FLUIDS MECHANICS

All materials exhibit deformation under the action of forces. If the deformation in the material
increases continuously without limit under the action of the shearing forces, however small, the
material is called a “FLUID”.
The continuous deformation under shearing forces is manifested in the tendency of fluid to flow.
Fluids are classified into liquids and gases. Liquids, for most purposes are considered
“Incompressible fluids, while gases are highly compressible fluids”.
Compressible fluid is a matter that can be compressed with the application of an extenal pressure
while incompressible fliuid is a matter that cannot be compressed with the application of an
external pressue.
Differences between compressible and incompressible fluids
Volume The volume of a compressed fluid can The volume of a compressed fluid
be reduced with the application of a cannot be reduced with the
pressure on the fluid. application of a pressure on the
fluid.
Density The density of the compressed fluid The density of the compressed fluid
can be changed with the application of cannot be changed with the
a pressure on the fluid. application of a pressure on the
fluid.
Mach Number The value of Mach number should be The value of Mach number should
greater than 0.3 for a compressed fluid. be less than 0.3 for a compressed
fluid.
Compression Compression and expansion have a Compression and expansion do not
and Expansion significant effect on the fluid density. have a significant effect on the fluid
density.

The basic equations of compressible fluid flow are: (i) Continuity equation, (ii) Momentum
equations, (iii) Energy equation, and (iv) Equation of state.
The only change from incompressible fluid cases is that thermodynamic laws are applied in
addition to the basic principle of conservation of mass, energy and momentum.
Consider the flow through parallelipipe shown in
above whose dimensions are dx, dy, dz with corresponding

u, v, w velocities along the axes.

The mass flow rate or mass per unit time  m  of
.

 
Inflow fluid along the x-axis is
.
m ix = udydz
and the mass per unit time  m  outflow through the x-axis is
.

 
.
  
m ox =  u + udx dydz
 x 
The net mass per unit time flow through the control volume is
.
  
m nx = udydz −  u + udx dydz
 x  (1)
. 
m nx = − udxdydz
x
Similarly,
.   
m ny = vdxdz −  v + vdy dxdz
 y  (2)
. 
m ny = − vdxdydz
y
And,
.
  
m nz = wdxdy −  w + wdz dxdy
 z  (3)
. 
m nz = − wdxdydz
z
And the total net inflow in all directions is
.    
m n ( total ) = −  u + v + w dxdydz (4)
 x y z 
But the rate of change of mass within the control volume of the parallelipepe is
 
dxdydz = dxdydz (5)
t t
Equating (4) and (5)
    
−  u + v + w dxdydz = dxdydz (6)
 x y z  t
Reducing it to the simplest form, then
    
−  u + v + w = (7)
 x y z  t
This is the CONTINUITY EQUATION for a three-dimensional (3-d) unsteady flow of a
compressible fluid.
(i) An unsteady, incompressible three-dimensional fluid flow;
 = cons tan t
   
u+ v+ w=
x y z t
(ii) A steady, incompressible three-dimensional fluid flow;
 
 = cons tan t , =0
t
  
u+ v+ w=0
x y z
(iii) A steady, incompressible two-dimensional fluid flow;

 = cons tan t , =0
t
 
u+ v=0
x y
(iv) An unsteady, incompressible two-dimensional fluid flow;
 = cons tan t
  
u+ v=
x y t
(v) An unsteady, incompressible one-dimensional fluid flow;
 = cons tan t
 
u=
x t
Momentum Equations
The momentum equations are derived from Newton’s second law of motion which states that
“The rate of change of linear momentum is directly proportional to the applied.
Force and act in the direction of the force applied”.
Mathematically, this can be expressed as
dM
F
dt
dM = Fdt
Where, M Momentum, F = force, t = time
But momentum, M = mv
Where, m = mass and, v = velocity
Therefore,
dM = mdv
dM = Fdt
Fdt= dM
Fdt= mdv

F=
mdv
=
m
(v2 − v1 )
dt t2 − t1
.
F = m dv

F = m(v2 − v1 )
.
 The energy equation is one of the basic conservation equations used in solving flow problems.

VECTOR NOTATION FOR THE CONTINUITY EQUATION

DIVERGENCE: Given that U is interpreted as a scalar (dot) product with ∇,
The divergence of p is given by
→
Divergent of p

→
p = u i + v j+ w k
− − −

  
= i+ j+ k =0
x y z

   
. p =  i + j + k . u i + v j + w k 
 x y − z −   − −
− −

u v w
. p = + +
x y z

• CURL:
Given that U is interpreted as a scalar (dot) product with ∇. The curl of p is given by
→
Curl of p

Assume a radius r for the fluid cylinder and length l, n x q, a point on the curve surface is a vector
parallel to the axis having the magnitude
n q = wr
−

ds = rld
curl p =   p
− −

1
= lim  n pds
v →0 v − −
s

But v = r 2 l
1
v →0 r 2 l  −
Therefore, curl p == lim w r.rld
− s
curl p =
−
1
r l
2 −
w r 2l () 2

(o )

curl p = 2 w r 2 l (2 )
1
− r l −
curl p = 2w
−

This shows that solid body rotation, the curl of the velocity at a point is twice the rotation velocity.
For no rotation, w = 0
curl p = 0
−

𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
(𝜕⁄ 𝜕⁄ 𝜕⁄ )
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝑢 𝑣 𝑤
 w v   w u   v u 
=  − i −  −  j +  − k
 y z   x z   x y 
 w v   u w   v u 
=  − i +  +  j +  − k
 y z   z x   x y 

 w v 
 −  = 2 wx (Vorticity in x-component)
 y z 

 u w 
 +  = 2w y (Vorticity in y-component)
 z x 

 v u 
 −  = 2 wz (Vorticity in z-component)
 x y 
Hence from above, the vorticity is twice the angle of rotation. Also, it can be deduced that a fluid
is irrotational at a point where the vorticity is zero. Hence, for irrotational fluid
Curl p =0
−

Hence,
w v
=
y z
u w
=
z x
v u
=
x y
Derive the mathematical equations for velocity potential.

