PEL 174

COMPREHENSION AND COMMUNICATION SKILLS IN ENGLISH

LECTURE BOOK
 PEL174 LECTURE
UNIT-1

LECTURE 1: PARTS OF SPEECH (VERB, PREPOSTION & ARTICLES)

A part of a speech is a category to which a word is assigned in accordance with its syntactic functions. In English, the
main parts of speech are noun, pronoun, adjective, determiner, verb, adverb, preposition, conjunction, and
interjection.
For e.g. - She turned up that street (up preposition)
I am in a great danger. (A: article)
DEFINITION OF VERB- A word used to describe an action, state, or occurrence, and forming the main part of the
predicate of a sentence, such as hear, become, happen.
Examples:
1. She thinks about poetry all day long.
2. Mary baked her mother a pie.

TYPES OF VERBS:

1. ACTION VERBS- Action verbs, also called dynamic verbs, express an action whether it be physical or mental. An
action verb explains what the subject of the sentence is doing or has done.
For e.g. - Anthony is throwing the football, the dog ran across the yard.

2. LINKING VERBS- A linking verb is a verb that describes the subject by connecting it to a predicate adjective or
predicate noun. Unlike the majority of verbs, they do not describe any direct action taken or controlled by the
subject.
For e.g. - They are a problem for the entire class.
Here, the word "are" is the linking verb that connects "they" and "problem" to show the relationship
between the two words. The most common linking verbs are forms of the verb to be: am, is, are, was, were,
being, been.
3. HELPING VERBS- An auxiliary/helping verb is a verb that adds functional or grammatical meaning to the clause in
which it appears, such as to express tense, aspect, modality, voice, emphasis, etc. Auxiliary verbs usually
accompany the main verb.
For e.g. - The other children were playing outside. (This example shows the past continuous tense where the word
“were” is a helping verb and the word “playing” is the main verb)
You really must see a doctor about that nasty cut. (Here, the verb "must" emphasizes the mood/expression and
"see' is the main verb)

DEFINITION OF PREPOSITION: Prepositions are words that show the relationship between a noun or a pronoun and
some other word or element in the rest of the sentence.
For e.g. She swam across the lake.
Here the preposition “across” connects the noun “lake” with the verb “swam”
The cupcake with sprinkles is mine.
Here the preposition “with” connects the noun “cupcake” with the noun “sprinkles” showing us the
relationship between which cupcake is hers.

TYPES OF PREPOSITIONS:

1. Prepositions of Time: Basic examples of time prepositions include: at, on, in, before and after. They
are used to help indicate when something happened, happens or will happen. It can get a little confusing
though, as many different prepositions can be used.
 For example:
 I was born on July 4th, 1982.
 I was born in 1982.
 I was born at exactly 2 am.
 I was born two minutes before my twin brother.
 I was born after the Great War ended
 2. Prepositions of Place: To confuse matters a bit, the most common prepositions to indicate time –
on, at, in – are also the most common prepositions to indicate position. However, the rules are a little
clearer as place prepositions are a more rigid concept than time prepositions.

The guidelines can be broken down as follows:

 On is used when referring to something with a surface. For egg- The sculpture hangs on the
wall, the images are on the page.
 In is used when referring to something that is inside or within confined boundaries. This
could be anything, even a country. For e.g. - Jim is in France, visiting his aunt in the hospital, the girls
play in the garden.
 At is used when referring to something at a specific point: For e.g. - The boys are at the
entrance at the movie theatre, we will meet at the airport.

3. Prepositions of Movement: The most commonly used preposition of movement is to, across,
though, into, up, down, past and around which usually serves to highlight that there is a movement towards
a specific destination.
For e.g.-
1. Jack went up to the hill.
2. Jill came tumbling down after.
3. We will travel over rough terrain on our way to Grandma’s house.
4. The horse runs around the track all morning.
5. A car zoomed past a truck on the highway
6. James went into the room
7. Mike travelled across America on his motorcycle.
8. She went to the bowling alley every Friday last summer.

4. Prepositions with Verbs: The phrasal combinations of verbs and prepositions – are important parts
of speech. The prepositions again act as links between the verb and noun or gerund, giving extra meaning to
the sentence. The prepositions most commonly used with verbs are: to, for, about, of, in, at and from

For e.g. - He admitted to the charge, I don’t agree with your claim, Does Rick believe in miracles?

5. Prepositions with Nouns: here are lots of different nouns that carry specific prepositions to
consolidate their meaning. These are called dependent prepositions.

For e.g. - She had knowledge of physics.

The police held an inquiry into the murder.

6. Prepositions with Adjectives: Prepositions can form phrases with adjectives to give further context
to the action, emotion or thing the adjective is describing. Like verbs and nouns, adjectives can be followed
by:-to, about, in, for, with, at and by.

For e.g. I am happily married to David, Michelle is interested in politics.

DEFINITION OF ARTICLES: Articles are words that define a noun as specific or unspecific. There are two different
types of articles that we use in writing and conversation to point out or refer to a noun or group of nouns: definite
and indefinite articles.

1. Definite Article
Let's begin by looking at the definite article. This article is the word 'the,' and it refers directly to a specific noun or
groups of nouns. For example:

 the freckles on my face

 the alligator in the pond
  the breakfast burrito on my plate
Each noun or group of nouns being referred to - in these cases- freckles, alligator, and breakfast burrito - is direct
and specific.
We use The:
1. When there is only one such person, place or thing
The Pope, The President of the United States, The North Pole, The earth, the sky
2. Before names of famous buildings, etc.:
The Eiffel Tower, The Great Wall of China
3. Before a singular noun that refers to a whole class or group of people or things
The middle class, The homeless, The Canadians, The Hindus
4. Before the special names of rivers, seas, oceans, mountain ranges, group of islands
The Nile, The Dead Sea, The Pacific Ocean, The Himalayas
4. Before certain organizations, political parties, and countries
The United Nations, The Republican Party, The USSR, The UAR

2. Indefinite Articles
Indefinite articles are the words 'a' and 'an.' each of these articles is used to refer to a noun, but the noun being
referred to is not a specific person, place, object, or idea. It can be any noun from a group of Nouns. For example:

 a Mercedes from the car lot

 an event in history
In each case, the noun is not specific. The Mercedes could be any Mercedes car available for purchase, and the event
could be any event in the history of the world.
We use a:
1. When we mention something for the first time.
I saw a fairy.
2. Before a word which begins with a consonant.
There is a policeman waiting for you
3. Before a word with a long sound of u (consonant sound).
It would be a unique opportunity to travel in space.
4. Before the word one because one sounds as if it begins with a W (wun) (consonant sound).
I have a one-way ticket to travel from one place to another
We use an:
1. Before a noun which begins with a vowel sound
They say an apple a day keeps the doctor away.
2. Before a singular noun (person or thing) to mean only one in quantity
She's an only child.
3. Before a noun that is representative of a group, species, etc.
An ostrich has only two toes on each foot.
4. Before a noun that begins with a silent h
An hour, an honest man, an heir, an honor, an honorable man
5. Before abbreviations, some of which begin with a consonant
I have an X-ray on my lungs.

1. EXERCISES- PREPOSITIONS

1. We decided __________________ buying the new car. (AGAINST/WITH/AT/OF)

2. Many children depend __________________ their parents for money. (ON/AT/WITH/TO)
3. He graduated __________________ Oxford University (ON/FROM/OUT OF/WITH)
4. The advertising campaign resulted __________________ hundreds of new customers for the company.
(TO/FOR/UP/IN)
5. As a scientist, I specialize __________________ marine biology (AT/IN/FOR/WITH)
6. Halloween is celebrated __________ the United States __________ October 31. (AT/IN/FOR/WITH)
7. Are you going away for the weekend? – I don’t know. It depends __________ the weather. (AT/IN/FOR/WITH)
8. Don’t kiss the prince. He might turn __________ a frog. (INTO/WITH/AT/ TOWARDS)
9. He felt bad __________ no reason at all. (AT/IN/FOR/WITH)
10. I have been living here __________ ten years. (AT/IN/FOR/WITH)
11. Have you been __________ the cinema recently? Yes I was there a few days ago. (ON/AT/WITH/TO)
12. I happened to meet an old friend __________ town. (AT/IN/FOR/WITH)
13. Have you read the article? – It was __________ yesterday’s newspapers. (AT/IN/FOR/WITH)
14. He always drives __________ a tremendous speed because he’s always __________ a hurry.
(ABOUT/AT/ON/FOR)
15. He is very fond __________ good food (WITH/OF/ABOUT/ FROM)

2. Complet e the sent ences . Put the verb int o the co rre ct form, posit ive or negativ e .
1. It was warm, so I ______ off my coat. (Take)
2. The film wasn't very good. I ______ it very much. ( enjoy )
3. I knew Sarah was very busy, so I ______ her. ( disturb )
4. I was very tired, so I ______ to bed early. ( go )
5. The bed was very uncomfortable. I ______ very well. ( sleep )
6. Sue wasn't hungry, so she ______ anything. ( eat )
7. We went to Kate's house but she ______ at home. ( be )
8. It was a funny situation but nobody ______. ( laugh )
9. The window was open and a bird ______ into the room. ( fly )
10. The hotel wasn't very expensive. It ______ very much. ( cost )
11. I was in a hurry, so I ______ time to phone you. ( have )
12. It was hard work carrying the bags. They ______ very heavy. ( be )

3. Fill in the blank with the appropriate article, a, an, or the, or leave the space blank if no article is needed.

1. This book has won ………………….. Booker prize. (A / a / the)

2. Harish Chandra was …………………. honest king. (A / a / the)
3. I am fond of ………………. classical music. (A / a / the)
4. I met ..................... boy in the store. (A / a / the)
5. Gold is....................... precious metal. (A / a / the)
6. She returned after ………………….. Hour. (A / a / the)
7. There is...................... institution for....................... Blind in this city. (A / a / the)
8. Gold is …………………………………… precious metal. (A / a / the)
9.…………………………………… reindeer is a native of Norway. (A / a / the)
10. An honest man always speaks ……………………………………… truth. (A / a / the)
11. London is on …………………………………… river Thames. (A / a / the)
12. Look at ………………………………….. Sky. It is going to rain. (A / a / the)
13. Aladdin had ………………………………….. Magic lantern. (A / a / the)
14. ………………………………… rich are not always happy. (A / a / the)
15.………………………………. Ganges is …………………………………….. Sacred River. (A / a / the)
 LECTURE-2
SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT

Subject-verb agreement simply means the subject and verb must agree in number. This means both need to be
singular or both need to be plural.
Subject/Verb Agreement Examples
Here are some examples of subject-verb agreement (the subject is bolded and the verb underlined):
 My dog always growls at the postal carrier.
 Basketballs roll across the floor.
 I don't understand the assignment.
 These clothes are too small for me.
 Peter doesn't like vegetables

RULES OF SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT

 Basic Rule. A singular subject (she, Bill, car) takes a singular verb (is, goes, shines), whereas a plural subject
takes a plural verb.
Example: The list of items is/are on the desk.
If you know that list is the subject, then you will choose is for the verb.
 Rule 1- A subject will come before a phrase beginning with of. This is a key rule for understanding subjects.
The word of is the culprit in many, perhaps most, subject-verb mistakes.
Hasty writers, speakers, readers, and listeners might miss the all-too-common mistake in the following
sentence:
Example:
Incorrect: A bouquet of yellow roses lends colour and fragrance to the room.
Correct: A bouquet of yellow roses lends . . . (bouquet lends, not roses lend)
 Rule 2- Two singular subjects connected by or, either/or, or neither/nor require a singular verb.
Examples:
My aunt or my uncle is arriving by train today
Neither Juan nor Carmen is available.
Either Kiana or Casey is helping today with stage decorations.
 Rule 3- The verb in or, either/or, or neither/nor sentence agrees with the noun or pronoun closest to
Examples:
Neither the plates nor the serving bowl goes on that shelf.
Neither the serving bowl nor the plates go on that shelf.
This rule can lead to bumps in the road. For example, if I is one of two (or more) subjects, it could lead to this
odd sentence:
Awkward: Neither she, my friends, nor I am going to the festival.
If possible, it's best to reword such grammatically correct but awkward sentences.
Better:
Neither she, I, nor my friends are going to the festival.
OR
She, my friends, and I are not going to the festival.
 Rule 4- As a general rule, use a plural verb with two or more subjects when they are connected by and.
Example: A car and a bike are my means of transportation.
But note these exceptions:
Exceptions:
Breaking and entering is against the law.
The bed and breakfast was charming.
In those sentences, breaking and entering and bed and breakfast are compound nouns.
 Rule 5a- Sometimes the subject is separated from the verb by such words as along with, as well as, besides,
not, etc. These words and phrases are not part of the subject. Ignore them and use a singular verb when the
subject is singular.
Examples:
The politician, along with the newsmen, is expected shortly.
Excitement, as well as nervousness, is the cause of her shaking.
  Rule 5b- Parentheses are not part of the subject.
Example: Joe (and his trusty mutt) was always welcome.
If this seems awkward, try rewriting the sentence.
 Rule 6- In sentences beginning with here or there, the true subject follows the verb.
Examples:
There are four hurdles to jump.
There is a high hurdle to jump.
Here are the keys.
NOTE
The word there's, a contraction of there is, leads to bad habits in informal sentences like There's a lot of people here
today because it's easier to say "there's" than "there are." Take care never to use there's with a plural subject.
 Rule 7- Use a singular verb with distances, periods of time, sums of money, etc., when considered as a unit.
Examples:
Three miles is too far to walk.
Five years is the maximum sentence for that offense.
Ten dollars is a high price to pay.
BUT
Ten dollars (i.e., dollar bills) were scattered on the floor.
 Rule 8- With words that indicate portions—e.g., a lot, a majority, some, all—Rule 1 given earlier in this
section is reversed, and we are guided by the noun after of. If the noun after of is singular, use a singular
verb. If it is plural, use a plural verb.
Examples:
A lot of the pie has disappeared.
A lot of the pies have disappeared.
A third of the city is unemployed.
A third of the people are unemployed.
All of the pie is gone.
All of the pies are gone.
Some of the pie is missing.
Some of the pies are missing.
 Rule 9- With collective nouns such as group, jury, family, audience, population, the verb might be singular or
plural, depending on the writer's intent.
Examples:
All of my family has arrived OR have arrived.
Most of the jury is here OR are here.
A third of the population was not in favour of OR were not in favour of the bill.
NOTE
Anyone who uses a plural verb with a collective noun must take care to be accurate—and also consistent. It must not
be done carelessly. The following is the sort of flawed sentence one sees and hears a lot these days:
The staff is deciding how they want to vote.
Careful speakers and writers would avoid assigning the singular is and the plural they to staff in the same sentence.
Consistent: The staff are deciding how they want to vote.
Rewriting such sentences is recommended whenever possible. The preceding sentence would read even better as:
The staff members are deciding how they want to vote.
 Rule 10- The word were replaces was in sentences that express a wish or are contrary to fact:
Example: If Joe were here, you'd be sorry.
Shouldn't Joe be followed by was, not were, given that Joe is singular? But Joe isn't actually here, so we
say were, not was. The sentence demonstrates the subjunctive mood, which is used to express things that
are hypothetical, wishful, imaginary, or factually contradictory. The subjunctive mood pairs singular subjects
with what we usually think of as plural verbs.
Examples:
I wish it were Friday.
She requested that he raise his hand.
In the first example, a wishful statement, not a fact, is being expressed; therefore, were, which we usually
think of as a plural verb, is used with the singular it. (Technically, it is the singular subject of the object clause
in the subjunctive mood: it were Friday.)
 Normally, he raise would sound terrible to us. However, in the second example, where a request is being
expressed, the subjunctive mood is correct.

SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT EXERCISE II

Directions: Circle the correct verb in the sentences below. Check your answers on the bottom of this page.

1. Each of the girls (look-looks) good on skis.

2. Everybody (was-were) asked to remain quiet.
3. Neither of the men (is-are) here yet.
4. (Is-Are) each of the girls ready to leave?
5. Several of the sheep (is-are) sick.
6. Some members of the faculty (is-are) present.
7. Nobody in the class (has-have) the answer.
8. Each of the girls (observe-observes) all the regulations.
9. All of the milk (is-are) gone.
10. Most of the seats (was-were) taken.

Direction: Circle the correct verb in each of the sentences below. Check your answers on the following page.
1. Your friend (talk-talks) too much.
2. The man with the roses (look-looks) like your brother.
3. The women in the pool (swim-swims) well.
4. Bill (drive-drives) a cab.
5. The football players (run-runs) five miles every day.
6. That red-haired lady in the fur hat (live-lives) across the street.
7.He (cook-cooks) dinner for his family.
8. The boys (walk-walks) to school every day.
9. The weather on the coast (appear-appears) to be good this weekend.
10. The centre on the basketball team (bounce-bounces) the ball too high.
 LECTURE-3
DIRECT & INDIRECT SPEECH

 Direct Speech: The message of the speaker is conveyed or reported in his own actual words without any change.
 Indirect Speech: The message of the speaker is conveyed or reported in our own words.
Example on Process of Conversion from Direct to Indirect Speech
a) Direct: Radha said, “I am very busy now.”
b) Indirect: Radha said that she was very busy then.

1. All inverted commas or quotation marks are omitted and the sentence ends with a full stop.
2. The conjunction ‘that' is added before the indirect statement.
3. The pronoun ‘I’ is changed to ‘she’. (The Pronoun is changed in Person)
4. The verb ‘am’ is changed to ‘was’. (Present Tense is changed to Past)
5. The adverb ‘now’ is changed to ‘then’.

RULES ON DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH:

 Rule 1: Conversion Rules as per the Reporting Verb
When the reporting or principal verb is in the Past Tense, all Present tensq1es of the direct are changed into the
corresponding Past Tenses.
a) Direct: He said, “I am unwell.”
b) Indirect: He said (that) he was unwell.
If the reporting verb is in the Present or Future Tense, the tenses of the Direct Speech do not change.
a) Direct: He says/will say, “I am unwell.”
b) Indirect: He says/will say he is unwell.
The Tense in Indirect Speech is NOT CHANGED if the words within the quotation mar ks talk of universal truth or
habitual action.
a) Direct: They said, “We cannot live without water.”
b) Indirect: They said that we cannot live without water.

 Rule 2: Conversion Rules of Present Tense in Direct Speech

Simple Present Changes to Simple Past
a) Direct: "I am happy", she said.
b) Indirect: She said that she was happy.
Present Continuous Changes to Past Continuous
a) Direct: "I am reading a book", he explained.
b) Indirect: He explained that he was reading a book.
Present Perfect Changes to Past Perfect
a) Direct: She said, "He has finished his food“.
b) Indirect: She said that he had finished his food.
Present Perfect Changes to Past Perfect
a) Direct: "I have been to Gujarat", he told me.
b) Indirect: He told me that he had been to Gujarat.

 Rule 3: Conversion Rules of Past & Future Tense

Simple Past Changes to Past Perfect
a) Direct: He said, “Ira arrived on Monday."
b) Indirect: He said that Ira had arrived on Monday.
Past Continuous Changes to Past Perfect Continuous
a) Direct: "We were living in Goa", they told me.
b) Indirect: They told me that they had been living in Goa.
Future Changes to Present Conditional
a) Direct: He said, "I will be in Kolkata tomorrow."
b) Indirect: He said that he would be in Kolkata the next day.
Future Continuous Changes to Conditional Continuous
a) Direct: She said, "I'll be using the car next Friday.”
b) Indirect: She said that she would be using the car next Friday.

 RULE 4: Changes in Modals

CAN changes into COULD
a) Direct: He said, "I can swim."
b) Indirect: He said that he could swim.
MAY changes into MIGHT
a) Direct: He said, "I may buy a house.”
b) Indirect: He said that he might buy a house.
MUST changes into HAD TO/WOULD HAVE TO
a) Direct: He said, "I must work hard.”
b) Indirect: He said that he had to work hard.
Modals that DO NOT Change: Would, Could, Might, Should, Ought to.
a) Direct: He said, "I should face the challenge.”
b) Indirect: He said that he should face the challenge.

 RULE 5: Conversion of Interrogative

Reporting Verb like ‘said/ said to’ changes to asked, enquired or demanded
a) Direct: He said to me, “What are you doing?”
b) Indirect: He asked me what I was doing.
If a sentence begins with an auxiliary verb, the joining clause should be if or whether.
a) Direct: He said, “Will you come for the meeting?”
b) Indirect: He asked them whether they would come for the meeting.
If a sentence begins with ‘wh' questions then no conjunction is used as the "question-word" itself act as a joining
clause.
a) Direct: “Where do you live?” asked the girl.
b) Indirect: The girl enquired where I lived.

 Rule 6: Command, Request, Exclamation, Wish

Commands and Requests
Indirect Speech is introduced by some verbs like ordered, requested, advised and suggested. Forbid(s)/ forbade is
used for negative sentences. The imperative mood is changed into the Infinitive.
a) Direct: Rafique said to Ahmed, “Go away.”
b) Indirect: Rafique ordered Ahmed to go away.
c) Direct: He said to her, “Please wait.”
d) Indirect: He requested her to wait.
Exclamations and Wishes
Indirect Speech is introduced by some words like grief, sorrow, happiness, applaud. Exclamatory sentence changes
into assertive sentence and Interjections are removed.
a) Direct: He said, “Alas! I am undone.”
b) Indirect: He exclaimed sadly that he was broke.

 Rule 7: Change of Pronouns

The first person of the reported speech changes according to the subject of reporting speech.
a) Direct: She said, “I am in ninth class.”
b) Indirect: She says that she was in ninth class.
The second person of reported speech changes according to the object of reporting speech.
a) Direct: He says to them, "You have completed your job.”
b) Indirect: He tells them that they have completed their job.
The third person of the reported speech doesn't change.
a) Direct: He says, "She is in tenth class.”
b) Indirect: He says that she is in tenth class

 RULE 8: Change of Place and Time

Words expressing nearness in time or place in Direct Speech are generally changed into words expressing distance in
Indirect Speech.
Now -- then Thus -- so This -- that
Here -- there Today -- that day Yesterday -- the day before
Ago -- before Tomorrow -- the next day These – those
Next week/month -- following week/month
a) Direct: She said, “My father came yesterday.”
b) Indirect: She said that her father had come the day before.
c) Direct: She says/will say, “My father came yesterday.”
Indirect: She says/will say that her father had come yesterday. (Here the reporting verb ‘says' is in the present tense
OR ‘will say' is in the future tense; hence the time expression ‘yesterday' won't change.)

 Rule 9: Punctuation
The words that are actually spoken should be enclosed in quotes and begin with a capital letter
Example: He said, “You are right.”
Comma, full stop, question mark, or exclamation mark must be present at the end of reported sentences and are
placed inside the closing inverted comma or commas.
Example: He asked, “Can I come with you?”
If direct speech comes after the information about who is speaking, a comma is used to introduce the piece of
speech, placed before the first inverted comma.
Example: She shouted, “Stop talking!”
Example: “Thinking back,” she said, “he didn't expect to win.” (Comma is used to separate the two reported speech
and no capital letter to begin the second sentence).

 Rule 10: Conversion of Indirect to Direct Speech

1. Use the reporting verb, "say" or "said to" in its correct tense.
2. Remove the conjunctions "that, to, if or whether, etc." wherever necessary.
3. Insert quotation marks, question mark, exclamation, and full stop, as per the mood of the sentence.
4. Put a comma before the statement.
5. Write the first word of the statement with a capital letter.
6. Change the past tense into present tense wherever the reporting verb is in the past tense.
7. Convert the past perfect either into past tense or present perfect as found necessary.
Example
a) Indirect: He asked whether he is coming.
b) Direct: He said to him, “Are you coming?”

EXERCISES- CONEVERT THE DIRECT INTO INDIRECT SPEECH AND VICE VERSA

1. He said that at one o'clock he had been doing nothing.

2. They explained that they had closed down the previous year.
3. Neil said he wished he could be independent
4. She told us we had better accept it
5. He claimed that someone had screamed in the garden
6. Moira admitted that she would rather stay at home.
7. His father says “Honesty is the best policy”
8. He said to him,' Is not your name Khalid?'
9. All said to the beggar, 'I know you very well’.
10. He said, "Yes, I'll come and see you."
11. Ram remarked “What a wonderful day!”
12. The poor beggar said, "O God, have mercy on my soul".
13. John's father reminded him to take his umbrella.
14. He swore in the name of God that he was ignorant of the matter.
15. The father warned his son that he should be beware of him.
 UNIT-2
LECTURE-4
TRANSFORMATION OF SENTENCES
Definition: The transformation of a sentence is all about changing its form without altering its meaning. We can, for
example, transform an exclamatory sentence into an assertive sentence or vice-versa. We can also transform simple
sentences into complex or compound sentences. You can learn the rules of transformation of sentences here.

TYPES OF SENTENCES:
1. An assertive sentence is a sentence that states a fact. Such sentences are simple statements. They state, assert,
or declare something.
Example:-
Jan is a student. She lives in a big city.
2. Imperative sentence is a sentence which gives a command, makes a request, or expresses a wish.
Examples:-
Go to your room. (an order)
Please lend me your book. (a request)
Have a good time at the picnic. (a wish)
3. Exclamatory sentence is a sentence that expresses sudden and strong feelings, such as surprise, wonder, pity,
sympathy, happiness, or gratitude.
Examples:
What a shame!
Boy, am I tired!
4. Interrogative sentence is a sentence that asks a question is called an interrogative sentence.
Examples:-
What is your name?
Where do you live?
5. A negative sentence is a sentence that states that something is false. In English, we create negative
sentences by adding the word 'not' after the auxiliary, or helping, verb. An example of an auxiliary verb is the
helping verb 'be.'
Examples:
 David is not a happy person.
 The clouds were not blocking the sun's rays.

Exercise 1

1. Who was the first female astronaut?

2. Buckle your seatbelt even for short trips.

3. Please put the stamped envelopes in this box.

4. You must be joking!

5. What a thrill that ride was!

6. In 1776, there were fifty-three newspapers in London.

7. Who were the first people to use paper money?

Examples of conversion
  She is lazy.
 He is an old man.
 The man is rich.

Conversion

She is not lazy.

He is not an old man.

The man is not.

These are the examples of conversion.

1. Affirmative to negative sentence

To transform affirmative to negative we use antonyms of the adjectives without changing the meaning of the
sentence.

Example:

He is a healthy man. ( affirmative)

He is not an unhealthy man. (negative)

Man is mortal.

Man is not immortal.

Exercise for practice

1. The man is wise.

2. He is an active person.

3. He is a clever man.

4. Dhaka is a old city.

5. He had done the sum wrongly.

6. He went there quickly.

7. He rises from bed early.

8 He is my friend.

2. Negative to interrogative

1. Health is wealth
Neg:-Isn’t health wealth?

2.Knowledge is power.

Neg:-Isn’t knowledge power?

3. The sun rises in the east.

Neg:- Doesn’t the sun rise in the east?

Examples

Aff:-1. All men are mortal.

Neg:-No man is immortal

2.Affir:- Every body is liable to error

Neg;- Nobody is free from error.

3. Every mother loves her child.

Neg;-No mother hates her child.

