aiding in its movement.

The amendment to the Bernoulli Equation then becomes:

Or more conveniently:

The work of the pump that is calculated is the work the pump has to
deliver (But there is friction in pumps which deters their efficiency)

The work the pump delivers (Wdelivered) and the actual work (Wactual)
done are therefore related by:
𝑊𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟
𝛈=
𝑊𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙
 Home-Work
• Go through the examples in McCabe and
Smith where applicable!!!
 Continuity Equation
• Continuity equations describe the transport of
a conserved quantity e.g. Mass, Energy,
Momentum etc.
• The equations can be written in a differential
form showing conditions at a point within a
control volume
• they can be integrated to apply to a finite
volume of fluid
 Continuity of mass in a flowing fluid
Consider a control volume shown

• The mass balance is simply:

mass flow in – mass flow out =

mass accumulation

• In mathematical terms:

Flux: the rate of flow of any

• Where 𝑢 is the velocity vector quantity per unit area
and ρ𝑢 the mass flux
• Taking

𝜌𝑢 − 𝜌𝑢 𝑥+∆𝑥 ∆𝑦∆𝑧 + 𝜌𝑢
𝑥 𝑦 − 𝜌𝑢 𝑦+∆𝑦 ∆𝑥∆𝑧 + 𝜌𝑢 𝑧 − 𝜌𝑢 𝑧+∆𝑧 ∆𝑥∆𝑦
𝜕𝜌
= ∆𝑥∆𝑦∆𝑧
𝜕𝑡

• Divide through by ΔxΔyΔz

𝜌𝑢 𝑥 − 𝜌𝑢 𝑥+∆𝑥 𝜌𝑢 𝑦 − 𝜌𝑢 𝑦+∆𝑦 𝜌𝑢 𝑧 − 𝜌𝑢 𝑧+∆𝑧 𝜕𝜌

+ + =
∆𝑥 ∆𝑦 ∆𝑧 𝜕𝑡

• Taking the limit as Δx, Δy and Δz approach zero

𝜕(𝜌𝑢𝑥 ) 𝜕(𝜌𝑢𝑦 ) 𝜕(𝜌𝑢𝑧 ) 𝜕𝜌

− + + =
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡

• The LHS of the above equation can be written as the divergence of the mass
velocity vector:

𝜕 𝜌𝑢𝑥 𝜕 𝜌𝑢𝑦 𝜕 𝜌𝑢𝑧

− + + = − 𝛻 ∙ 𝜌𝑢
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
• Differentiating partially and rearranging:

𝜕𝑢𝑥 𝜕𝑢𝑦 𝜕𝑢𝑧 𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜌

−𝜌 + + = + 𝑢𝑥 + 𝑢𝑦 + 𝑢𝑧 … (∗)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

• The RHS can be expressed substantial derivative such that:

𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜌 𝑫𝝆
+ 𝑢𝑥 + 𝑢𝑦 + 𝑢𝑧 =
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝑫𝒕

Substantial derivative/ the derivative following the motion: The rate of the density change
that an observer would note if they were moving at the velocity of the fluid

• It can also be written in terms of the divergence of velocity

𝜕𝑢𝑥 𝜕𝑢𝑦 𝜕𝑢𝑧

−𝜌 + + = −𝝆 𝜵 ∙ 𝒖
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝑫𝝆
−𝝆 𝜵 ∙ 𝒖 = 𝑫𝒕

• If the fluid is incompressible, the RHS of Equation (*) = 0, as such, it reduces to:
𝜕𝑢𝑥 𝜕𝑢𝑦 𝜕𝑢𝑧
+ + =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
 Other coordinate systems
a) Cylindrical coordinates b) Spherical coordinates

𝑥 = 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃, 𝑦 = 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃, 𝑥 = 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠∅, 𝑦 = 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛∅,

𝑧=𝑧 𝑧 = 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑦 𝑦
𝑟= 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 , 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑟= 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 + 𝑧2 , ∅ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ,
𝑥 𝑥
𝑥2 + 𝑦2
𝜃= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1
𝑧
Transforming the following continuity equation:

𝜕𝜌 𝜕 𝜌𝑢𝑥 𝜕 𝜌𝑢𝑦 𝜕 𝜌𝑢𝑧

=− + + = − 𝛻 ∙ 𝜌𝑢
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

• To cylindrical coordinates:

𝜕𝜌 1 𝜕 𝜌𝑟𝑢𝑟 1 𝜕 𝜌𝑢𝜃 𝜕 𝜌𝑢𝑧

=− + + = −(𝛻 ∙ 𝜌𝑢)
𝜕𝑡 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑧

• To spherical coordinates:

𝜕𝜌 1 𝜕 𝜌𝑟 2 𝑢𝑟 1 𝜕 𝜌𝑢𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 1 𝜕 𝜌𝑢𝜑

=− 2 + +
𝜕𝑡 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜕𝜃 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜕𝜑
= −(𝛻 ∙ 𝜌𝑢)
 Macroscopic conservation of mass
For a steady state case

mass flow in = mass flow out = 𝒎

Consider flow through a pipe: Make a macroscopic balance with one directional flow, with density,
average velocity and the cross-sectional area at the entrance given by ρ1 , u1 and S1, and those at the
exit ρ2 and u2, S2

𝒎 = 𝝆 𝟏 𝒖 𝟏 𝑺𝟏 = 𝝆 𝟐 𝒖 𝟐 𝑺𝟐

𝜋𝑑𝑖2
• If 𝑆𝑖 = , then
4
2
𝜌1 𝑢1 𝑑2
=
𝜌2 𝑢2 𝑑1

• If the fluid is incompressible, the equation becomes

2
𝑢1 𝑑2
=
𝑢2 𝑑1

• If there is no increase in pipes cross-sectional area

𝑢1 = 𝑢2
Continuity of momentum in a flowing
fluid
• The balance is the same as that for mass balance
• Difference: velocity unlike mass is a vector
• Basic Principle:
Rate of momentum 𝐚𝐜𝐜𝐮𝐦𝐮𝐥𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 =
Rate of 𝐦𝐨𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐮𝐦 𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠 − Rate of 𝐦𝐨𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐮𝐦 𝐥𝐞𝐚𝐯𝐢𝐧𝐠
+ 𝐒𝐮𝐦 𝐨𝐟 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐜𝐞𝐬 acting on the system

• In fluid flow, momentum may enter and leave mainly

by two methods:
– Convective transfer (due to the bulk motion of the fluid)
– Molecular transfer (due to viscous action – shear stresses)
• Mathematical representation the net
convective flow in the x-direction is
given by:

(𝜌𝑢𝑥 𝑢𝑥 )𝑥 −(𝜌𝑢𝑥 𝑢𝑥 )𝑥+∆𝑥 ∆𝑦∆𝑧

+ (𝜌𝑢𝑦 𝑢𝑥 )𝑦 −(𝜌𝑢𝑦 𝑢𝑥 )𝑦+∆𝑦 ∆𝑥∆𝑧
+ (𝜌𝑢𝑧 𝑢𝑥 )𝑧 −(𝜌𝑢𝑧 𝑢𝑥 )𝑧+∆𝑧 ∆𝑥∆𝑦

• The net molecular flow in the x-

direction is given by:

(𝜏𝑥𝑥 )𝑥 − (𝜏𝑥𝑥 )𝑥+∆𝑥 ∆𝑦∆𝑧 + (𝜏𝑦𝑥 )𝑦 − (𝜏𝑦𝑥 )𝑦+∆𝑦 ∆𝑥∆𝑧 + (𝜏𝑧𝑥 )𝑧 − (𝜏𝑧𝑥 )𝑧+∆𝑧 ∆𝑥∆𝑦

Similar expressions may be written for

momentum flow in the y and z direction
• Usually forces acting on system arise from the fluid pressure P and the gravitational force g

• In the x-direction the resultant forces are given by:

𝑃𝑥 − 𝑃𝑥+∆𝑥 ∆𝑦∆𝑧 + 𝜌𝑔 𝑥 ∆𝑥∆𝑦∆𝑧

• The rate of accumulation of momentum in the x- direction is given by:

𝜕(𝜌𝑢𝑥 )
∆𝑥∆𝑦∆𝑧
𝑑𝑡

• Substituting, Dividing by ΔxΔyΔz and taking the limit as Δx, Δy, and Δz approach zero gives
Equation (***) as follows:
𝜕(𝜌𝑢𝑥 )
𝜕𝑡
𝜕 𝜌𝑢𝑥 𝑢𝑥 𝜕 𝜌𝑢𝑦 𝑢𝑥 𝜕 𝜌𝑢𝑧 𝑢𝑥 𝜕 𝜏𝑥𝑥 𝜕 𝜏𝑦𝑥 𝜕 𝜏𝑧𝑥 𝜕𝑃
=− + + − + + − + ρ𝑔𝑥
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥

becomes

𝜕 𝜌𝑢𝑥 𝜕 𝜌𝑢𝑦 𝜕 𝜌𝑢𝑧 𝜕𝑢𝑥 𝜕𝑢𝑥 𝜕𝑢𝑥

𝑢𝑥 + 𝑢𝑥 + 𝑢𝑥 + 𝜌𝑢𝑥 + 𝜌𝑢𝑦 + 𝜌𝑢𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
The RHS of Equation (***):

𝜕(𝜌𝑢𝑥 ) 𝜕(𝜌) 𝜕(𝑢𝑥 )

= 𝑢𝑥 +𝜌
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡

Combining and rearranging:

𝜕(𝜌) 𝜕 𝜌𝑢𝑥 𝜕 𝜌𝑢𝑦 𝜕 𝜌𝑢𝑧 𝜕𝑢𝑥 𝜕𝑢𝑥 𝜕𝑢𝑥 𝜕𝑢𝑥

𝑢𝑥 + + + + 𝜌 + 𝜌𝑢𝑥 + 𝜌𝑢𝑦 + 𝜌𝑢𝑧
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕 𝜏𝑥𝑥 𝜕 𝜏𝑦𝑥 𝜕 𝜏𝑧𝑥 𝜕𝑃
=− + + − + ρ𝑔𝑥
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥

The highlighted part of the equation is just the same as that derived for mass continuity
equation and it sums to zero:

𝜕𝑢𝑥 𝜕𝑢𝑥 𝜕𝑢𝑥 𝜕𝑢𝑥 𝜕 𝜏𝑥𝑥 𝜕 𝜏𝑦𝑥 𝜕 𝜏𝑧𝑥 𝜕𝑃

𝜌 + 𝜌𝑢𝑥 + 𝜌𝑢𝑦 + 𝜌𝑢𝑧 =− + + − + ρ𝑔𝑥
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥

The above equation becomes Equation (****):

𝐷𝑢𝑥 𝜕 𝜏𝑥𝑥 𝜕 𝜏𝑦𝑥 𝜕 𝜏𝑧𝑥 𝜕𝑃
𝜌 =− + + − + ρ𝑔𝑥
𝐷𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥
It can be shown (not necessary for this module) that the
different components of stress for Newtonian fluid can be given
by:
Stress components for Newtonian case:
𝜕𝑢𝑥 𝜕𝑢𝑦
𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 𝜏𝑦𝑥 = −μ +
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑢𝑦 𝜕𝑢𝑧
𝜏𝑦𝑧 = 𝜏𝑧𝑦 = −μ +
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑢𝑧 𝜕𝑢𝑥
𝜏𝑧𝑥 = 𝜏𝑥𝑧 = −μ +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝑢𝑥 2
𝜏𝑥𝑥 = −2μ + 𝜇−κ 𝛻∙𝑢
𝜕𝑥 3
𝜕𝑢𝑦 2
𝜏𝑦𝑦 = −2μ + 𝜇−κ 𝛻∙𝑢
𝜕𝑦 3
𝜕𝑢𝑧 2
𝜏𝑧𝑧 = −2μ + 𝜇−κ 𝛻∙𝑢
𝜕𝑧 3
Substituting the stress components into Equation (****) gives the general
equation of motion for a Newtonian fluid with varying density

For the x-direction:

𝐷𝑢𝑥
𝜌
𝐷𝑡
𝜕 𝜕𝑢𝑥 2 𝜕 𝜕𝑢𝑥 𝜕𝑢𝑦
=− −2μ + 𝜇−κ 𝛻∙𝑢 + −μ +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 3 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
 Navier-Stokes Equations (Rectangular Co-ordinates)

x-direction:

𝐷𝑢𝑥 𝜕 2 𝑢𝑥 𝜕 2 𝑢𝑥 𝜕 2 𝑢𝑥 𝜕𝑃
𝜌 =𝜇 + + − + 𝜌𝑔𝑥
𝐷𝑡 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑥

y-direction:

𝐷𝑢𝑦 𝜕 2 𝑢𝑦 𝜕 2 𝑢𝑦 𝜕 2 𝑢𝑦 𝜕𝑃
𝜌 =𝜇 + + − + 𝜌𝑔𝑦
𝐷𝑡 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑦

z-direction:

𝐷𝑢𝑧 𝜕 2 𝑢𝑧 𝜕 2 𝑢𝑧 𝜕 2 𝑢𝑧 𝜕𝑃
𝜌 =𝜇 2
+ 2
+ 2
− + 𝜌𝑔𝑧
𝐷𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧
Navier-Stokes Equations (Cylindrical Co-ordinates)
 Navier-Stokes Equations (Spherical Co-ordinates)

• Please refer to McCabe and Smith (2005)

page 79 for the above stated Equations

Euler’s Equation

• For constant density and inviscid fluid, the

equation of motion in rectangular coordinates
reduces to
𝐷𝑢
𝜌 = −𝛻𝑃 + 𝜌𝑔
𝐷𝑡
 Macroscopic Momentum Balance
As stated before:
Rate of momentum 𝐚𝐜𝐜𝐮𝐦𝐮𝐥𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧
= Rate of 𝐦𝐨𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐮𝐦 𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠 − Rate of 𝐦𝐨𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐮𝐦 𝐥𝐞𝐚𝐯𝐢𝐧𝐠
+ 𝐒𝐮𝐦 𝐨𝐟 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐜𝐞𝐬 acting on the system

Consider steady flow through a pipe

x-direction

− 𝐹 = 𝑚1 𝑢1 − 𝑚2 𝑢2

But u need not be constant across the cross-section, therefore a correction

factor β is sometimes used to correct for deviations from the mean velocity
(umean) in the direction of flow.
2
𝑀 1 𝑢
𝛽= 2 = 𝑑𝑆
𝑆𝜌𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑆 𝑆 𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛

Where 𝑀is the momentum

 − 𝐹 = 𝑚1 𝛽1 𝑢1 − 𝑚2 𝛽2 𝑢2

If the correction factor is neglected and the there is no accumulation

of mass:
𝑚 = 𝑚1 = 𝑚2
− 𝐹 = 𝑚(𝑢1 − 𝑢2 )

The sum of forces are usually due to

• Pressure change in the direction of flow
• Shear stress at the boundary
• Gravitational component

Assuming uni-directional flow in the x-direction

𝐹 = 𝑃1 𝑆1 − 𝑃2 𝑆2 − 𝜏𝑊 𝑆𝑊 − 𝜌𝑔𝑥 𝑉
 Example 1- Flow of liquid layer on a surface
• Consider an incompressible fluid flowing down a plane
• With a constant thickness δ
in the y-direction
• The momentum balance
in the x-direction is given by

𝐹 = 𝑃1 𝑆1 − 𝑃2 𝑆2 − 𝜏𝑊 𝑆𝑊 − 𝜌𝑔𝑥 𝑉

But S1 = S2 = δz, SW = Lz, V = Lδz while gx = gsinθ

The continuity equation shows that:

Look through
u1 = u2 pg. 83
McCabe and
Therefore the momentum balance becomes: Smith

𝐹 = m 𝑢2 − 𝑢1 = 0 = δz 𝑃1 − 𝑃2 − Lz𝜏𝑊 − 𝐿δz𝜌𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

P1=P2---the fluid is flowing under gravity only (no external pressure forces are applied)

𝜏𝑊 = −δ𝜌𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
 Example 2- Flow of liquid inside a pipe
• Consider the flow of an incompressible fluid inside a pipe

• The pipe cross section is constant

• From mass continuity u1 = u2
• If the pipe is horizontal
• The momentum balance in the x-direction is given by:

𝐹 = m 𝑢2 − 𝑢1 = 0 = 𝜋𝑟𝑖2 𝑃1 − 𝑃2 − 2𝜋𝑟𝐿𝜏𝑊 − 0

𝑟𝑖 𝑃1 − 𝑃2 𝑑𝑖 𝑃1 − 𝑃2
= = 𝜏𝑊
2𝐿 4𝐿

Where ri is the inside diameter of the pipe

It follows that for any control volume with radius r (at the conditions described above)
𝑟 𝑃1 − 𝑃2
= 𝜏𝑟𝑧
2𝐿
Therefore:
𝜏𝑊 𝑅
= REMEMBER THIS RELATION!!!
𝜏𝑟𝑧 𝑟