− 
u=
x
− 
v=
y
− 
w=
z
Where u, v, w are the velocity components in the x, y, and z directions respectively.

For incompressible steady flow, the continuity equation is

u v w
+ + =0
x y z
Substituting the equations for u, v, and w. The equation becomes

  −     −     −  
 +  +  =0
x  x  y  y  z  z 

Hence, we have

 2  2  2
+ + =0
x 2 y 2 z 2

Recall that: the rotation components is given as

1  w v 
wx =  − 
2  y z 
1  u w 
wy =  − 
2  z x 
1  v u 
wz =  − 
2  x y 

Substituting the equation for u, v, w

1    −     −   
wx =   −  
2  y  z  z  y  
1  −  2  2 
=  + 
2  y z zy 

Also,
 1    −     −   
w y =   −  
2  z  x  x  z  
1  −  2  2 
=  + 
2  z x xz 

Similarly,

1    −     −   
wz =   −  
2  x  y  y  x  
1  −  2  2 
=  + 
2  x y yx 

If  is a continuous function, then the flow is irrotational, hence,

wx = wy = wz = 0

And the equations become

 2  2
=
y z z y
 2  2
=
z x x z
 2  2
=
x y y x

If the velocity potential,  satisfies the Laplace equation, it represents the possible steady,
incompressible irrotational flow. An irrotational flow of this form is called Potential flow.

EXAMPLE 1
The following are sets of velocity components in two dimensions. Determine which of them
satisfy the continuity equation.
i.u=5x-8y and v=7x-5y
du dv dw
+ + =0
dx dy dz

du dv
+ =o
dx dy

u=5x-8y
du
= 5−0 = 5
dx
v=7x-5y
du
= 0 − 5 = −5
dv
5+(-5) = 0
0=0
ii.u=3x2-5xy and v=6xy2-7y2
du dv dw
+ + =0
dx dy dz

du dv
+ =o
dx dy

u=3x2-5xy

du
= 6x + 0 = 5
dx
v=6xy2-7y2
du
= 12 xy − 14 y
dv
du dv
+ =o
dx dy

6x+5y+12xy-14y ≠ 0
iii. If u=Acos3x and v = Asin3y
du
= −3 A sin 3 x
dx
V=Asin3y
du
= 3 A cos 3 y
dy

du dv
+ =o
dx dy

-3Asin3x + 3Acos3y ≠ 0
Example 2
For a two-dimensional flow the x-component of the velocity is given by u=ax2 – bx + by.
Determine a possible y-component for a steady, incompressible flow for a constant condition
K=0
Solution
du dv
+ =o
dx dy

U=ax2 – bx + by
du
= 2ax − b
dx
du
= −2ax + b
dx
dv = (-2ax + b) dy

 dv =  (−2ax + b)dy
V = -2axy + by + k
V = -2axy + by
Example 3
The diameters of a truncated pipe at the entrance and exist points are 140mm and 210mm
respectively, water flows into the pipe at a velocity of 36ms-1. Find the
(i) Volume flow rate through the pipe
(ii) Velocity of water at the exist
D1 = 140mm = 0.14m
V1 = 3.6m/s
Q =?
D2 =210mm = 0.21m
V2 =?
M = AV

Q = AV
 d 2 𝜋𝑑2 3.142 (0.14)2
A1 = ; 4
= 4
= 0.0154𝑚2
4

d 2 𝜋𝑑2 3.142 (0.21)2

A2 = ; 4
= 4
= 0.03465𝑚2
4
a. Q = A1V1
Q = 0.0154 x 3.6m/s
Q = 0.05544 m3s-1

b. A1V1 = A2V2
0.05544 = 0.03465 x V2
0.05544
V2 =
0.03465
V2 = 1.6 ms-1

Example 4
u = 2x2 + 3y2 +4z2
v = -5xy + 6xz – 7yz
W(1,1,1)=1; X=1, y=1, z=1, w=1, W=?
du dv dw
+ + =0
dx dy dz

u = 2x2 + 3y2 +4z2

du
= 4x + 0 = 4x
dx
v = -5xy + 6xz – 7yz
du
= −5 x + 0 − 7 z = −5 x − 7 z
dx
dw
4x − 5x − 7 y + =0
dz
dw
− x − 7y + =0
dz
dw
= x + 7y
dz
dw = x + 7 ydz
 dw =  x + 7 y(dz)

7z 2
w = xz + +K
2

7(1) 2
1 = (1)(1) + +K
2
7
K =−
2

7z 2 7
W = xz + −
2 2

Example 5
In a three- dimensional incompressible fluid flow, the velocity components in x- and y-directions
are given by

u = 2x 2 + 3y 2 + 4z 2
v = −5 xy + 6 xz − 7 yz
Assuming that the flow satisfies the continuity equation, find the velocity component w of the flow
in the z-direction, for the flow condition w (1,1,1) = 1.

u = 2x2 + 3y2 + 4z 2
du
= 4x
dx
v = −5 xy + 6 xz − 7 yz

dv
= −5 x − 7 z
dx
w=?
Applying the continuity equation;
du dv dw
+ + =0
dx dy dz