4. Always speak the truth.

Neg- Never tell a lie.

3. Assertive to interrogative

Structure:

Auxiliary verb + not+ Subject+ Principal verb

Example:

He is ready for work.

Intt:-Isn’t he ready for work?

We can help him.

Intt;- Can’t we help him?

I can not help her.

Intt:- Can I help her?

Rahim eats rice.

Intt: Doesn’t Rahim eat rice?

He went to Dhaka.

Intt:- Didn’t he go to Dhaka?

Exercise for practice

1.Smoking is bad for health.

2. I dicided to go there.

3. I can not help you.

4. He did not do the sum.

5. Man can not live alone.

6. Rahim is a good boy.

7. I am a student.

NEVER EVER

NOTHING ANYTHING

NOTHING BUT ANYTHING BUT

NO ONE, NOBODY, NONE, EVERYBODY WHO

EVERY, ALL IS THERE ANY

THERE IS NO Is there any/ Who(person)/ What( thing).

IT IS NO Is there any/Why
It doesn’t matter what though/ Does it matter

EXAMPLES

1. I never hate him.

Int:-Do I ever hate him?

2. I have nothing to do.

Intt:-Have I anything to do?

3. Everybody wishes to be happy.

Intt:-Who doesn’t wish to be happy?

4. All love the students.

Intt:- Who doesn’t love the students?

5. No one can save me.

Intt- Who can save me?

6. Every mother loves her child.

Intt- Is there any mother who does not love her child?

Interrogative to assertive is to be done doing Vice versa.

4. Assertive to exclamatory

Subject and Verb of exclamatory sentence are to be used as the subject and verb of assertive sentence at the outset
of the sentence.

How/what → Replace by → Very (before adjective)/ Great(before noun)

Ex: How fortunate you are!

Ass: You are very fortunate.

Exc: What a fool you are!

Ass: You are a great fool.

Examples
(i) You are a great fool.

Exclamatory:-What a fool you are!

(ii) It is a very good idea

Exclamatory :- What a good idea it is!

(iii)The boy is very good.

Exclamatory :- How good the boy is!

(iv) The Padma is a big river .

Exclamatory :- How big a river the Padma is!

EXERCISE FOR PRACTISE

(i)The boy looks very nice.

(ii) You are a great fool.

(iii) This is very nice bird.

(iv)The scenery is very beautiful.

(v) You look very smart.

(vi) He is a great man

(vii) You are a very good boy.

(viii) The water is very cold.

(ix) The sun is very hot today.

5. Assertive to imperative

(i) You read a book.

Imperative:- Read a book.

(ii) You do not make a noise.

Imperative:- Don’t make a noise.

(iii)You should never tell a lie.

Imperative:- Never tell a lie.

(iv) You are requested to do it.

Imperative:- Please do it.

MORE EXAMPLES

(i) Assertive :-He writes a letter.

Imperative:- Let him write a letter.

(ii) Assertive :- We should leave the place.

Imperative:- Let us leave the place.

(iii) Assertive :-I do not hate the poor.

Imperative:- Let I not hate the poor.

EXERCISE

1. You should be quiet.

2. You do it

3. You buy a ticket.

4. You do not be idle.

5. You read the book.

6. He cuts down the trees.

7. You should not go out.

8. We should catch fishes.

9. We listen to his advice.

10. He sees the accident.

Practice questions:
Change the following statements into questions and negatives.
1. I have a lot of work to do.
2. Plenty of people want to buy cars.
3. There is a great deal of controversy about the language problem.
4. The sea is a long way off.
5. A great deal of research has been done on the subject.
6. A lot of money has been spent on the project.

Answers
1. I don’t have much work to do. / Do you have much work to do?
2. Not many people want to buy cars. / Are there many people who want to buy cars?
3. There isn’t much controversy about the language problem. / Is there much controversy about the language problem?
4. The sea isn’t far off. / Is the sea far off?
5. Not much research has been done on the subject. / Has much research been done on the subject?
6. Not much money has been spent on the project. / Has much money been spent on the project?

LECTURE-5-6
WHAT IS SYNTHESIS?

Synthesis is the just opposite of analysis and means the combination of a number of a simple sentence into one new
sentence – simple, compound or complex.

 Simple sentence- a sentence consisting of only one clause, with a single subject and predicate.
For example- I like trains.

 A simple sentence contains a subject and verb.

 It expresses a single complete thought.
 A simple sentence is a single independent clause.

EXAMPLES

 The cat crept through the dark house.

 The wary mouse watched from underneath an upturned cereal box.
 The predatory cat stopped and surveyed his surroundings.
 The mouse darted for the safety of the nearly invisible hole under the cabinet.

Compound sentence-a sentence with more than one subject or predicate.

Example- The war was lost; consequently, the whole country was occupied.

 A compound sentence contains two independent clauses.

 Conjunctions (for, and, nor, but, or, and yet, so) join these independent clauses. (Hint: The conjunctions spell
FANBOYS.)
The conjunction used can impact the meaning of the sentence.

EXAMPLES

 The cat was unsuccessful in his attempt to catch the mouse, and the mouse was equally as unlucky in his
attempt to get the cheese.
 The dog had watched all of this, but he had refused to become involved.
  The mouse could wait until dark, or he could risk a daylight raid on the pantry.
 The cat usually slept during the day, yet curiosity held him at the corner of the kitchen.

 Complex sentence- a sentence containing a subordinate clause or clauses.

Example- I enjoyed the apple pie that you bought for me.

 A complex sentence is an independent clause joined by one or more dependent clauses.

 A subordinating conjunction begins the dependent clauses.
 A dependent clause that begins a sentence must be followed by comma.
 A dependent clause has a subject and a verb, but it does not make sense on its own.

Subordinating Conjunctions

After how Until

Although if Unless
As in as much as if
in order that When as long as
At least Whenever as much as
now that whereas soon
wherever as though Since
While because so that
Before even if That
even though though

Sample Complex Sentences

 After he gave it some thought, the mouse decided to wait until later for his trek.
 The cat fell asleep on the warm kitchen because he was deprived of sleep the night before.
 When the mouse heard the soft snoring of his sleeping nemesis, he scurried to the pantry and grabbed enough
food for a week.
 The dedicated, feline sleuth keeps his nightly vigil even though the foresighted mouse will not be venturing out
this week.

Test Yourself – Simple, Compound, Complex ?

1. The teacher walked into the classroom, greeted the students, and took attendance.
2. Juan played football while Jane went shopping.
3. Juan played football, yet Jim went shopping.
4. Although Mexico has a better team, they lost the tournament, and their more aggressive style did not pay off.
5. The island was filled with many trails winding through the thick underbrush, a small lake, and dangerous wild
animals.
6. Naoki passed the test because he studied hard, but Stacy did not understand the material.

Synthesis is a way that makes complex or compound sentences by adding so many simple sentences.
Syntheses work in three ways – like
  Making a new simple sentence by adding two simple sentences
 Making a new compound sentence with two simple sentences
 Making a new complex sentence with two simple sentences

Making a new simple sentence with two or more than two simple sentences.
There are six ways to make a new simple sentence by adding two or more than two simple sentences.

1.By using Participle -

For example
Separate- He saw a lion. He fled away.
Combined – Seeing a lion, he fled away

Separate- He jumped up. He ran away.

Combined-Jumping up, he ran away.

Separate- He tired of reading. He retired to bed.

Combined-Being tired of reading, he retired to bed.

2.By using Noun or Phrase in Opposition

Separate – I love Ritu very much. She is my sister.
Combined- I love my sister Ritu very much.

Separate- I saw a famous dancer. Her name is Diya.

Combined- I saw the famous dancer, Diya.

Separate- My friend was killed in a plane crash. He was one of the greatest supporters in my bad time.
Combined- My friend, one of the greatest supporters in my bad time, was killed in a plane crash.

3.By using Preposition with Noun or Gerund

Separate- We reached the movie hall. The movie had finished by that time.
Combined- Before our reaching the movie hall, the movie had finished.

Separate- The servant swept the room; he found a rupee lying in the corner.
Combined- While sweeping the room, the servant found a rupee lying in a corner.

Separate- He has failed many times. He still hopes to get success at last.
Combined- In spite of many failures he still hopes to get success at least.

4.By using Nominative Absolute

Separate- The office caught fire. All the furniture was burnt to ashes.
Combined- The office having caught fire, all the furniture was burnt to ashes.

Separate- Rains have been plentiful this year. The crop of apple has been rich.
Combine-Rains having been plentiful this year, the crop of apple has been rich.

Separate- The thieves were caught by the police. They surrendered the stolen property.
Combined- Having been caught by the police, the thieves’ surrender the stolen property.

5.By using Infinitive

Separate- I am going to Jaipur. I have to purchase a house.
Combined- I am going to Jaipur to purchase a house.

Separate- There are still three questions left. I have to solve them.
Combined- I have still three more questions to solve.

Separate- He is very weak. He cannot pass this year.

Combined- He is too weak to pass this year.

6.By using an adverb or adverbial phrase

Separate- She was scolded. Her uncle scolded badly.

Combined- She was badly scolded by her uncle.

Separate- It was evening. The train had not reached by time.

Combined- The train had not reached by evening.

Separate- He was dismissed from service. His dismissal was undeserved.

Combined- He was undeservedly dismissed from service.

7.By using to+ Adjective / adverb

Separate- She is Poor. She cannot buy this.

Combined- She is too poor to buy this.

Separate- He is weak. He cannot run.

Combined- He is too weak to run.

Separate- She is tired. She cannot dance.

Combined- She is too tired to dance.

8.Adjective / Adverb + Enough

Separate- She is rich. She can buy designer outfits.

Combined-She is rich enough to buy designer outfits.

Separate- This hall is large. Three hundred persons can sit in it.
Combined- This hall is large enough for three hundred people to sit in.

Separate-She has much time. She can enjoy this big mall.
Combined- She has time enough to enjoy this big mall.

Making of Complex sentence

Rules- to make complex sentence by adding two or more than two simple sentence

1.By using noun clause-

As we know noun clause works in five ways like the Subject of a verb, Object of a transitive verb or preposition, Verbs of
incomplete predication ( is, are, am, was, were) and complement and in case of opposition.
In synthesis also noun form can be used by using noun clause

For example-
Separate- She is speaking the truth. It is known to all.
Combined- That she is speaking truly it is known to all.

Separate- He is a saint. Everybody knows it.

Combined- Everybody knows that he is a saint.

Separate-I told you that yesterday. You should try it.

Combined- You must try that what I told you yesterday.

Separate- He has failed. The reason is his illness.

Combined- The reason for his failure is that he is ill.

Separate- He was innocent. This was her statement. It was right.

Combined- Her statement that he was innocent was right.

2.By using Adjective Clause-

Synthesis of adjective clause can be done by a relative pronoun or relative adverb
Like

Separate- I met an old man. He was very weak.

Combined- I met an old man who was very weak.

Separate- I saw a car. It was black in colour.

Combined- I saw a car which was black in colour.

Separate- I met a friend. His phone was stolen on the train.

Combined- I met your friend whose phone was stolen on the train.

Separate- I have purchased a big house, it has a big guest room. My guestroom is well- decorated.
Combined- The house that I have purchased has a big guest room which is well decorated.

3.By using the Adverb clause-

Synthesis can be done by using Adverb clause in a way of Adverb clause of time, reason, place, condition, comparison,
contrast, result, manner
For example

Separate- I could not come. I was ill.

Combined- I could not come because I was ill.

Separate- He committed the theft. He has been caught by the police.

Combined- He committed the theft, so he has been caught by the police.

Separate- Tell me the truth. I shall pardon you.

Combined- I shall pardon you if you tell me the truth.

Separate- The thief saw the police. He took his heels.

Combined- As soon as the thief saw the police, he took his heels.
Making of Compound Sentence
Making of Compound sentence by adding two or more than two simple sentences

The synthesis also can be done by making coordinate conjunctions like (either…or, neither…..nor, also, likewise, so,
therefore, and, but) sometimes comma (,) and Semicolon (;) also work like coordinate conjunction and compound
sentence can be made by that.
For example

Separate- I went to the market.I saw a beautiful watch. I could not, however, purchase it.
Combined- I went to the market and saw a beautiful watch but I could not purchase it.

Separate- He is slow. He is regular.

Combined- He is slow but regular.

Separate- He is industrious. He is very serious in his work.

Combined- He is not only industrious but also very serious in his work.

Separate- Get in. You may catch a cold.

Combined- Get in or you may catch a cold.

Separate- Do not be a borrower. Do not be a lender either.

Combined – Neither a lender nor be a borrower

Separate- It was very cold last night. I could not have a sound sleep.
Combined- It was very cold last night and therefore I could not have a sound sleep.

Separate- He was annoyed. Still, he kept quiet.

Combined- He was annoyed still he kept quiet.

Combine the following sentences using appropriate conjunction or a participle.

1. The thief heard the noise. He ran away.
2. He is very fat. He cannot walk fast.
3. The villagers caught the thief. They handed him over to the police.
4. Rahim is a doctor. He was my student at college.
5. You have to submit your application before Friday. Otherwise, it will not be accepted.
6. He has to start coming on time. Otherwise, he will lose his job.
7. He is unwell. Still, he attends the office regularly.
8. It may rain. We will get wet.
9. I bought these apples yesterday. They are ripe.

Answers
1. Hearing the noise, the thief ran away.
2. He is too fat to walk fast. OR He is so fast that he cannot walk fast.
3. Having caught the thief, the villagers handed him over to the police.
4. Rahim who was my student at college is a doctor.
5. If you don’t submit your application before Friday, it will not be accepted. / Unless you submit your application
before Friday, it will not be accepted.
6. If he does not start coming on time, he will lose his job. / Unless he starts coming on time, he will lose his job.
7. Though he is unwell, he attends the office regularly.
8. If it rains we will get wet.
9. These apples which I bought yesterday are ripe.

Practice: Identify whether the sentences are simple, complex, compound. Please underline dependent clauses where
it applies.

1. Vampires Dairies is my favorite television show, but I also love True Blood.
2. The student wiped the white board that was filthy with last week’s notes.
3. The trendy fashion designer released her new line on Wednesday.
4. Trina and Hareem went to a bar in Hollywood to celebrate their anniversary.
5. Wicked Regina cast a spell on the entire city, so the citizens decided to rebel.
6. While waiting for the paint to dry, Angela went to Home Depot, and Martin organized the
kitchen appliances.
7. After listening to the Kanye West CD, I have new respect for his music.
8. After the teacher chose groups, John and Sara were selected as partners for a project, yet
Sarah did most of the work.
 UNIT-3

LECTURE-7
Synonyms
A synonym is a word, or in some cases a phrase that has the same meaning as another word with regards to the same
language. If the meaning is not exactly the same, the words have very similar meanings in the context.
Antonyms
Now as opposed to a synonym, an antonym is a word whose meaning is exactly opposite to another word, in the same
language. It originates from the Greek word "anti" which stands for the opposite and "onyx” which stands for “name”. For
example the antonym for hot is cold, and the antonym for up is down.
Examples of Synonyms and Antonyms

Word Synonym Antonym

Abundant Plentiful, Ample Scarce, Sparse

Appeal Attract, Interest Bore

Elaborate Detailed, Intricate Simple, Plain

Optimistic Bright, Promising Pessimistic

Boisterous Lively, Exuberant Quire, Restrained

Inept Incompetent, Unskilled Competent

Soothe Ease, Relieve Aggravate

Linger Stay put, Remain Vanish

Vital Essential, Crucial Unimportant

Q: Choose the option which means the opposite of the given word: Copious
a. Plentiful
 b. Revenge
c. Scarce
d. None of the above

An: The answer is C. Copious means in abundance or plentiful. So the antonym is sparse or scarce.

Q: He was truly pleased with his life. Replace the highlighted word with an appropriate synonym from the following.
a. Content
b. Regards
c. Irritated
d. Contents

An: The answer is A. Pleased means happy and satisfied. So the sentence will be “He was truly content with his life.”

EXERCISE 1
For each problem, circle the synonyms.

1. wealth love sadness green riches

2. big zero nothing small money
3. tree little soft hard tender
4. thief hate robber fire key
5. easy simple hard great help
6. night morning daybreak scare sunset
7. smell dislike hate little wish
8. water learn youth careful childhood
9. music flowers happy melody yell
10. sun teach push instruct clean
11. power sweet catch force stop
12. playful hope family favorite faith

EXERCISE 2
Write the matching synonym from the word box on the blank next to the word.

end touch push watch help go careful

bright tired sweet space jump prize party

1. sugary ____________________________________________

2. sleepy ____________________________________________

3. hop ____________________________________________

4. gap ____________________________________________

5. award ____________________________________________
6. assist ____________________________________________

7. shove ____________________________________________

8. dazzling ____________________________________________

9. leave ____________________________________________

10. look ____________________________________________

11. celebration ____________________________________________

12. feel ____________________________________________

13. finish ____________________________________________

14. gentle ____________________________________________

EXERCISE 3
Write a sentence similar to those listed by using the words in the word box.

wait order shiny sad crowded

magic house money stink sweet

1. They needed cash to pay for their groceries.

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2. We had to stay in our class until it was over.

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3. The glossy decorations looked pretty on the tree.

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4. The smell of the garbage was horrible.

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
5. It was a gloomy day.

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
6. We had to classify the shapes in math today.

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
7. The school bus is always packed.
EXERCISE 4
Circle the synonyms in each sentence.

1. As we walked to school, the cool wind blew in our and us very chilly.

2. The popular kids in school are very well liked by many.

3. Several people were playing a soccer game on a distant field that was difficult to see because it was too far away.

4. In history class, we learn that the Civil War was prior to World War II and World War II was before the Korean War.

5. Two boys in the class started to fight, and they will get suspended for having a brawl.

EXERCISE 5
For each problem, circle the pairs of antonyms.

1. friend teacher enemy mother student

2. best far near move many
3. year past month class future
4. success bumpy still careful move
5. good little sick doctor bad
6. lazy walk run eat hungry
7. start stop close ugly never
8. always complete clever few many
9. grammar light eager dark juicy
10. country flag peace war park
11. best tasty worst spicy smooth
12. sport first game soccer last
13. morning early late sleep tired
14. neat pretty tide messy clothes
15. paper food new ugly old
16. money cash angry rich poor
17. plane fast quiet slow walk
18. comfortable fruit apples painful delicious

EXERCISE 6
On the blank, write the matching antonym from the word box.
lose stay boring remember out

wrong famous hinder create sell

1. exciting __________________________________________
2. help __________________________________________

3. correct __________________________________________

4. forget __________________________________________

5. leave __________________________________________

6. unknown __________________________________________

7. buy __________________________________________

8. destroy __________________________________________

9. in __________________________________________

10. find __________________________________________

EXERCISE 7
Write an antonym for each word.

1. sharp __________________________________________

2. up __________________________________________

3. melt __________________________________________

4. add __________________________________________

5. high __________________________________________

6. all __________________________________________

7. catch __________________________________________

8. front __________________________________________

9. always __________________________________________

10. wet __________________________________________

11. best __________________________________________

12. tight __________________________________________

13. before __________________________________________

14. kind __________________________________________

15. lead __________________________________________

16. fix __________________________________________

EXERCISE 8
Write “Yes” on the line if the words are antonyms. If they are not antonyms, write “No” and write an antonym for
the first word.

1. problem – solution ____________________________________________

2. ahead – leading ____________________________________________

3. negative – wrong ____________________________________________

4. together – separate ____________________________________________

5. clear – shiny ____________________________________________

6. quick – super ____________________________________________

7. answer – question ____________________________________________

8. lazy – slow ____________________________________________

9. real – important ____________________________________________

10. bright – sunny ____________________________________________

11. careful – reckless ____________________________________________

12. less – little ____________________________________________

13. strange – thief ____________________________________________

14. sit – watch ____________________________________________

15. outdoor – snowing ____________________________________________

16. best – worst ____________________________________________

17. intelligent – neat ____________________________________________

18. brave – cowardly ____________________________________________

EXERCISE 9
Write a synonym and antonym for the following words.

Synonym Antonym

1. courageous ___________________ ___________________________________

2. copy ___________________ ___________________________________________

3. funny ___________________ ___________________________________________

4. homely ___________________ __________________________________________

5. rise ___________________ _____________________________________________

6. evil ___________________ ______________________________________________

7. tiny ___________________ _____________________________________________

8. unite ___________________ _____________________________________________

9. playful ___________________ ____________________________________________

10. work ___________________ _____________________________________________

11. capture ___________________ ___________________________________________

12. center ___________________ ____________________________________________

13. sorrowful ___________________ _________________________________________

14. devious ___________________ ___________________________________________

15. filthy ___________________ ______________________________________________

 LECTURE-8

CONFUSED WORDS: HOMONYMS AND HOMPHONES

Homonyms are two words that are spelled the same and sound the same but have different meanings. The word
"homonym" comes from the prefix "homo-," which means the same, and the suffix "-nym," which means name.
Therefore, a homonym is a word that has the same name as another word, meaning that the two words look and sound
exactly alike.
A simple example of a homonym is the word "pen." This can mean both "a holding area for animals" and "a writing
instrument." Another example is "book," which can mean "something to read" or "the act of making a reservation." In
both cases, the sound and spelling are the same, and only the definition changes
Homonym Examples
Here are 30 more examples of homonyms. Note that some homonyms have more than two meanings (for example,
"tender" can also mean sensitive, easily chewed, or even refer to chicken strips), but to keep things simple we've only
included two in our homonyms list:
 Address - to speak to / location
 Air - oxygen / a lilting tune
 Arm - body part/division of a company
 Band - a musical group / a ring
 Bark - a tree's out layer / the sound a dog makes
 Bat - an implement used to hit a ball / a nocturnal flying mammal
 Bright - very smart or intelligent / filled with light

HOMOPHONES

Homophone : A word that is spelled differently, sound the same, and mean different things.

Examples

 To - too- two

Usage -I went too far to get two cones of ice-cream.

 Hair - hare- here

Usage - The white haired hare was running here and there.

EXAMPLES

THERE : THEIR : THEY’RE

 There : a place

Usage - It is over there. There are two bikes.

 Their : Possessive form of they

Usage - Their bikes are black.

 They’re : means they are (shortened form)

Usage -They’re going home on their bikes.

 Cents : She has only fifty cents.

 Sense : He does not have common sense.

 Hole : They dug a hole in the ground.

 Whole : I can’t believe I ate the whole thing.

 Assent: They assent to go further. (agree)

 Ascent: There is steep ascent ahead. (rise)

Pick the correct homophones

1. Her little sister was just (to/too/two) slow on a bike.

2. We had lunch over at (they’re/their/there) house.

3. (There/their/they’re) grandmother lived over

4. The new jet streaked (threw/through) the clouds.

5. Painter painted the (hole/whole) room in just five hours but dentist could not fill up the (hole/whole)

6. If you had any (cents/sense),you would come to know that it costs more (cents/sense).

7. All of them (ascent/assent) to climb up the mountain tomorrow.

8. Please speak loudly or come (here/hear).

Answers

1.too

2.their

3.Their, there

4.Through

5.whole, hole

6.sense,cents

7.assent

8.here

Homophones are words that sound alike, thanks to that all-important suffix "-phone," which means sound.
Homophones have the same sound but different meanings, and they are often spelled differently. For example, consider
the word "fate" and "fete." Fate is an inevitable outcome, but a fete is a festival or party. Homophones may or may not
be spelled the same, because the definition is really about the sound.
Other examples of homophones:
 mat/matte
 two/too
Examples of Homophones

air, heir aisle, isle

ante-, anti- bare, bear, bear

be, bee brake, break

buy, by cell, sell

cent, scent cereal, serial

coarse, course complement, compliment

dam, damn dear, deer

die, dye eye, I

fair, fare fir, fur

flour, flower hair, hare

heal, heel hear, here

him, hymn hole, whole

hour, our idle, idol

in, inn knight, night

knot, not know, no

made, maid mail, male

meat, meet morning, mourning

none, nun oar, or

one, won pair, pear

peace piece plain, plane

poor, pour pray, prey

principal, principle profit, prophet

real, reel right, write

root, route sail, sale

sea, see seam, seem

sew, so, sow sight, site

shore, sure sole, soul

some sum son, sun

stair, stare stationary, stationery

steal, steel suite, sweet

tail, tale their, there

to, too, two toe, tow

waist, waste wait, weight

way, weigh weak, week

wear, where

EXERCISES FOR HOMOPHONES

night
Q1 - I didn't ____ what she said.
knight
hear
Q10 - The building ____ is huge.
here
site
Q2 - They forgot to take ____ printouts.
sight
there
their
they're
Q3 - Venison is the meat from a ____.
dear
deer
Q4 - The house is by the ____.
see
sea
Q5 - She held the ____ in her hand.
reigns
rains
reins
Q6 - They tried to ____ the painting.
steel
steal
Q7 - He had to ____ the button on.
sow
sew
Either could be used here.
Q8 - I hope the ____ is fine.
weather
whether
Q9 - He was a medieval ____.
EXERCISES FOR HOMONYMS:

FRAME 2 SENTENCES USING THE SAME WORD

 Circular - taking the form of a circle / a store advertisement

 Current - up to date/flow of water
 Die - to cease living / a cube marked with numbers one through six
 Express - something is done fast / to show your thoughts by using words
 Fair - equitable / beautiful
 Jag - a sharp, jutted object / a crying spree

Homonyms: A word that is spelled the same, sound the same but means different things.
Examples:
 Bank (1. river bank 2. bank account)
Usage - I went to open my bank account in the branch of State Bank of India near the bank of river Ganges.

 Fine (1. to pay a monetary penalty 2. superior quality or skill)

Usage- 1. You will have to pay fine for your absence.
2. This is a fine shot to win the match.

 Proof (1. an evidence, 2.printed copy for rectification)

Usage- 1.The detective got a proof of culprit’s identity.
2. The editor will edit the proof.

 Light (1. sunlight, 2. light as a feather)

Usage- 1. The light was filtered through a soft glass window.
2. Magnesium is a light metal--having a specific gravity of 1.74 at 20 degrees C“
 Tip (1. pencil tip, 2. a gratuity)

Usage- 1.The pencil tip is broken.
2.He gave Rs.50 as a tip to the waiter.
 Present (1. a gift, 2.current time)

Usage- 1. I got a present on my birthday.
2. The present century is about speed

 Tire 1. Car wheel (American usage), 2. fatigue

Usage- 1.The rear tires of the car are damaged.
2.This exercise is very tiring.

 Saw 1. cutting tool ,2. to see)

Usage- 1.The woodcutter bought a power saw.
2.I saw him in the fair yesterday.

 Fair (1. a village fair, 2. quite good)

Usage- 1.The child was lost in village fair.
2.He is fair in his actions.

Pick the odd one out

1. Bullet
a) metal shot from gun b) a bullet point
c) A motorcycle brand d) Killing a person

2. Post
a) Letters and parcels b) a job in a company
c) a vertical pole d) To inspect vehicles

3. Faculty
a) a group of departments b) ability to do
c) people who teach in a department
d) head of business or trade

Focus on red colored word, is it best fitting?