4 x + (− 5 x − 7 z ) +
dw
=0
dz
dw
4 x − 5x − 7 z + =0
dz
1
7 2
1 = 1(1) + (1) + k
2
7
k=−
2
dw
− x − 7z + =0
dz
dw
= x + 7z
dz
dw = ( x + 7 z )dz

 dw =  ( x + 7 z )dz
7z2
w = xz + +k
2
w(1,1,1) = 1
x = 1, y = 1, z = 1, w =

The velocity component in the z-direction is

7z2 7
w = xz + −
2 2

w = xz +
2
(
7 2
z −1 )
Example 6
A two-dimensional incompressible flow in a cylindrical polar co-ordinate is given by
Vr = −6r sin  cos

V = 6r sin 2 

Show that these velocity components represent a physically possible flow field.
The continuity equation for a steady, two-dimensional incompressible flow is
Vr dv r dV
+ + =0
r dr rd
Vr = −6r sin  cos

dv r d (−6r sin  cos )

=
dr dr
dvr
= −6 sin  cos
dr

V = 6r sin 2 

dv
= 12r sin  cos
d
− 6 sin  cos − 6 sin  cos ) + 12r sin  cos = 0
Example 7
Determine the rotation components about the various axes for the following flow
i. u=x3y and v=3xy2
Solution
1 dw dV
Wx = ( − )
2 dy dz

1 du dw
Wy = ( − )
2 dz dx
1 dv du
Wz = ( − )
2 dx dy

dw dv du dw dv du
= 0; = 0; = 0; = 0; = 3y2; = x3 ;
dy dz dz dx dx dy

1 dw dV 1
Wx = ( − ) = (0 − 0) = 0
2 dy dz 2

1 dv du 1
Wy = ( − ) = (3 y 2 − x 3 )
2 dx dy 2

ii. u=4xyz, v=2x2yz and w=xy+3z2

1 dw dV
Wx = ( − )
2 dy dz

1 du dw
Wy = ( − )
2 dz dx
1 dv du
Wz = ( − )
2 dx dy

dw dv du dw dv du
= x; = 4 x 2 yz; = 4 xy; = y; = 4 xyz 2 ; = 4 xz;
dy dz dz dx dx dy

1 dw dv 1 x
Wx = ( − ) = ( x − 4 x 2 yz) = (1 − 4 xyz)
2 dy dz 2 2

1 du du 1 y
W y = ( − ) = (4 xy − y ) = (4 x − 1)
2 dx dx 2 2
1 dv du 1
Wz = ( − ) = (4 xz 2 − 4 xz)
2 dx dy 2
Example 8
(b) The velocity component of a two-dimensional, steady, incompressible fluid flow is
3x 3y
u= and v =
x+ y x+ y

Determine the:
i. Acceleration components ax and ay
ii. Rotation component, wz

i. The acceleration components a x and a y

The expression for the acceleration components is

u u
ax = u +v
x y

v v
ay = u +v
x y

 3x 
 
3 u  x + y 
But u = , =
x + y x x

u ( x + y )(3) − (3x )(1)

=
x (x + y )2
u 3 x + 3 y − 3x
=
x (x + y )2
u 3y
=
x (x + y )2

 3x 
 
u  x + y 
=
y y

u (x + y )(0) − (3x )(1)

=
y (x + y )2
u − 3x
=
y (x + y )2
  3y 
 
3 y v  x + y 
and v = , =
x + y x x

v (x + y )(0) − (3 y )(1)
=
x (x + y )2
v − 3y
=
x (x + y )2

 3y 
 
v  x + y 
=
y y

v (x + y )(3) − (3 y )(1)
=
y (x + y )2
v 3x
=
y (x + y )2

Substituting these values in the expressions for the acceleration components, then

 3x  3 y   3 y  − 3x 
a x =    + 
2 
 
2 
 x + y  (x + y )   x + y  (x + y ) 

9 xy 9 xy
ax = −
(x + y )(x + y ) (x + y )(x + y )2
2

ax = 0

dv dv
ay = u +v
dx dy

 3x   − 3 y   3 y  3x 
a y =    2
+   
2 
 x + y  ( x + y )   x + y  ( x + y ) 
− 9 xy 9 xy
ay = +
(x + y )(x + y ) (x + y )(x + y )2
2

ay = 0

The rotation component, wz

 1  v u 
wz =  − 
2  x y 
1   − 3 y   3x  
=   − 
2   ( x + y )2   (x + y )2  

3 y x 
=  − 
2  (x + y ) (x + y )2 
2

Hence, the flow is irrotational.

Example 9
x y
U =( ) and V = ( 2 )
x +y
2 2
x + y2

Ax and Ay
du du
ax = U +V
dx dy

dv dv
ay = U +V
dx dy

du du
ax = U +V
dx dy

du d (u ) d x
= = ( 2 )
dx dy dy x + y 2

du dv
u = x; = 1; v = x 2 + y 2 ; = 2 x
dx dx
du dv
V −U
du dx dx
= 2
dx V

( x 2 + y 2 )(1) − x(2 x)
(x2 + y 2 )2

(x 2 + y 2 ) − 2x 2
(x2 + y 2 )2

− x2 + y2
(x2 + y 2 )2
du d (u ) d x
= = ( 2 )
dx dy dy x + y 2

du dv
u = x; = 0; v = x 2 + y 2 ; = 2 y
dx dx
du dv
V −U
du dx dx
= 2
dy V

( x 2 + y 2 )(0) − x(2 y )
(x2 + y 2 )2

− (2 xy)
=
(x 2 + y 2 )2

du du
ax = U +V
dx dy

x2 − x2 + y2 y2 2 xy
( 2 )( 2 )+ 2 − 2
(x + y ) (x + y )
2 2 2 2
(x + y ) (x + y 2 )2
2