4.This question is beyond my horizon. (Y/N)

5. He was mentally absent but physically present. (Y/N)

6.They crop the snaps in their mobile phones and upload. (Y/N)

7.He went to site seeing in Shimla.(Y/N)

8. The roof has a very stoop pitch. (Y/N)

9. The toilet bowl was cracked. (Y/N)

 UNIT-4

LECTURE- 10

DEFINITION- Reading comprehension is the ability to process text, understand its meaning, and to integrate with
what the reader already knows.

TIPS FOR READING COMPREHENSION:

1. DO NOT OVER-EMPHASIZE TRIVIALITIES
Details are important but don't be obsessed with examples, illustrations and so on. You just need to get a hang of
the main point and not the examples. Comprehending the overall flow and structure will help you analyse and
answer the questions.
2. DO NOT MEMORIZE
You do not need to memorize every word present in the passage. Understanding the flow, structure and the main
points in the passage should be your priority. For factual or specific point questions, you can always re-read the
passage.
3. DO NOT READ THE PASSAGE FIRST
Always go through the questions first and then the passage. This will prepare you to focus on the things you need to
look in the passage. Focus only on the questions, and not on a particular answer option. A quick overview of the
questions is sufficient.
4. DO NOT OVER-EMPHASIZE ON VOCABULARY SKILLS FOR RCS
Having a strong vocabulary is great however having Shakespearean vocabulary will not prevent you from
understanding the passage. So do not put yourself under stress in this area, and while reading the passage, make
sure that you understand the gist of the passage and do not get stuck on particular words.
5. DO NOT SPEND TIME ON RCS THAT YOU CANNOT COMPREHEND AT FIRST
At times we come across a passage that we are not able to comprehend. If you are struggling with one such passage
in the exam, make sure you have the patience to avoid such a passage. Focus on the ones that you can manage
easily. Go back to the tricky passage in case of absolute necessity.
6. DO NOT THINK THE CORRECT OPTION WOULD COME FROM OUTSIDE THE PASSAGE
Any of the options that is out of scope is never the correct answer. The right answer is always based on the
information given within the passage. Do not focus on any of the options that distract you from the passage.
7. DO NOT RELY ON 'TRIGGER WORDS'
You might get trapped in the web of 'trigger words' if you don’t read attentively through the passage. A passage may
focus on one point for quite a bit of sentences and then change it towards the end with trigger words like 'but' or
'however'. This will usually confuse readers who skim through the passage or rush through it in haste.
8. MAKE NOTES
While reading obscure /abstract text, make sure you make some quick notes for ready reference. You can write the
general flow, structure, paragraph-wise flow and important points. Remember that you do not have make really long
notes, just make a quick note of the important markers/points in the passage.
9. TRY TO PRE-EMPT QUESTIONS
This is a really difficult skill but if you can master this, you will surely by the 'King of Reading Comprehensions'. While
reading the passage, try to identify the possible questions that could be asked, and which parts of the passage seem
the most likely candidates for question-setting.
10. OPENING AND CLOSING PARAGRAPHS REQUIRE EXTRA FOCUS
Questions such as the main idea question are based on the overall subject of the passage, and majority of the times
the answer for this question type lies in the first and last paragraph of the passage. Ensure you derive the maximum
possible information from these paragraphs.
11. CONSTANTLY QUESTION YOURSELF WHILE READING THE PASSAGE
In order to maintain your concentration while reading, make sure that some basic questions keep playing at the back
of your mind: What is the author's main point? Why is the author writing this? How has the author chosen to convey
his main point? How has the author organized his material?
Finally, don't expect to be stimulated. In fact expect the opposite! Majority of the times you would be bored by RC
topics and you should not allow this to drain your energy. Maintain an impartial attitude towards the passage, and
do not get mentally hassled by obscure content.
The above form some of the basic points that should be kept in mind while approaching reading comprehensions.
These would improve your focus, increase your grasp of the subject matter and deliver greater understanding. If you
achieve these, your task is more or less done.

A DILEMMA

A LAYMAN LOOKS AT SCIENCE

RAYMOND B. FOSDICK
AUGUST 6, 1945 – The day the atomic bomb was dropped on Hiroshima - brought home to all of us in a dramatic
fashion the significance of science in human life.
The impact of that bomb has left us stunned and confused. Certainly we laymen are frightened by science as we
never were before. And certainly too, we are bewildered by the power which science has suddenly placed in our laps
– bewildered and humbled by our realization of how unequipped we are, in terms of ethics, law, and government, to
know how to use it.

That, I think, is the first reaction of a layman to the stupendous repercussion of that bomb on Hiroshima. And the
first question that comes to his mind is this: what use are radio and automobiles and penicillin and all the other gifts
of science if at the same time this same science hands us the means by which we can blow ourselves and our
civilization into drifting dust? We have always been inclined to think research and technology as being consciously
related to human welfare. Now, frankly, we are not so sure, and we are deeply troubled, by the realization that
man’s brain can create things which his will may not be able to control.
To the layman it seems as if science were facing a vast dilemma. Science is the search for truth, and it is based on the
glorious faith that truth is worth discovering. It springs from the noblest attribute of the human spirit. But it is this
same search for truth that has brought our civilization to the brink of destruction; and we are confronted by the
tragic irony that when we have been most successful in pushing out the boundaries of knowledge, we have most
endangered the possibility of human life on this planet. The pursuit of truth has a at last led us to the tools by which
we can ourselves become the destroyers of our own institutions and all the bright hopes of the race. In this situation
what do we do – curb our science or cling to the pursuit of truth and run the risk of having our society torn to
pieces?

It is on the basis of this dilemma that serious questions are forming in the public mind. Unless research is linked to a
human and constructive purpose, should it not be subject to some kind of restraint? Can our scientists afford to be
concerned solely with fact and not at all with value and purpose? Can they legitimately claim that their only aim is
the advancement of knowledge regardless of its consequences? Is the layman justified in saying to the scientists:
‘We look to you to distinguish between that truth which furthers the well-being of mankind and that truth which
threatens it?

One of the scientists who played a leading role in the development of the atomic bomb said to the newspapermen:
‘A scientist cannot hold back progress because of fears of what the world will do with his discoveries’. What he
apparently implied was the science has no responsibility in the matter, and that it will plunge ahead in the pursuit of
truth even if the process leaves the world in dust and ashes.

Is that the final answer? Is there no other answer? Frankly, as a layman, I do not know. Offhand, this disavowal of
concern seems callous and irresponsible. But we may be facing a situation where no other answer is realistic or
possible. To ask the scientist to foresee the use – the good or evil of the use – to which his result may be put is
doubtless beyond the realm of the attainable. Almost any discovery can be used for either social or anti-social
purposes. The German dye industry was not created to deal with either medicine or weapons of war; and yet out of
that industry came our sulphur drugs and mustard gas. When Einstein wrote his famous transformation equation in
1905 he was not thinking of the atomic bomb, but out of the equation came one of the principles upon which the
bomb was based.

Willard Gibbs was a gentle spirit whose life was spent in his laboratory at Yale
University, and who never dreamed that his work in mathematical physics might have even a remote relationship to
war; and yet it is safe to say that his ideas gave added power to the armaments of all nations in both World War I
and World War II.

I suspect that the way out of the dilemma is not as simple as the questions now being asked seem to imply. The good
and the evil that flow from scientific research are more often then not indistinguishable at the point of origin.
Generally they are by products, or they represent distortions of original purpose, none of which could have been
foreseen when the initial discovery was made. We are driven back to a question of human motives and desires.
Science has recently given us radar, jet propulsion and power sources of unprecedented magnitude. What does
society want to do with them? It can use them constructively to increases the happiness of mankind or it can employ
them to tear the world to pieces. There is scarcely a scientific formula or a process or a commodity which cannot be
used for war purposes, if that is what we elect to do with it. In brief, the gifts of science can be used by evil men to
do evil even more obviously and dramatically than they can be used by men of goodwill to do good. I fear there is no
easy way out of our dilemma. I would not absolve the scientists from some measure of responsibility, for they are
men of superior training and insight and we are entitled to look to them for help and leadership more help and
leadership, I venture to add, than have thus far been given. However, I note that a considerable number of scientist
who were connected with the atomic bomb project have publicly expressed their apprehension of the consequences
of their own creation. ‘All of us who worked on the atomic bomb, said Dr Allison of the University of Chicago, had a
momentary feeling of elation when our experiment met with success; but that feeling rapidly changed to a feeling of
horror, and a fervent desire that no more bombs would be dropped.

Nevertheless, in the long run I do not believe that we shall be successful in making science the arbiter of its
discoveries. Somehow or other society itself must assume that responsibility. The towering enemy of mankind is not
science but war.

Science merely reflects the social forces by which it is surrounded. When there is peace, science is constructive;
when there is war, science is perverted to destructive ends. The weapons which science gives us do not necessarily
create war; they make war increasingly more terrible, until now it has brought us to the doorstep of doom.

Our main problem therefore, is not to curb science but to stop war to substitute law for force and international
government for anarchy in the relations of one nation with another. That is a job in which everybody must par tic
pate, including the scientists. But the bomb on Hiroshima suddenly woke us up to the fact that we have very little
time. The hour is late and our work has scarcely begun. Now we are face to face with this urgent question: ‘Can
education and tolerance and understanding and creative intelligence run fast enough to keep us abreast with or own
mounting capacity to destroy?
That is the question which we shall have to answer one way or another in this generation. Science must help us in
the answer, but the main decision lies within ourselves.

WAR MINUS SHOOTING

The Sporting Spirit

George Orwell

George Orwell (1903-1950), who was born in Bengal and educated in England, is well known for his greatest novel,
Animal Farm, a masterly political satire on the Russian revolution. His last work. Nineteen Eighty-four, is a grim
forecast of the future of totalitarianism, written in the form of a readable novel.

The Sporting Spirit first appeared in the Tribune, in December 1945 and is a refreshingly frank expression of Orwell’s
views on competitive games. You may or may not agree with his views but the essay is certainly worth reading and
talking about. I am always amazed when I hear people saying that sport creates goodwill between the nations, and
that if only the common peoples of the world could meet one another at football or cricket, they would have no
inclination to meet one another at football or cricket, they would have no inclination to meet on the battlefield. Even
if one didn’t know from concrete examples (the 1936 Olympic Games, for instance) that international sporting
contests lead to orgies of hatred, one could deduce it form general principles.

Nearly all the sports practised nowadays are competitive. You play to win, and the game has little meaning unless
you do your utmost to win. On the village green, where you pick up sides and no feeling of local patriotism is
involved, it is possible to play simply for the fun and exercise: but as soon as the question of prestige arises, as soon
as you feel that you and some larger unit will be disgraced if you lose, the most savage combative instincts are
aroused. Anyone who has played even in a school football match knows this. At the international level sport is
frankly mimic warfare. But the significant thing is not the behavior of the player but the attitude of the spectators:
and, behind the spectators, of the nations who work themselves into furies over these absurd contests, and seriously
believe-at any rate for short periods-that running, jumping and kicking a ball are tests of national virtue.

Even a leisurely game like cricket, demanding grace rather than strength, can cause much ill-will, as we saw in the
controversy over body-line bowling and over the rough tactics of the Australian team that visited England in 1921.
Football, a game in which everyone gets hurt and every nation has its own style of play which seems unfair to
foreigners, is far worse. Worst of all is boxing. One of the most horrible sights in the world is a flight between white
and coloured boxers before a mixed audience. But a boxing audience is always disgusting, and the behavior of the
women, in particular, is
such that the army, I believe, does not allow them to attend its contests. At any rate, two or three years ago, when
Home Guards and regular troops were holding a boxing tournament, I was placed on guard at the door of the hall,
with orders to keep the women out.

In England, the obsession with sport is bad enough, but even fiercer passions are aroused in your countries where
games playing and nationalism are both recent developments. In countries like India or Burma, it is necessary at
football matches to have strong cordons of police to keep the crowd form invading the filed. In Burma, I have seen
the supporters of one side break through the police and disable the goalkeeper of the opposing side at a critical
moment. The first big football match that was played in Spain about fifteen years ago led to an uncontrollable riot.
As soon as strong feelings of rivalry are aroused, that notion of playing the game according to the rules always
vanishes.
People want to see one side on top and the other side humiliated, and they forget that victory gained through
cheating or through the intervention of the crowd is meaningless.

YOU AND YOUR ENGLISH

SPOKEN ENGLISH AND BROKEN ENGLISH
G.B. SHAW

(In every country in the world in which literature holds a place, the name of George Bernard Shaw is well known. No
other writer, except, perhaps, Shakespeare, has earned such world-wide fame. The following text, which the literary
genius prepared and spoke on a ‘gramophone’ recording for the Linguaphone Institute, is loaded with characteristic
Shavian wit, but with serious purpose behind it all. The provocative ideas
are couched in a simple but sparkling rhetorical style)

I am now going to suppose that you are a foreign student of the English language; and the that you desire to speak it
well enough to be understood when you travel in the British Commonwealth or in America,or when you meet a
native of those countries. Or it may be that you are yourself a native but that you speak in a provincial or cockney
dialect of which you are a little ashamed, or which perhaps prevents you from obtaining some employment which is
open to those only who speak what is called “correct English”. Now, whether you are a foreigner or a native, the first
thing I must impress on you is that there is no such thing a ideally correct English. No two British subjects speak
exactly alike. I am a member of a committee established by the British Broadcasting Corporation for the purpose of
deciding how the utterances of speakers employed by the Corporation should be pronounced in order that they
should be a model of correct speech for the British Islands.
All the members of that Committee are educated persons whose speech would pass as correct and refined in any
society or any employment in London. Our chairman is the Poet Laureate, who is not only an artist whose materials
are the sounds of spoken English, but a specialist in their pronunciation. One of our members is Sir
Johnston Forebes Robertson,famous not only as an actor but for the beauty of his speech.

I was selected for service on the “Committee because, as a writer of plays I am accustomed to superintend their
rehearsals and to listen critically to the way in which they are spoken by actors who are by profession trained
speakers (being myself a public speaker of long experience). That committee knows as much as anyone knows about
English speech; and yet its members do not agree as to the pronunciation of some of the simplest and commonest
words in the English language. The two simplest and commonest words in any language are “yes and “no”. But no
two members of the committee pronounce them exactly alike. All that can be said is that every member pronounces
them in such a way that they would not only be intelligible in every English-speaking
country but would stamp the speaker as cultivated person as distinguished from an ignorant and illiterate one. You
will say, “well’ that is good enough for me” that is how I desire to speak. “But which member of the committee will
you take for your model? There are Irish members, Scottish members, Welsh members, Oxford University members,
American members; all recognizable as such by their differences of speech. They differ also according to the country
in which they were born. Now, as they all speak differently, it is nonsense to say that they all speak correctly. All well
can claim is that they all speak presentably, and that if you speak as they do, you will be understood in any English-
speaking country and accepted as person of good social standing. I wish I could offer you your choice among them as
a mode; but for the moment I am afraid you must put up with me-an Irishman.

I have said enough to you about the fact that no two native speaker s of English speak it alike; but perhaps you are
clever enough to ask me whether I myself speak it in the same way.I must confess at once that I do not. Nobody
does. I am at present speaking to an audience of many thousands of gramophonists, many of whom are trying hard
to follow words, syllable by syllable. If I were to speak to you as carelessly as I speak to my wife at
home, this record would be useless; and if I were to speak to my wife at home as carefully as I am speaking to you,
she would think that I was going mad.

As a public speaker I have to take care that every word I say is heard distinctly at the far end of large halls s
containing thousand of people. But at home, when I have to consider only my wife sitting within six feet of me at
breakfast, I take so little pains with my speech that very often instead of giving me the expected answer, she says
“Don’t mumble; and don’t turn your head away when you speak I can’t hear a word you are saying.” And she also is
a little careless. Sometimes I ha ve to say “What?” two or three times during our meal; and she suspects me of
growing deafer and deafer, though she does not say so, because, as I am now over seventy, it might be true. No
doubt I ought to speak to my wife as carefully as I should speak to a queen, and she to me as carefully as she would
speak to a king. We ought to; but we don’t. (Don’t,” by the way, is short for “do not”.)

We all have company manners and home manners. If you were to call on a strange family and to listen through the
keyhole – not that I would suggest for a moment that you are capable for doing such a very unladylike or
ungentleman like thing; but still – if, in you enthusiasm for studying languages you could bring yourself to do it just
for a few seconds to hear how a family speak to one another when there is nobody else listening to them, and then
walk into the room and hear how very differently they speak in your presence, the change would surprise you. Even
when our home manners are as good as our company manners – and of course they ought to be much better – they
are always different; and the difference is greater is speech than in anything else.

Suppose I forget to wind my watch, and it stops, I have to ask somebody to tell me the time. If I ask a stranger, I say
“What O’clock is it?” the stranger hears every syllable distinctly. But if I ask my wife, all she hears is ‘cloxst.’ That is
good enough for her; but it would not be good enough for you. So I am speaking to you now much more carefully
than I speak to her; but please don’t tell her!

I am now going to address myself especially to my foreign hearers. I have to give them another warning of quite a
different kind. If you are leaning English because you intend to travel in England and wish to be understood there, do
not try to speak English perfectly, because, if you do, no one will understand you. I have already explained that
though there is no such thing as perfectly correct English, there is presentable English which we call “Good English”;
but in London nine hundred and ninety nine out of every thousand people not only speak bad English but speak even
that very badly. You may say that even if they do not speak English well themselves they can at least understand it
when it is well spoken. They can when the speaker is English; but when the speaker is a foreigner, the better he
speaks, the harder it is to understand him. No foreigner can ever stress the syllables and make the voice rise and fall
in question and answer, assertion and denial, in refusal and consent, in enquiry or information, exactly as a native
does.

Therefore the first thing you have to do is to speak with a strong foreign accent, and speak broken English: that is,
English without any grammar. Then every English person to whom you speak will at once know that you are a
foreigner, and try to understand you and be ready to help you. He will not expect you to be polite and to use
elaborate grammatical phrases. He will be interested in you because you are a foreigner, and pleased by his
cleverness in making out your meaning and being able to tell you what you want to know. If you say “Will you have
the goodness, Sir, to direct me to the railway terminus at Charing Cross,” pronouncing all the vowels and consonants
beautifully, he will not understand you, and will suspect you of being a beggar or a confidence trickster. But if you
shout, ‘please! Charing Cross! Which way!” You will have no difficulty. Half a
dozen people will immediately overwhelm you with directions.

Even in private intercourse with cultivated people you must not speak too well: Apply this to your attempts to learn
foreign languages, and never try to speak them to well: and do not be afraid to travel. You will be surprised to find
how little you need to know or how badly you may pronounce. Even among English people, to speak too well is a
pedantic affectation. In a foreigner it is something worse than an affectation: it is an insult to the native who cannot
understand his own language when it is too well spoken. That is all I can tell you: the record will hold no more. Good-
bye!

UNIT-5
LECTURE-11
PARAGRAPH WRITING

What is a paragraph?

A paragraph is a series of related sentences developing a central idea, called the topic. Try to think about paragraphs
in terms of thematic unity: a paragraph is a sentence or a group of sentences that supports one central, unified idea.
Paragraphs add one idea at a time to your broader argument.

How do I unify my ideas in a paragraph?

Probably the most effective way to achieve paragraph unity is to express the central idea of the paragraph in a topic
sentence.

Topic sentences are similar to mini thesis statements. Like a thesis statement, a topic sentence has a specific main
point. Whereas the thesis is the main point of the essay, the topic sentence is the main point of the paragraph. Like
the thesis statement, a topic sentence has a unifying function. But a thesis statement or topic sentence alone
doesn’t guarantee unity. An essay is unified if all the paragraphs relate to the thesis, whereas a paragraph is unified if
all the sentences relate to the topic sentence.

Note: Not all paragraphs need topic sentences. In particular, opening and closing paragraphs, which serve different
functions from body paragraphs, generally don’t have topic sentences.

In academic writing, the topic sentence nearly always works best at the beginning of a paragraph so that the reader
knows what to expect.

Specialized linking words can also be powerful tools for pulling ideas together. But don’t just sprinkle them into your
sentences—use them to support your logic.
To signal a reinforcement of ideas:

also in other words in addition

for example moreover more importantly

To signal a change in ideas:

but on the other hand however

instead Yet in contrast
although Nevertheless in spite of [something]

To signal a conclusion:

thus therefore Ultimately

in conclusion finally so [informal]

PRECIS WRITING

Précis writing is an exercise in compression. A précis is the gist of a passage expressed in as few words as possible.
A précis should give all essential points so that anyone reading it will be able to understand the idea expressed in the
original passage.

Dos of Précis Writing

 Start your précis with the main idea so that reader can quickly understand the essence of the précis.
 He/she will know beforehand as to what they should expect in the written précis.
  While writing a précis, make a suitable environment where all the points can be described and discussed
equally.
 As the main idea or the essence is established, you can follow it up with some methods, facts, points, etc.
 As a précis is concise, compress it and make sure that the length is available for you to retain the important
data, keywords, and the concept.
 Removing the irrelevant data or sentence is as important as writing the relevant points.
 Thus, identify the superfluous data and facts and keep the core idea of the work only in the précis.
 If you are mentioning anything related to history or any historical data than make sure that it is written in the
past tense only.
 Also, remember to put the purpose as to why you are writing a précis in the writing piece.
 This will help the reader understand what you wrote in the précis.

Don’ts of Précis Writing

 Précis writing is a formal way of writing a shorter form of the given paragraph.
 So, even though you have read and understood the Précis well, do not form your own opinions.
 You cannot insert your own remarks and criticism in a précis.
 Always take the fact and data that is given in the paragraph only.
 Also, during précis writing, you cannot insert a question. If for any reason you need to insert make it in the
form of a statement.
 For précis writing, avoid using contractions and abbreviations.
 Write the full form of any given words only.
 Avoid being jerky. This will show that you have not understood the passage properly and have started writing
a précis

STEPS IN WRITING A GOOD PRECISE

 Read the original piece carefully.
 Specify its main points and arguments.
 Consider the evidence used by the author.
 Research unfamiliar material (definitions, statements, unknown words, data, etc.)
 Identify the appeals used by the writer.
 Evaluate how the author conveyed meaning.
 Restate the thesis.
 Write a 1-2 sentence summary of each section of the article.
 Describe the piece in your own words.
 Reread the article and compare it with your summary.

EXAMPLE OF PRECIS WRITING

1. MAKE PRECIS AND GIVE SUITABLE TITLE

Trees give shade for the benefit of others, and while they themselves stand in the sun and endure the scorching
heat, they produce the fruit of which others profit. The character of good men is like that of trees. What is the use of
this perishable body if no use is made of it for the benefit of mankind? Sandalwood, the more it is rubbed, the more
scent does it yield. Sugarcane, the more it is peeled and cut up into pieces, the more juice does it produce. The men
who are noble at heart do not lose their qualities even in losing their lives. What matters whether men praise them
or not? What difference does it make whether they die at this moment or whether lives are prolonged? Happen
what may, those who tread in the right path will not set foot in any other. Life itself is unprofitable to a man who
does not live for others. To live for the mere sake of living one’s life is to live the life of dog and crows. Those who lay
down their lives for the sake of others will assuredly dwell forever in a world of bliss.

2. MAKE PRECIS AND GIVE SUITABLE TITLE

It is physically impossible for a well-educated, intellectual, or brave man to make money the chief object of his
thoughts just as it is for him to make his dinner the principal object of them. All healthy people like their dinners, but
their dinner is not the main object of their lives. So all healthy minded people like making money ought to like it and
enjoy the sensation of winning it; it is something better than money.

A good soldier, for instance, mainly wishes to do his fighting well. He is glad of his pay—very properly so and justly
grumbles when you keep him ten years without it—till, his main mission of life is to win battles, not to be paid for
winning them. So of clergymen. The clergyman's object is essentially baptize and preach not to be paid for
preaching. So of doctors. They like fees no doubt—ought to like them; yet if they are brave and well-educated the
entire object to their lives is not fees. They on the whole, desire to cure the sick; and if they are good doctors and the
choice were fairly to them, would rather cure their patient and lose their fee than kill him and get it. And so with all
the other brave and rightly trained men: their work is first, their fee second—very important always; but still second.

ANSWER KEY

1. PRECIS—A noble person, like a tree, make use of its life for the profits of others. Praise does not matter to them
till they die even they make each moment of their life for the sake of other’s benefit. They don’t lose their quality as
tree and lead their life in the right path and stay forever in the world of bliss.

Title—A key to altruism

2. Précis—Undoubtedly, money is the need of an hour however it is not the primary purpose for a well educated,
intellectual, or brave man. Healthy minded people primarily, enjoy winning or completing their work rather than
aiming for making money from it. Be it soldier, who wishes to win the battle first instead of getting paid. Be it
clergyman, who preaches because he loves doing it instead of getting paid for his preaches. Be it a doctor, who
desires to cure his patient first. Thus for all well educated person work comes first.

Title—Work or Money

UNIT -5
LECTURE-12

REPORT WRITING
DEFINITION- Report writing is an essential skill in many disciplines. Master it now at university and writing reports in
the workplace will be easier. A report aims to inform and sometimes to persuade. They should be written as clearly
and succinctly as possible, with evidence about a topic, problem or situation
Report Writing Format
Here are the main sections of the standard report writing format:

 Title Section – This includes the name of the author(s) and the date of report preparation.

 Summary – There needs to be a summary of the major points, conclusions, and recommendations. It needs
to be short as it is a general overview of the report. Some people will read the summary and only skim the
report, so make sure you include all the relevant information. It would be best to write this last so you will
include everything, even the points that might be added at the last minute.

 Introduction – The first page of the report needs to have an introduction. You will explain the problem and
show the reader why the report is being made. You need to give a definition of terms if you did not include
these in the title section, and explain how the details of the report are arranged.
  Body – This is the main section of the report. There needs to be several sections, with each having a
subtitle. Information is usually arranged in order of importance with the most important information
coming first.

 Conclusion – This is where everything comes together. Keep this section free of jargon as most people will
read the Summary and Conclusion.

 Recommendations – This is what needs to be done. In plain English, explain your recommendations, putting
them in order of priority.

 Appendices – This includes information that the experts in the field will read. It has all the technical details
that support your conclusions.

RULES OF REPORT WRITING:

1. Know your purpose

This is the major aim: the reason you're writing the report in the first place. Because it determines the kind of report
you write, it's a critical (and often neglected) first step.

Give it a think. Are you writing a factual, instructional or leading report? Remember:
 Factual reports aim to inform.
 Instructional reports aim to explain.
 Leading reports aim to persuade.
Once your major aim has been defined this way, your subsidiary aims will fall into place - you inform in order
to explain, and inform and explain in order to persuade. This starting point gives you vital focus, and drives
absolutely everything else.
2. Know your readers
Before you start writing your report, consider its audience. Why? Because you can't hit the nail on the head if you
can't see the bleeding nail. In short, to be successful, a report must ensure that its target readers can:
 read it without delay;
 understand everything in it without much effort;
 accept its facts, findings, conclusions and recommendations; and
 Decide to take the action recommended.
Achieving this demands more than presenting the facts accurately. It also means that you must communicate
acceptably and intelligibly to the reader. But who is he/she?