− x 3 + xy 2 − 2 xy 2
ax =
( x 2 + y 2 )3

− x 3 + x 2 y − 2 xy 2
ax =
( x 2 + y 2 )3

− x 3 − xy 2
ax = 2
( x + y 2 )3

− x( x 2 + y 2 )
ax = 2
( x + y 2 )( x 2 + y 2 ) 2

−x
ax =
(x + y 2 )2
2

dv dv
ay = U +V
dx dy

dv d (v) d y
= = ( 2 )
dx dx dy x + y 2

du dv
u = y; = 0; v = x 2 + y 2 ; = 2 x
dx dx
 du dv
V −U
dv dx dx
=
dy V2

( x 2 + y 2 )(0) − y (2 y )
(x2 + y 2 )2

− (2 xy)
=
(x 2 + y 2 )2

dv d (v) d y
= = ( 2 )
dy dy dy x + y 2

du dv
u = y; = 1; v = x 2 + y 2 ; = 2 y
dx dx
du dv
V −U
dv dy dy
= 2
dy V

( x 2 + y 2 )(1) − y (2 y )
(x2 + y 2 )2

x2 + y2 − 2 y2
(x2 + y 2 )2

x2 − y2
(x2 + y 2 )2

dv dv
ay = U +V
dx dy

x − 2x y x2 − y2
( )( ) + −
(x2 + y 2 ) (x2 + y 2 )2 (x2 + y 2 ) (x2 + y 2 )2

2x 2 y − x2 y + y3
ay = − +
( x 2 + y 2 )3 ( x 2 + y 2 )3

− x2 y − y3
ay =
( x 2 + y 2 )3

− y( x 2 + y 2 )
ay =
(x 2 + y 2 )2 (x2 + y 2 )
 −y
ay =
(x + y 2 )2
2
 • ENERGY EQUATION
Starting from first principle, show that the Bernoulli’s equation is
2 2
p1 v p v
+ z1 + 1 = 2 + z 2 + 2
g 2 g g 2g

Neglecting friction, the forces acting on the mass, dm are the pressure acting on the end area dA
and the weight of the fluid.
Since there is motion in the direction x, then

F x = ma x

Which implies that

PdA − ( P + dP )dA − dAdx sin  = dma x = dAdxa x
− dPdA − dAdx sin  − dAdxa x = 0

dv dx
But a x = ,v = and dz = dx sin 
dt dt
Substituting all these in the above expression,
One obtains
dv
− dP − dz − vdt.
dt
− dP − dz − vdv = 0

And, on dividing by −  , the above expression becomes

dP vdv
+ dz +  =0
 
But,  = g

Then, the above equation becomes

dP vdv
+ dz + =0
 g

The above equation is known as Euler’s equation and when integrated, it becomes Bernoulli’s
equation.
Integrating both sides, we get
 dp V2
 +
2 
+ gdz = cons tan t

dp V 2
  + 2 + gz = cons tan t (1)

The above equation is known as Euler’s equation and when integrated, it becomes Bernoulli’s
equation.
For incompressible fluid, integrating the above equation, then
P2 z2 v2
dP vdv

P1

+  dz + 
z1 v1
g
=0

Which yields

 P2 P1  v 2 v 2 
 −  + (z 2 − z1 ) +  2 − 1  = 0
    2g 2g 

Then,
2 2
P1 v P v
+ z1 + 1 = 2 + z 2 + 2
 2g  2g
2 2
p1 v p v
+ z1 + 1 = 2 + z 2 + 2
g 2 g g 2g

(a) Bernoulli’s equation for isothermal process:

The above bernoulli’s equation for compressible flow undergoing isothermal process.
(b) Bernoulli’s equation for adiabatic process:
 (2)
(b) Bernoulli’s equation for adiabatic process:
In case of an adiabatic process:

dp
Substituting the value of  in the eqn. (1), we get

(3)
Example 10
3
A pipe 40m long is inclined at angle 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (5) to the horizontal. The diameters of section A
(lower level) and B (higher level) are 200mm and 100mm respectively. Petrol flows through the
pipe from section A at a velocity of 3.5m/s and the static pressure at this section is 200kN/m2. If
the energy losses through frictional effect to the pipe is 180mm, calculate the
i. Discharge rate through the pipe
ii. Mass flow rate of petrol
iii. Velocity of petrol at the upper level
iv. Gauge pressure at B.

Density = 750kg/m3
g = 9.81m/s2
l = 40m
velocity, VA =3.5m/s2
diameter at section A, dA = 200mm = 0.2m
diameter at section A, dB = 100mm = 0.1m
static pressure at A, PA = 200kN/m2 = 200000N/m2
Area, at A, AA

d A 2 3.142(0.2)
2
AA = = = 0.0342 m 2
4 4
d 2 3.142(0.1)
2
AB = B = = 0.00855m 2
4 4
Discharge rate through the pipe
Q = V A AA
Q = 0.0342  3.5
Q = 0.1197 m 3 / s