We can get a clearer picture of our reader by asking three questions:

 What does the reader know?
 What are the reader's attitudes?
 What does the reader want?
Note: Sometimes it can be difficult to answer these questions, especially when writing for a varied readership. If so,
aim for the most important or primary reader.
3. Know your objective
By matching the purpose to the reader, you are ready to set your objective. In other words, what do you want the
reader to think and do after reading your report? (People are not brainiest - often, you have to make it explicit.
'Do this...!')

Here's an example of an objective:

To persuade my MD to authorise a proposed system of flexible working hours

The words "persuade" and "authorize" are the biggies here. They show that you must produce a logical and
consistent case: one that will spur your MD to act. Also, once you've set the objective, you can anticipate the likely
problems in meeting them - such as the fact that your MD likes to see all staff standing briskly to attention at 7am.
4. Choose an approach
I recommend a top-down approach to writing a report. This starts with the thesis statement (pretentiously also
called the "terms of reference"), follows with the information-gathering and continues into three stages of ongoing
refinement.
 Thesis - the thesis of a report is a guiding statement used to define the scope of the research or
investigation. This helps you to communicate your information clearly and to be selective when collecting it.

 Info-gathering - there are a number of questions to ask at this stage:

o What information do I need?
o How much do I need?
o Where will I find it?
o How will I collect it?
 Refinement - there are three stages in the refinement process; namely:
o Write the section-level outline.
o Write the subsection-level outline.
o Write the paragraph-level outline.
Tip: The paragraph-level outline is like a presentation with bulleted points. It incorporates the flow of ideas.
Once you have the paragraph-level flow of ideas, you can convert it into a full report by writing out the flow of
ideas in full sentences. Like I said, hardly rocket science. But sometimes you just need someone to show you...
5. Decide on structure
Here are 11 basic elements of a standard report. I'm not a masochist, so this structure does not need to be rigidly
adhered to. Instead, bring your own circumstances, needs and creativity to the mix, and use whatever's appropriate.
1. Title page
2. Index (or Contents)
3. Thesis (or Terms of Reference or Abstract)
4. Introduction (or Executive Summary)
5. Background
6. Procedure
7. Implications (or Issues)
8. Solutions (or Recommendations)
9. Conclusion
10. Appendices
11. Bibliography (or References)
6. Use the right style
Use hard facts and figures, evidence and justification. Use efficient language - big reports with too many words are
awful. The best reports are simple and quick to read because the writer has interpreted the data and developed
viable recommendations.
Here are some tips:
1. Write as you speak.
2. Avoid empty words.
3. Use descending order of importance.
4. Use the active voice.
5. Keep sentences short.
6. Don't try to impress; write to express.
7. Get facts 100% right.
8. Be unbiased and open.
7. Consider layout
 Fonts
remember that reports are conservative and often formal documents, so your font choices should not be
cutesy, clever or sexy. For the body of the document, choose a serif font such as Times Roman or Cambria
with a point size of 11 or 12. You can use a sans serif font such as Arial or Calibri for bolded headings to
complement the body text.
  Visuals
Spend time thinking about the pictures. Wherever necessary, explain all aspects of a visual and don't leave the
reader wondering about the connection between the figure and the text. Write good captions, and choose the
type of visual with careful consideration. (Bar graphs, pie charts and tables do different things, for example.)
8. Leave time to refine
No report is perfect, and definitely not when it's still Draft 1. Unfortunately, well-written reports are those that have
gone through the mill a couple of times, either with your gimlet eye or under the sceptical gaze of someone else.
Leave as much time as you can afford to check, check and double-check, and then ask yourself:
 Overall, does the report fulfil its purpose?
 Does it do what I was asked to do?
 Does it do what I said I'd do in my introduction?
 And bottom line: Am I pleased with it?

EXERCISES:

Q1. Write a Report for your school magazine describing a Cultural Fest held in your school in which various schools
of your city took part.

Q2. Write a Report for the newspaper describing a traffic jam in which you, along with many, were trapped for many
hours.

ANSWER KEY:

1.

REPORT
CULTURAL FEST
-Robin Dey

24 October 2018

On 22/ 10/2018, a colourful and memorable Cultural Fest was organized in our school. This event was whole day
long and was held in the auditorium of our school. In this mega event, many schools from our city took part.

The grand show commenced by the arrival of various teams from schools. Then the Chief Guest, the District Collector
,of our District, arrived with his wife. There was a colourful welcome followed by lighting of the lamp. It was
accompanied by a melodious Saraswati Vandana , hailing the goddess of knowledge and wisdom. It was followed by
a welcome speech given by the Principal of our school. Then there was bouquet presentation to the invited guests
and the grand event began. It was a truly mesmerizing show as the teams from various schools presented many
programmes. There was singing, dancing, poetry recitation, skits, mimicry, mono act shows, classical and modern
combination of several foot tapping numbers. Everyone sat glued to the show. The Chief Guest praised the entire
event a lot. He guided with his inspirational words and inspired to do better. It was followed by the announcement
of the winning team, ABC School of our city. The team from our school bagged second position and everyone
complimented one another. It was followed by a formal vote of thanks and the event concluded.

We really enjoyed a lot and dispersed with a sincere hope that such mega events should be organized time and again
giving the students a chance to display their talents.

2. REPORT
TRAFFIC JAM: A NUISANCE ON ROADS
-Shailey John
24 October 2018
Yesterday on 23/10/2018, the main highway connecting the two major suburbs of our city witnessed a real chaos in
the form of a traffic jam in which thousands of people were caught for several hours,

It was around 5 pm in the evening and the office goers, the school buses of various schools and traders along with
many others were returning from the busy route. The traffic was running smoothly but suddenly the vehicles came
to an abrupt halt. There was utter confusion among all. The traffic was not moving even an inch. Soon anger erupted
among many. Patience slowly melted and there was argument, heated talks, and even several came out from their
vehicles in anger. Fuming, everyone was vexed to know the cause of that traffic jam. People were in hurry to reach
their destination but not even one traffic police officer could be seen in the vicinity. Then some excited youngsters
jumped into the scene and began clearing the scene. They reached at the place where the halt had begun. A badly
wounded person was seen unconscious in damaged car. Situation was understood and immediately an ambulance
was called by onlookers. Within no time, the ambulance arrived followed by the police too. It took two hours to clear
the traffic. But finally the injured person was taken in the ambulance, the damaged car was picked by the police and
the traffic moved.

PROPOSAL WRITING
What is a Proposal?

 A proposal is a request for financial assistance to implement a project

 Funding is sought, in whole or in part, from government funding agencies, charitable foundations,
businesses, individuals, and other sources

Importance

 Proposal writing is a skill and requires considerable knowledge in many disciplines.

 If you do not have proposal writing skills, your organization will not obtain the funding required to carry out
its projects
 These materials will help you identify issues relevant to your proposal

Your proposal should demonstrate that your project will:

• Provide economic benefit to an area or a community

• Have a high probability of success
• Address a strategic priority
• Demonstrate need for financial assistance
• Be economically viable
• Have stakeholder support
• Be consistent with development strategies

FORMAT OF PROPOSAL WRITING

Formatting is concerned with the look, style, and layout of the proposal. It is not merely aesthetics.
It is pleasing to the eye but also:
• Adds to the perception that the document is well thought out
• Enhances the credibility and professionalism of your organization
• Is easy to read and understand
• Facilitates the understanding of the proposal
content
Makes it easy for the reader to find the information they are looking for.
 Proposal Writing for Beginners

Learn how to write strong, persuasive,

successful proposals!

Proposal Writing for Beginners

 Your Mission
 The ‘Spine
 The Budget
 The Donor’s Perspective
 The Format

Principles

 What the donor needs to know

 Not what you want to say!
 What does the donor need to know?
 That you are: necessary effective efficient accountable

 CLARITY
 SIMPLICITY
 MUSCLE
 CREDIBILITY
 RESPECT

Organise Your Thoughts: The ‘Spine’

 Organisational Mission & Strengths: Unique Niche

 Proposals for Core Activities/One Aspect of Core Activities/Project
 problem/need/issue: verification
 action plan: methods, means, quantification/timeframe [££]
 results/impact: quantity & quality
 capacity/monitoring & evaluation/accountability
 budget/funding plan/future funding [‘cliff’]

The Donor’s Perspective [Respect]

• What motivates wealthy individuals to make large charitable gifts?

• What motivates corporations and businesses to support charitable causes?
• What makes charitable trusts (foundations) choose one application over another?
 What motivates this donor?
 How do this donor’s motivations & expectations shape the language, tone & content of a proposal?
 What is the ‘hook’ that will capture this donor’s interest?


Elements of a Proposal

• Summary paragraphs [1‐2]: unique niche, problem, project, anticipated result, [request), ‘hook’, recognition
• Organisational history, mission & strengths
• Problem or issue : facts
• Action proposed: activities & methods, quantified, timeframe [££]
• Outcomes & results expected
• Monitoring & evaluation: in progress, at conclusion
 • Donor recognition & benefits
• Budget, funding plan, request
• Attachments

Do
• use the simplest English, avoid jargon
• use correct syntax, spelling—shows attention to detail
• keep the flow: move logically from one point to the next, avoid temptation to say everything
• use active verbs—gives muscle
• verify facts & assertions with evidence, avoid generalisations
• provide accessible visual format: short & long paragraphs, spacing, bullets, and subheads

Don’t

• use overdramatic language or heap on the adjectives: instead, use evocative examples to communicate your
passion—trust your work to speak for itself!
• overstate your claims: you will lose credibility
• sound tragic, helpless, floundering on the brink: be positive, confident, assertive
• drown the reader in attachments: remember the principle—only what the donor needs to know!
• talk about your needs: reinterpret your organisation’s needs into work that will serve your clients’ needs
 LECTURE-13

SYNOPSIS WRITING

• Synopsis is a noun meaning summary. ... The ancient Greek word synopsis means “general view.” Synonyms
include abridgment, as in a shortened version of a book, and brief, which is a legal word, and sketch, which is
a quick outline of a story.
•
• Synopsis is the gist of your planned project submitted for approval from competent authorities. It gives a
panoramic view of your research for quick analysis by the reviewers. Thus, a protocol or a synopsis forms an
integral part of a research project or a thesis.

Here’s an example of a short synopsis of the story of Jack and Jill:

Jack and Jill is the story of a boy and a girl who went up a hill together. They went to fetch a pail of water, but
unfortunately, their plan is disrupted when Jack falls and hits his head, and rolls back down the hill. Then, Jill falls too,
and comes tumbling down after Jack.

As you can see, the synopsis outlines what happens in the story. It introduces the main characters and the main plot
points without being overly detailed or wordy.

IMPORTANCE OF SYNOPSIS WRITING

Synopses are extremely valuable and necessary pieces of writing for authors, film makers, TV producers, academic
writers, and many others.

 On one level, it’s what actually helps a book get published or a film or TV series get made—a successful,
well-written synopsis can convince the person in charge of publication or production to bring a work to life
 On the other hand, synopses grab the attention of potential audiences and can convince them to read,
watch, or listen
 Also, they help researchers find what they are looking for and decide if a piece is relevant to their field
Without them, audiences and readers would never know what something was about before reading or viewing it!
Thus, the importance of synopses is twofold: it both helps works get made and then helps them reach the right
audiences.

IV. Examples of Synopses in Literature

Example 1: Synopsis of a Novel

When we want to choose a novel, it’s a common practice to read a synopsis of what it’s about. A short synopsis will
give us just enough details to draw readers in and hopefully convince them to read the book! Here’s a brief synopsis
from Cliff’s Notes of The Hunger Games:

In Suzanne Collins’ The Hunger Games, the Capitol forces each of Panem’s 12 districts to choose two teenagers to
participate in the Hunger Games, a gruesome, televised fight to the death. In the 12th district, Katniss Everdeen steps
in for her little sister and enters the Games, where she is torn between her feelings for her hunting partner, Gale
Hawthorne, and the district’s other tribute, Peeta Mellark, even as she fights to stay alive. The Hunger Games will
change Katniss’ life forever, but her acts of humanity and defiance might just change the Games, too.

Example 2: Synopsis of an Academic Paper

Sometimes, teachers, professors, publications, or editors want a synopsis of an academic paper, lecture, or article,
which is more formally called an abstract (See Related Terms). Like with a work of fiction, it gives a summary of the
main points of the papers or article and provides a snapshot of what issues will be discussed. Synopses of these
types of work are particularly important for scholars and anyone doing research, because when searching, they need
to be able to know what an article is about and whether it is relevant to their work.
During his career, J.R.R. Tolkien gave a lecture on the classic Beowulf, which became one of the most respected and
most-consulted academic sources on the poem to date. Here is a synopsis:

Before Tolkien, general scholarly opinion held…that while the poem might after all be unified, it was nevertheless
unfortunate that the poet had chosen to tell stories about a hero, ogres, and a dragon, instead of detailing the wars
in the North to which he often provocatively alludes. Tolkien’s lecture strongly and sometimes ironically defends the
poet’s decision and the poem itself. The poet had every right to choose fantasy rather than history as his subject; in
doing so he universalized his theme; his many allusions to events not recounted gave his work depth; most of all, the
poem offered a kind of negotiation between the poet’s own firmly Christian world and the world of his pagan
ancestors, on whom he looked back with admiration and pity.
This synopsis shares the main focus of Tolkien’s famous lecture and outlines its purpose for those who may be
interested in it and can benefit from his research.

Example 3: Synopsis of a Film

The job of a film synopsis is to build excitement and anticipation in the audience. Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find
Them is a long-awaited addition to J.K. Rowling’s Harry Potter universe and the release of this synopsis and trailer
was big news in the world of popular culture. Here’s the synopsis:
Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them opens in 1926 as Newt Scamander has just completed a global excursion to
find and document an extraordinary array of magical creatures. Arriving in New York for a brief stopover, he might
have come and gone without incident…were it not for a No-Maj (American for Muggle) named Jacob, a misplaced
magical case, and the escape of some of Newt’s fantastic beasts, which could spell trouble for both the wizarding and
No-Maj worlds.