Mass flow rate

.
m = Q
.
m = 0.1197  750
.
m = 89.775kg / s

Velocity of petrol at the upper level, VB

Q = VB AB
Q
VB =
AB
0.1197
VB =
0.00855
VB = 14m / s

Gauge pressure at B

g = 750  9.817357 .5kg / m 2 s 2

3
sin −1   = 36.87 0
5
ZB = ?
ZB
sin  = = sin 36.87
40
Z B = 40  sin 3687 = 24m
2 2
VA P V P
+ A + ZA = B + B + ZB
2 g g 2 g g
3.5 2 200000 14 2 PB
+ +0= + + 24
2(9.81) 7357.5 2(9.81) 7357.5
PB
27.8074 = 33.9898 +
7357.5
PB
27.8074 − 33.9898 =
7357.5
PB = −6.1824  7357.5
PB = 45487 .01N / m 2
PB = 45.49kN / m 2
Example 11
Water is flowing through a tapered pipe of diameter 150mm and 200mm at section A and B
respectively. The rate of flow through the pipe is 40 litres/sec. The elevations of the two sections
A and B are 10.5m and 6.5m respectively. If the pressure at A is 455 kN/m2, neglecting frictional
effect in the pipe. Determine the:
i. Velocities at A and B
ii. Gauge pressure at B (Density of water = 1000kg/m3, g = 9.81m/s2).
Solution
Diameter A, dA = 150mm=0.15m
Diameter B, dB = 200mm=0.2m
Pressure A, PA = 455kN/m2
Pressure A, PA = ?
Head A, ZA = 10.5m
Head B, ZB = 6.5m
40
Discharge, Q = 40l / s = = 0.04m 3 / s
1000
i. Required to determine the velocities at A and B
From the continuity equation
Q = V1 A1 = V2 A2
Q Q
VA = =
AA d A 2
4
4Q
VA =
d A 2
4  0.04m3 / s
VA =
 (0.15) 2 m 2
VA = 2.263m / s 2
Q Q
VB = =
AB d B 2
4
4Q
VB =
d B 2
4  0.04m 3 / s
VB =
 (0.2) 2 m 2
VB = 2.263m / s 2
VB = 1.273m / s
i. Required to determine gauge pressure at B (Density of water = 1000kg/m3, g =
9.81m/s2)
Applying Bernuolli’s equation i.e
 2 2
vA P v P
zA + + A = zB + B + B + h f
2g  2g 
Where,  = g = 1000kg / m 3  9.81m / s 2 = 9810N / m 3
Putting all the values in the equation,
Then,
455
+
(2.263)
2
+ 10.5 =
PB
+
(1.273)
2
+ 6.5
1000  9.81 2  9.81 1000  9.81 2(9.81)
PB
0.0464 + 0.261 + 10.5 = + 0.083 + 6.5
1000  9.81
PB
10.8074 = + 6.583
1000  9.81
PB
10.8074 − 6.583 =
1000  9.81
PB
4.2244 =
1000  9.81
PB = 4.2244  1000  9.81
PB = 41441.4kN / m2

Example 12
A pipe 200m long slopes down at 1 in 50, tapers from 300 mm diameter at the upside to 220mm
diameter at the downside. Oil flows through the pipe at the discharge rate of 90 litres per second.
If the pressure gauge at the upside is 40kN/m2, neglecting frictional losses. Calculate the:
i. Velocities of oil at the two ends.
ii. Gauge pressure at the downside.
(Density of oil = 800kg/m3, Acceleration of free fall = 9.81m/2).
Data Given:
At upside At downside
d1 = 300mm = 0.3m d2 = 220mm = 0.22m
v1 = ? v2 = ?
P1 = 40kN/m2 = 4.0 x 104N/m2 P2 = ?
Z1 = slope x length z2 = 0
1
z1 =  200 = 4m
50
Q = 90 litres/sec = 0.09m3/s
g = 9.81m/s2
hf = 0

d12
A1 =
4

3.1432  (0.3)
2
A1 = = 0.071m 2
4

d 2 2
A1 =
4

3.1432  (0.22)
2
A1 = = 0.0380m 2
4
Using continuity equation
i. Velocities of oil at the two ends.
Q
v1 =
A1

0.090
v1 =
0.071

v1 = 1.268m 2

Q
v2 =
A2

0.090
v2 =
0.038

v2 = 2.368m2

ii. Gauge pressure at the downside.

Using Bernoulli’s equation
2 2
p1 v p v
+ z1 + 1 = 2 + z 2 + 2
g 2 g g 2g

40,000
+4+
(1.268) = p2 + 0 + (2.368)
2 2

800  9.81 2  9.81 800  9.81 2  9.81

p2
5.097 + 4 + 0.082 = + 0.286
800  9.81
 p2
9.179 = + 0.286
800  9.81
p2
9.179 − 0.286 =
800  9.81
p2
8.893 =
800  9.81
p2 = 8.893  800  9.81

p2 = 69792.26N / m2

Example 13
The closed tank of a fire engine is partly filled with water, the air space above being under
pressure. A 80mm bore connected to the tank discharge on the roof of a building 3.5m above the
level of water in the tank. If be frictional losses in the pipe are 55cm of water, determine the air
pressure which must be maintained in the tank to deliver 20litres/second on the roof (Density of
water = 1000 kgm-3 and g=9.81ms-2
Solution

d1 = 0.08m
V1 = 0
Z1=0
P1=?
Hf=55cm = 0.55m
P2= 0
Q = 20litres/second = 20 x 10-3m3/s
g= 9.81
Z2=3.5m
 V2 =?
Q=A2V2