When a new film is announced, producers usually release a written synopsis like this, as well as an official trailer.
Truly, a movie trailer is just a visual form of a synopses. But, a trailer builds even more anticipation in the audience
than a written summary, because it gives a true peek at what will unfold on screen.

FORMAT OF SYNOPSIS WRITING

Title: Should be as short as possible and accurate - Should reflect the objectives of the study. It must be written after
the whole synopsis has been written so that it is a true representative of the plan (i.e. the synopsis).
1. Name of Student
2. Roll No. /Reg. no/ ID no.
3. Present official Address with E-mail, telephone No.
4. Branch/Major
5. Proposed Topic
Introduction: Should contain brief background of the selected topic. It must identify the importance of study, its
relevance and applicability of results. It must clearly state the purpose of the study. Outline briefly the technological
/ engineering / scientific / Socio – economic relevance or significance of the research work is being reported. The
introduction part will include the brief introduction about the project to be developed, technology used, field of
project (if specialized one), any special technical terms about the project.
Objective(s) and Scope: ((should not exceed 1 page): State clearly the questions for which answers are sought
through this project. Define the conceptual, analytical, and experimental and / or methodological boundaries within
the exercise/project have been carried out.
Methodology/ Planning of work (should not exceed 1 page): Methodology will include the steps to be followed to
achieve the objective of the project during the project development.
Facilities required for proposed work: Software/Hardware required for the development of the project.
Bibliography: Here specify the description of the study material referred for the development of the project.
Summary and Main Idea Worksheet 1
PASSAGE 1
Directions: Read each passage and…
1. Create a title for the passage related to the main idea.
2. Accurately summarize the text.
3. Your summary must describe all key ideas from the text.
4. Do not include opinions or personal info in your summary.
5. Highlight or underline key ideas in each passage.

Picture this: a herd of elephants flies past you at sixty miles per
hour, followed by a streak of tigers, a pride of lions, and a bunch of clowns. What do you see? It must be a circus
train! One of the first uses of the circus train is credited to W.C. Coup. He partnered with P.T. Barnum in 1871 to
expand the reach of their newly combined shows using locomotives. Before circus trains, these operators had to lug
around all of their animals, performers, and equipment with a team of more than 600 horses. Since there were no
highways, these voyages were rough and took a long time. Circuses would stop at many small towns between the
large venues. Performing at many of these small towns was not very profitable. Because of these limitations, circuses
could not grow as large as the imaginations of the operators. After they began using circus trains, Barnum and Coup
only brought their show to large cities. These performances were much more profitable and the profits went toward
creating an even bigger and better circus. Multiple rings were added and the show went on. Today, Ringling Bros.
and Barnum and Bailey Circus still rely on the circus train to transport their astounding show, but now they use two.

3. Main idea related title for the passage:

4. Summarize the passage in your own words: _______________________________________________

PASSAGE 2
How do you say “Holy cow” in French? The fastest thing in France may just be the fastest ground transportation in
the world. The TGV (Train à Grande Vitesse: French for very high speed) is France’s national high speed rail service.
On April 3rd, 2007, a TGV test train set a record for the fastest wheeled train, reaching 357.2 miles per hour. In mid
2011, TGV trains operated at the highest speed in passenger train service in the world, regularly reaching 200 miles
per hour. But what you may find most shocking is that TGV trains run on electric power not petrol. Now if you’ll
excuse me; I have a record to catch.

3. Main idea related title for the passage:

4. Summarize the passage in your own words: _______________________________________________

 UNIT 6

LECTURE-14

FORMAL LETTER WRITING

Formal Letters
A formal letter is one written in a formal and ceremonious language and follows a certain stipulated format. Such letters
are written for official purposes to authorities, dignitaries, colleagues, seniors, etc. and not to personal contacts, friends
or family. A number of conventions must be adhered to while drafting formal letters.
Format of a Formal Letter
As we said earlier, a formal letter must follow certain rules and conventions. Such a format helps in relaying the
information in a professional way. It must be remembered that there are various such formats for formal letters that
people follow. The one explained here is the one most commonly used for formal communication these days.
 Sender’s Address
The sender’s address is usually put on the top right-hand corner of the page. The address should be complete and
accurate in case the recipient of the letter wishes to get in touch with the sender for further communication.
 Date
The sender’s address is followed by the date just below it, i.e. on the right side of the page. This is the date on which the
letter is being written. It is important in formal letters as they are often kept on record.

 Receiver’s Address
After leaving some space we print the receiver’s address on the left side of the page. Whether to write “To” above the
address depends on the writer’s preference. Make sure you write the official title/name/position etc of the receiver, as
the first line of the address.

 Greeting
This is where you greet the person you are addressing the letter to. Bear in mind that it is a formal letter, so the greeting
must be respectful and not too personal. The general greetings used in formal letters are “Sir” or “Madam”. If you know
the name of the person the salutation may also be “Mr. XYZ” or “Ms. ABC”. But remember you cannot address them
only by their first name. It must be the full name or only their last name.

 Subject
After the salutation/greeting comes the subject of the letter. In the centre of the line write ‘Subject” followed by a colon.
Then we sum up the purpose of writing the letter in one line. This helps the receiver focus on the subject of the letter in
one glance.

 Body of the Letter

This is the main content of the letter. It is either divided into three paras or two paras if the letter is briefer. The purpose
of the letter should be made clear in the first paragraph itself. The tone of the content should be formal. Do not use any
flowery language. Another point to keep in mind is that the letter should be concise and to the point. And always be
respectful and considerate in your language, no matter the subject

 Closing the Letter

At the end of your letter, we write a complimentary losing. The words “Yours Faithfully” or “Yours Sincerely” are printed
on the right side of the paper. Generally, we use the later if the writer knows the name of the person.

 Signature
Here finally you sign your name. And then write your name in block letters beneath the signature. This is how the
recipient will know who is sending the letter.
 JOB APPLICATION LETTER
606, Krishna Nagar,
Lucknow – 226002
14th January, 2004.

The Personnel Manager,

National Petroleum Company,
80 Netaji Marg,
New Delhi – 110009.

Respected Sir,
Sub: Application for the post of Executive Engineer – Reg.
Ref: Times of India of 12th January, 2010.

Your advertisement for an executive engineer in the Times of India of 12th

January, 2010 interests me because I believe that I have the right qualification and requisite experience for the job.
After doing B.E. in Chemical Engineering, I have worked as an Assistant Engineer in India Oil Corporation for about six
years. During this period I have gained experience in using modern techniques for increasing the production. The
enclose ‘resume’ for kind perusal.
I am sure I would be able to make significant contribution for the growth and expansion of your organization. I would
therefore be grateful if you give an opportunity to be interviewed.
Yours faithfully,
T. SATISH.
 LECTURE-15

RESUME WRITING (CURRICULUM VITAE)

What Does CV Mean for Job Applications?

CV is an abbreviation for Curriculum Vitae. Curriculum vitae, Latin for "the course of your life", often shortened as CV
or vita is a written overview of someone's life's work. Vitae often aim to be a complete record of someone's career,
and can be extensive.

CV Description

Think of a CV as a biography, often taking up to eight pages depending on your experiences and accomplishments. It
is standard for academic positions in higher education such as college and university teaching positions. Research-
intensive positions may also expect applicants to submit a CV. It’s not just for jobs, however; if you are applying for
an internship and have a great deal of experience and accomplishments, showcase them in a CV. This is also true for
fellowship and grant applications.

What to include on a CV

Your CV should include the following:

 Contact information. Include your full name, address, phone number and email address.
 Academic history. List all schooling from high school through postdoctoral (if applicable). Include the title of
the degree you earned, the year you graduated and the name of the school.
 Professional experience. Include the organization where you worked, the job title, the dates you were
employed and summary of your experience and achievements.
 Qualifications and skills. List a combination of hard and soft skills you’ve developed throughout your career.
 Awards and honours. For each award, add the name, year received, the organization that gave you the
award and any pertinent details (such as how often it’s presented).
 Publications and presentations. For publications, provide a full citation including your co-authors, date,
summary, volume, page, DOI number. For presentations, provide the title, date and venue where you
presented.
 Professional associations. List the organization’s name, location or chapter and the dates of active
membership.
 Grants and scholarships. Provide the name of the grant or scholarship, date awarded and the institution
that provided the award.
 Licenses and certifications. Include the name of the license or certificate, the date you earned it and the
institution that awarded it.

COMMON ERRORS TO AVOID WHEN WRITING A CV

1. Typos, spelling mistakes and grammatical errors

It’s surprising how many CVs we receive containing spelling mistakes and other basic grammatical errors.
These can easily be avoided with a bit of effort. If you submit a CV with mistakes, it will look like you’re
careless or couldn’t be bothered to check your work.

Check your CV carefully before you send it. Make sure there aren’t any stray apostrophes (in plural words,
such as ‘key performance indicator’s’, for example) and that words which can be spelled differently (such
as draught and draft) are in the correct form. Spell check software can pick up some mistakes but it’s not
fool proof. Ask a friend to check your spelling if it’s not one of your strengths.

2. Lack of specifics
When an employer looks at your CV, they need to know exactly what you have achieved in your previous
roles and how this is relevant. If you were responsible for driving business growth, say exactly how you did
it and spell out the results you achieved. Detailing additional projects or initiatives you have been involved
in can also add significant value to a CV.

Look at the career information you want to include in your CV. Does it say clearly 1) what your role was, 2)
what your responsibilities were, 3) what you achieved and 4) the benefit it delivered to your employer?
Are these points clear the first time you skim over your CV? If not, rewrite it until they are.

3. Photographs, colour paper and unusual fonts

We have noticed an increasing tendency for job seekers to ‘jazz up’ their CVs by including photographs of
themselves and using unusual fonts or fancy formatting. You might think this will help your CV to stand
out, but it may give the impression of style over substance.

Make sure that the words speak for themselves. Keep to a font that looks clean and make sure the design
of your CV isn’t cluttered.

4. Long and elaborate sentences

If you use excessively long words and elaborate sentences on your CV, you risk overshadowing your actual
achievements. Use bullet points - where appropriate - to help to add structure and clarity. They will also
help give recruiting managers the information they want in an easily digestible format.

Check what you’ve written and see if you can rewrite the information so it’s shorter and snappier. A CV is a
snapshot of your career history and what you’ve achieved in your working life.

5. Incorrect contact information

There are few things more frustrating for a recruiter than to have a great CV in front of them and not be
able to contact the person whose name is at the top of it.

Make sure your email, phone number and address details are correct.

6. Attempting a ‘one size fits all’ CV

Employers who receive generic, ‘one size fits all’ CVs generally discard them. Most recruiting managers
look for tailored CVs explaining exactly why – in terms of achievements and accomplishments in previous
roles – the person is appropriate for the role.

As you’re writing your CV, have the job description to hand and look at what you’re writing with a critical
eye. Every word should be designed to persuade someone recruiting for this particular role that they
should interview you.

7. Lies

Some job seekers lie on their CV – but embellishing your achievements, such as fictitious work experience or
improved exam results is not advised. Diligent recruiters will investigate facts that don’t add up, and if you get
caught telling fibs you will be out of contention for that role, and probably all future roles in that person’s remit.
Even if you do manage to trick your way into a role on the back of an exaggerated CV, you will probably struggle to
perform to the expectations you have set once you start
 Akash Singh
Male
Email: ankursodhi@gmail.com
M: +91-99155-79000

ACADEMIC QUALIFICATIONS

Year Degree Institute CGPA / Percentage

B.Tech (Computer Science &
Pursuing Lovely Professional University, Phagwara 8.8/10
Engg.)
2013 XII(ICSE) DAV Public School, Jamshedpur 92.8 %
2011 X(ICSE) DAV Public School, Jamshedpur 92.4%

INTERNSHIP

Tata Motors, Jamshedpur Jun 2016- Jul 2016

 PPAP for G-1150 Gearbox: Undergone 1 month of Industrial Training at Heavy Vehicles Transmission Ltd. (Gear Box
Division of Tata Motors). The project was to develop Project Part Approval Process (PPAP) for the upcoming gear box of
newly launched World Truck. The list of all the components used in the gear box was compiled and management
approval was take through the New Product Implementation Team. Also, the entire assembly of a Gear Box was studied.

TECHNICAL SKILLS

 Certification in IoT by Udemy 2017

 Certified by Oracle in Programming 2016
 Red Hat certified engineer 2015
POSITIONS OF RESPONSIBILITY

 President at Rotaract Club 2016-

2017
 Student Coordinator, Literary Society – Lovely Professional University
2015-2016
 President, Automobile Club – Lovely Professional University
2014-2015

EXTRA CURRICULAR ACHIEVEMENTS

 Participated in “Communication skills Workshop” organized by Dale Carnegie.

Workshops/Seminars  Organized Seminar on “Artificial Intelligence and the future” under the aegis of Lovely
Professional University.
 Awarded 1st Prize in Chakravyuh – Personality Hunt Competition in the Annual Tech Fest of
Achievements Lovely Professional University
 Awarded 1st Prize in B-Plan Competition organized by Lovely Professional University
 Awarded 2nd Prize in Effi-cycle, Cycle Making Competition organized by Lovely Professional
 University

LANGUAGE PROFICIENCY

 English, Hindi, Punjabi, Odiya

PERSONAL DETAILS

 Date of Birth : 20th March 1994

 Nationality : Indian
 Address : H. No 21, Hume Pipe Area, Sakchi, Jamshedpur – 831001, Jharkhand

THE END