d 2 3.142 * 0.082
A2 = ; = 0.00503m 2
4 4

Q 20 *10 −3
V2 = = = 3.98m / s
A2 0.00503

Vi 2 Pi Vi 2 Pi
z1 + + = z1 + +
2 g g 2 g g

1 =  2 = 
g = 1000 * 9.81
= 9810 kg / m 2 s 2

02 P1 3.98 2 0
0+ + = 3.5 + + + 0.55
2(9.81) 9810 2(9.81) 9810

P1 = 47651.0954N/m2

Example 14:
The figure below shows a horizontal pipe in which gas is flowing at a temperature of 6 0C. The
pressures at the sections 1 and 2 are 4 bar (gauge) and 3 bar (gauge) respectively. If R = 287
J/kgK and atmospheric pressure is 1 bar. Find the velocities of the gas at these sections.
Example 15:
A 120 mm diameter pipe reduces 60 mm diameter through a sudden contraction. When it carries
air 250C under isothermal condition, the absolute pressures observed in the two pipes just before
and after the contraction are 480kN/m2 and 384kN/m2 respectively. Determine:
(a) Densities at the two sections,
(b) Velocities at the two sections, and
(c) Mass rate of flow through the pipe. (Take R = 287J/kgK)
Example 16:
A gas with a velocity of 300 m/s is flowing through a horizontal pipe at a section where pressure
is 78 kN/m2 absolute and temperature 40°C. The pipe changes in diameter and at this section,
the pressure is 117 kN/m2 absolute. Find the velocity of the gas at this section if the flow of the
gas is adiabatic. Take R = 287 J/kgK and  = 1.4 .
Example 17
In the case of air flow in a conduit transition, the pressure, velocity and temperature at the
upstream section are 35 kN/m2, 30 m/s and 150oC respectively. If at the downstream section the
velocity is 150 m/s, determine the pressure and the temperature if the process followed is
isentropic. Take 𝛾 = 1.4, 𝑅 = 290 𝐽/𝑘𝑔. 𝐾
Reynolds Number
Difference between laminar and turbulent flow
(I)Reynolds number (II) Pattern of flow (III) Characteristics (2)
Properties Laminar Turbulence
Reynolds number Re<2000 Re<2000
Pattern of flow The paths taken by the individual The paths taken by the individual
particles do not cross one another particles have their layers cross one
and move along well-defined another without any defined
paths. pattern. It is a zig-zag motion
observed in a pipe.
Characteristics i. There is ‘no slip’ at the i. Random, irregular and haphazard
boundary. movement of fluid particles.
ii. Flow is rotational. ii. The velocity gradient near the
iii. There is shear stress in fluid boundary is quite large resulting in
layers due to viscosity. more shear.
iv. Continuous dissipation of iii. The pressure distribution
energy as a result of viscous fluctuates with time about a mean
shear. value.
 From the first principle, derive an expression for the Reynolds number of a classified fluid
flow in a circular pipe.
The Reynolds experiment using the Reynolds apparatus give an insight into the two categories of
fluid flow
Inertia force on fluid particle, Fi = mass x acceleration
Fi = density x volume x acceleration
= Va
v
= l 3  = l 2 v 2
l
v
Viscous force on fluid particles,
Fv = Area over which shear stress acts x Dynamic viscosity x
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡

v
= l2   
l
= lv
𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐹
Reynolds number, Re = 𝑉𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝐹𝑖
𝑣

l 2 v 2 vl
== =
lv 
If l=d, then
vl
Re =

vl vd
Reynolds number, Re = Re = =
 
Where,  =fluid density (kg/m3)
V= velocity of flow (m/s)
d = characteristic diameter of pipe (m)
 = dynamic viscosity (Ns/m2)
 = kinematic viscosity (m2/s)
The flow is laminar when Re is low i.e the viscous force (Fv) predominate.
The flow is turbulent when Re is high i.e the inertia force (Fi) is predominate .

• Prove that the discharge through a steady laminar flow in a circular pipe is
R
( )
4
 
Q= P1 − P2
8L
For steady flow
r dp
 =−
2 dx
Shear stress in laminar flow is
v dv
 = =
r dr
Since v varies in r direction only for fully developed laminar flow, equating both equation

dv r dp 
 =−
dr 2 dx
dv r dp 
=−
dr 2 dx

Integrating w.r.t.r, then

r 2 dp 
v=− +A
4 dx

dv
=velocity gradient
dr
V= velocity of flow
r= internal radius of pipe
R= external radius of pipe

P  = Pressure of flow at one end

P  + P = Pressure of flow at another end

 = shear stress
For boundary condition when r=R and v=0, then

dP 
v=
1
4
(
R2 − r 2 )
dx

The discharge through an annular space between r and r + r

dQ = vdA
dQ = v.2rdr
dP 
dQ =
1
4
(
R2 − r 2
dx
) .2rdr

Simplifying the foregoing equation, then

  dP  2
dQ =
2 dx
(R r − r 3 )dr

Integrating both sides of the above equation, then

 dP
 (R r − r )dr
R
 dQ = 2 dx
2 3
0

R 4 dP
Q=
8 dx
 
For a length of the pipe over which P  drop form P1 to P2

Q=
8L
(
R 4 
P1 − P2

)
𝜋𝐷4
𝑄= (𝑃1 ∗ − 𝑃2 ∗ )
128𝜇𝐿

• Turbulent Flow in Circular Pipe

Starting from first principle, show that Darcy-Weisbach equation
for a turbulence flow in circular pipe is given by:
4 fLv 2
hf =
d  2g

The propelling force on the flowing fluid between two sections is

= (P1-P2)A
The frictional resistance force on the flow is

= = f / CLv 2

Where P1 = intensity of pressure at section 1

P2 = intensity of pressure at section 2
A = Cross-sectional area of the pipe
L = Length of the pipe
C = perimeter of the pipe
V = average velocity of flow

f / = non-dimensional friction factor (depends on material and nature of pipe surface

At equilibrium,
Propelling force = Frictional resistance force
(P1 − P2 )A = f / CLv 2
Divide both sides by A

(P1 − P2 )A = f / CLv 2
A A
f / C  2
hf =   Lv
  A
Multiply both numerator and denominator by 2g, then

2 gf /  C  Lv 2 2 gf /  1  Lv 2
hf =   =  
  A  2g   m  2g
Where  = weight density (specific weight) = g

A
The ratio = m is called the Hydraulic radius or Hydraulic mean depth
C
Simplifying the relation above, then
/
2 gf L v2
hf =  
 m 2g

L v2
The term  has dimensions of h f
m 2g

2gf /
While is a non-dimensional quantity


2gf /
If f = = constant, then


L v2
hf = f  
m 2g

For circular pipe, the hydraulic radius, m is


d2
A 4 d
m= = =
C d 4
Substituting this in the above equation, then
 L v 2 4 fLv 2
hf = f   =
d 2g d  2g
4

4 fLv 2
hf =
d  2g

The above equation is known as Darcy-Weisbach Equation for all types of flow.
• Losses in Pipe
With the aid of diagram, describe any four (3) minor losses in pipes. Also, write the
mathematical expression for the head losses described.
i. Loss of head due to sudden enlargement:

Applying Bernoulli’s equation to section (1) and (2), then

2 2
v p v p
z1 + 1 + 1 = z 2 + 2 + 2 + h
2 g g 2 g g
Where h is the head loss due to sudden enlargement?
For horizontal pipe, z1 = z2, then
2 2
v1 p v p
+ 1 = 2 + 2 +h
2 g g 2 g g
 p1 p 2   v1 v2 
2 2

h =  −  +  − 
 
 g g   2 g 2 g 
Force on liquid in pipe flow is
F = (P1 − P2 )A = P1 A − P2 A
At the two sections, F = P1 A1 − P2 A2

ii. Loss of head due to sudden contraction

Ac = cross-sectional area of vena contracta
Loss of head due to sudden contraction
= loss up to vena contracta + loss due to sudden enlargement beyond vena contracta
(v − v2 )2
hc = negligible loss + c
2g
A
but Acvc= A2v2 and C c = c
A2
 vc A2 1 1
= = =
v 2 Ac Ac Cc
A2
2
 vc 
 − v 2  2
v2  1 
2

hc =  v2  =  − 1
2g 2 g  C c 
2
1 
But, k =  − 1
 cc 
2
v
Hence, hc = k 2
2g
Experimental result shows that k = 0.5
2
v2
Therefore, hc = 0.5
2g

iii. Loss of head due to obstruction in pipe

Head loss due to an obstruction, hobs is given by
2
 A  v2
hobs 
= 
 c
C ( A − a )  2g

Where A = cross-sectional area of the pipe

a = maximum area of obstruction
v = velocity of liquid in pipe
iv. Loss of head at the entrance to pipe
Head loss at the entrance of a pipe, hi is given by

0.5v 2
hi = (for sharp edge intake)
2g

0.5v 2
hi = (for Broda intake)
2g

v. Loss of head at the exit of a pipe

Head loss at the exit of a pipe, ho is given by

v2
h0 =
2g
vi. Head loss due to bend in pipe

Head loss at the bend of a pipe, hb is given by

v2
hb = k
2g
Where k = coefficient of bend
k =  (Angle of bend, radius of curvature, diameter of pipe.

Example 28
Lubricating oil of dynamic viscosity 8.5 poise and density 980 kg/m3 flows through a uniform
pipe of diameter 200mm at a velocity of 0.6m/s. if the shear stress on the oil touching the pipe
surface is 3.21  103 N / m2 , determine the:
i. Kinematic viscosity of the oil.
ii. Velocity gradient of the oil along the pipe.
iii. Reynolds number of the fluid flow.
iv. Is the flow laminar or turbulent? Why?

Dynamic viscosity,  = 8.5 poise = 0.85  0.1 = 0.85Ns / m2

Density = 980kg/m3
Diameter, d = 200mm = 0.2m
Shear stress,  = 3.21  10 3 N / m 2
Velocity, v = 0.6m/s

Kinetic viscosity of the oil

𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦, 
= 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦, 

0.85 Ns / m 2
= 3
= 0.000867 m 2 / s
980kg / m
Velocity gradient of the oil
du
Shear stress,  = 
dy
du
Where, = velocity gradient
dy
du
 = 3.21103 N / m 2 = 0.85Ns / m 2
dy
du 3.2110 N / m 2
3
Velocity gradient = =
dy 0.85Ns / m 2
du
Velocity gradient = =3776.47/sec
dy
 Reynolds number of the fluid flow
vd vd
Re = =
 
vd 0.6m / s  0.2m
Re = =
 0.000867 m 2 / s
Re = 138.41

The flow is laminar since the Reynolds number is less than 2000
Re  2000

Example 29
Calculate the head loss due to friction and the power required to maintain flow in a horizontal
circular pipe of 40mm diameter and 750m long. The pipe roughness is 0.08mm.

Use  = 1000kg / m3 an  = 1.14 10−3 Ns / m2

(i) When water flows at a rate of 66.7cm3/s

(ii) When water flows at a rate of 500cm3/s
Given:
Diameter of circular pipe, d = 40mm = 0.04m
Length of pipe, L = 750m = 750m
Pipe roughness = 0.08mm = 0.00008m

Density,  = 1000kg / m3

Dynamic viscosity,  = 1.14 10−3 Ns / m2

i. Required: Determine the velocity for discharge 66.7cm3/s as follows

Discharge, Q = 66.7cm3 / s = 66.7 10−6 m3 / s

Q
v=
A

 d2
A=
4

3.142  (0.04)
2
A= = 0.00126 m 2
4
 Q
v=
A
66.7  10−6
v=
1.257  10−3
v = 0.0531m / s
Determine the type of flow as follows:
vd
Re =

1000  0.0531  0.04
Re =
1.0  10 −3
Re = 2124
Re  2124, hence the flow is laminar.

Determine the head loss due to friction as folows:

0.0791
Then coefficient of friction, f = 1
4
Re
0.0791
f = 1
4
2124
f = 0.012

Head loss due to friction, hf is

4 fLv 2
hf =
d  2g

4  0.012  750  (0.0531)

2
hf =
0.04  2  9.81
h f == 0.129m

Determine the power needed to maintain the flow, p

Power, P = Qhf

P = gQhf

P = 1000  9.81  66.7  10 −6  0.129

P = 0.084Watt

ii. Required: Determine the velocity for discharge 500cm3/s as follows

Discharge, Q = 500cm3 / s = 50010−6 m3 / s

Q
v=
A

 d2
A=
4

3.142  (0.04)
2
A= = 0.00126 m 2
4
Q
v=
A
50010−6
v=
1.257 10−3
v = 0.398m / s
Determine the type of flow as follows:
vd
Re =

1000  0.398  0.04
Re =
1.0  10 −3
Re = 15920
Re  15920, hence the flow is laminar.

Determine the head loss due to friction as folows:

0.0791
Then coefficient of friction, f = 1
4
Re
0.0791
f = 1
4
15920
f = 0.00704

Head loss due to friction, hf is

 4 fLv 2
hf =
d  2g

4  0.00704  750  (0.398)

2
hf =
0.04  2  9.81
h f = 4.263m

Determine the power needed to maintain the flow, p

Power, P = Qhf

P = gQhf

P = 1000  9.81 500 10 −6  4.263

P = 20.91Watt

Example 30
Oil flows through a circular pipe of diameter 280mm and 700m long at the flow rate of 0.65m3/s.
Determine the:
i. Head loss due to friction.
ii. Power needed to maintain the flow.
(Relative density of oil = 0.75, kinematic viscosity of oil = 0.5 stoke).
Diameter of pipe, d = 280mm = 0.28m
Length of pipe, 7
Relative density of oil = 0.75

Kinematic viscosity of oil,  = 0.5stoke = 0.5  10 −4 m 2 / s

Discharge, Q = 0.65m3 / s

.65Density of oil,  = 0.75 1000 = 750kg / m3

i. Required: Head loss due to friction

d 2
A=
4

3.142  (0.28)
2
A=
4

A = 0.0616 m 2
Q
v=
A
0.65
v=
0.0616
v = 10.552m / s
vd vd
Reynolds number, Re = =
 
10.552m / s  0.28m
Re =
0.5  10 − 4 m 2 / s

Re = 59091.2  5.909  10 4
Re  4000, hence it is turbulence.

0.0791
Then coefficient of friction, f = 1
4
Re
0.0791
f = 1
4
59091.2
f = 0.00507

Head loss due to friction, hf is

4 fLv 2
hf =
d  2g

4  0.00507  700  (10.552 )

2
hf =
0.28  2  9.81
h f == 287.726m

ii. Required: Power needed to maintain the flow, p

Power, P = Qhf

P = gQhf

P = 750 9.81 0.65  287.726

P = 1376011.77Watt
P = 1.376MW
Example 31
A fluid of dynamics viscosity 2.18 poise flows through a uniform pipe, 18cm long of diameter
80mm. If the pressure drop along the pipe is 45kPa, calculate the
(i) discharge through the pipe
(ii) mass flow rate of the fluid
(Density of fluid =998kgm-3)
Solution

D=80mm = 0.08m
L= 180m
M =2.18poise = 2.18*0.1 = 0.218
= 0.218Nsm-2
P =45kPa = 45*103Pa
Required: discharge through the pipe Q

d 4
Q= ( P1 − P2 )
* *

128l

d 4
Q= P *
128l

22 (0.08) 4
Q= * * 45000
7 128 * 0.218 * 180

Q = 1.153*10−3 m3 s −1 = 0.001153m3 s −1
i. Require: mass flow rate of fluid
The mass flow rate is given by
M = Q = 998kgm−3 * 0.001153m3 s −1
= 1.151kgs-1

Example 32
Water flows through a uniform circular pipe of diameter of 120mm and 110m long at a velocity
of 2.5ms-1. Find the head loss due to friction Using (i) Darcy-weisbach formula. (ii) Chezy’s
formula for which k=56 (kinematic viscosity of water = 0.012 stoke)
Solution
Diameter of pipe, d= 120mm= 0.12m
Length of pipe L=110m
Mean velocity of flow v=2.5ms-1
Kinematic viscosity V=0.012stoke = 0.012*10-4m2S-1
(i) Required: heat loss hf using Darcy-weisbach formula
The Darcy-weisbach formula for head loss is

4 fLv 2
hf =
d * 2g

F=friction coefficient which is a friction of pie

vd vd 2.5ms −1 * 0.12m

Re = = =
 v 0.012*10−4 m 2 s −1
=25*104 = 250000>2000
Hence the flow is turbulent
0.0791 0.0791
For turbulent flow f = 1
= 1
4 4
(Re) (250,000)

0.0791
f = = 0.00353125
22.4
Therefore, head loss due to friction is

4 fLv 2 4 * 0.00353 * 110m * (2.5) 2

hf = =
d * 2g 0.12m * 2 * 9.81

= 4.12459 = 4.125m
(ii) Required: heat loss, hf using Chezy’s formula
The mean flow velocity through the pipe is

v = k mi
K=56 (Chezy’s constant)
 2
d
A d 0.12m
m= = 4 = = = 0.03m
C d 4 4
V=2.5ms-1
Therefore, using the formula

2.5 = 56 0.03i

2.5
0.03i =
56
2.5 2
0.03i = ( ) = (0.0446428571 4) 2
56
0.03i = 0.00199298469
0.0019929846 9
i= = 0.066433
0.03
hf hf
i= = 0.066433 =
But L 110m

hf = 0.066433*110
=7.3076
hf =7.31m