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 English language
 English Grammar
 Preposition

PREPOSITION
Definition: Prepositions are a class of words that indicate relationships between nouns, pronouns and other
words in a sentence. Most often they come before a noun. They never change their form, regardless of the
case, gender etc. of the word they are referring to.

Some common prepositions are:

about by outside
above despite over
across down past
after during since
against except through
along for throughout
among from till
around in to
at inside toward
before into under
behind like underneath
below near until
beneath of up
beside off upon
between on with
beyond onto within
but out without.
Prepositions typically come before a noun:

For example:

 after class
 at home
 before Tuesday
 in London
 on fire
  with pleasure

A preposition usually indicates the temporal, spatial or logical relationship of its object to the rest of the
sentence.

For example:

 The book is on the table.

 The book is beside the table.
 She read the book during class.

In each of the preceding sentences, a preposition locates the noun "book" in space or in time.

Prepositions are classified as simple or compound.

Simple prepositions
Simple prepositions are single word prepositions. These are all showed above.

For example:

 The book is on the table.

Compound prepositions
Compound prepositions are more than one word. in between and because of are prepositions made up of
two words - in front of, on behalf of are prepositions made up of three words.

For example:

 The book is in between War and Peace and The Lord of the Rings.
 The book is in front of the clock.

Examples:

 The children climbed the mountain without fear.

 There was rejoicing throughout the land when the government was defeated.
 The spider crawled slowly along the banister.

The following table contains rules for some of the most frequently used prepositions in English:

Prepositions of Time:
English Usage Example
 on  days of the week  on Monday

 months / seasons
 in August / in winter
 time of day
 in the morning
 in  year
 in 2006
 after a certain period of time
 in an hour
(when?)
  for night  at night
 at  for weekend  at the weekend
 a certain point of time (when?)  at half past nine

 from a certain point of time (past till

 since  since 1980
now)

 over a certain period of time (past

 for  for 2 years
till now)

 ago  a certain time in the past  2 years ago

 before  earlier than a certain point of time  before 2004

 to  telling the time  ten to six (5:50)

 past  telling the time  ten past six (6:10)

 marking the beginning and end of a

 to / till / until  from Monday to/till Friday
period of time

 in the sense of how long something

 till / until  He is on holiday until Friday.
is going to last

 in the sense of at the latest  I will be back by 6 o’clock.

 by
 up to a certain time  By 11 o'clock, I had read five pages.

Prepositions of Place:

English Usage Example

 room, building, street,
 in the kitchen, in London
town, country
 in the book
 in  book, paper etc.
 in the car, in a taxi
 car, taxi
 in the picture, in the world
 picture, world

 meaning next to, by an

object  at the door, at the station
 for table  at the table
 at  for events  at a concert, at the party
 place where you are to do  at the cinema, at school,
something typical (watch at work
a film, study, work)

 on  attached  the picture on the wall

 for a place with a river  London lies on the
 being on a surface Thames.
 for a certain side (left,  on the table
right)  on the left
 English Usage Example
 for a floor in a house  on the first floor
 for public transport  on the bus, on a plane
 for television, radio  on TV, on the radio

 by, next to,  left or right of somebody  Jane is standing by / next

beside or something to / beside the car.

 on the ground, lower than

 under (or covered by) something  the bag is under the table
else

 lower than something else  the fish are below the

 below
but above ground surface

 covered by something
 put a jacket over your
else
shirt
 meaning more than
 over  over 16 years of age
 getting to the other side
 walk over the bridge
(also across)
 climb over the wall
 overcoming an obstacle

 higher than something

 above else, but not directly over  a path above the lake
it

 getting to the other side

 walk across the bridge
 across (also over)
 swim across the lake
 getting to the other side

 something with limits on

 through  drive through the tunnel
top, bottom and the sides

 movement to person or
building  go to the cinema
 to  movement to a place or  go to London / Ireland
country  go to bed
 for bed

 go into the kitchen / the

 into  enter a room / a building
house

 movement in the direction

 go 5 steps towards the
 towards of something (but not
house
directly to it)

 movement to the top of

 onto  jump onto the table
something
 English Usage Example
 from  in the sense of where from  a flower from the garden

ARTICLES

Definition: English has two types of articles: definite (the) and indefinite (a, an.) The use of
these articles depends mainly on whether you are referring to any member of a group, or to
a specific member of a group:

Indefinite articles - a and an (determiners)

A and an are the indefinite articles. They refer to something not specifically known to the
person you are communicating with.
A and an are used before nouns that introduce something or someone you have not
mentioned before:

Examples:

 I ate an apple this morning

 I bought a pet for my son

You use a when the noun you are referring to begins with a consonant (b, c, d, f, g, h, j, k, l,
m, n, p, q, r, s, t, v, w, x, y or z), for example, "a city" and "a factory

You use an when the noun you are referring to begins with a vowel (a, e, i, o, u)

Pronunciation changes this rule:

If the next word begins with a consonant sound when we say it, for example, "university"
then we use a. If the next word begins with a vowel sound when we say it, for example
"hour" then we use an.

Examples:

 We say "university" with a "y" sound at the beginning as though it were spelt
"youniversity".
So, "a university" is correct.
 We say "hour" with a silent h as though it were spelt "our".
So, "an hour" is correct.

Definite Article - the (determiners)

You use the when you know that the listener knows or can work out what particular
person/thing you are talking about.

Example:
  The dog (that specific dog)
 The apple (that specific apple)

You should also use the when you have already mentioned the thing you are talking about.

Example:

 She's got two children; a girl and a boy. The girl's eight and the boy's fourteen.

We use the to talk about geographical points on the globe.

Example:

 the Middle East, the West

We use the to talk about rivers, oceans and seas

Example:

 the Nile, the Pacific

We also use the before certain nouns when we know there is only one of a particular thing.

Example:

 the rain, the sun, the wind

However if you want to describe a particular instance of these you should use a/an.

Example:

 "I could hear the wind." / "There's a cold wind blowing."

NOUN

Definition: A noun is a word used to refer to people, animals, objects, substances, states,
events and feelings. Nouns can be a subject or an object of a verb, can be modified by an
adjective and can take an article or determiner.

For example:

 Table
 Pencil
 The dog
 A white house

Nouns also denote abstract and intangible concepts.

For example:

 birth
 happiness
 evolution
 technology, etc.

Noun Plurals
We are going to explain some rules that will help you to form the plural forms of the nouns.
The general rule is to add "-s" to the noun in singular.

For exaample:

 Book - Books
 House - Houses
 Chair - Chairs

When the singular noun ends in: -sh, -ch, -s, -ss, -x, -o we form their plural form by adding
"-es".

For exaample:

 sandwich - sandwiches
 brush - brushes
 bus - buses
 box - boxes
 potato - potatoes

When the singular noun ends in "y", we change the "y" for "i" and then add "-es" to form the
plural form. But do not change the "y" for "ies" to form the plural when the singular noun
ends in "y" preceded by a vowel.

For exaample:

 nappy - nappies
 day - days
 toy - toys

However, there are many Irregular Nouns which do not form the plural in this way:

For exaample:

 Woman - Women
 Child - Children
 Sheep - Sheep

Nouns may take an " 's " ("apostrophe s") or "Genitive marker" to indicate possession. If
the noun already has an -s ending to mark the plural, then the genitive marker appears only
as an apostrophe after the plural form.

For example:
  my girlfriend's brother
 John's house
 The Browns' house
 The boys' pens

The genitive marker should not be confused with the " 's " form of contracted verbs, as in
John's a good student = John is a good student.

Noun Gender
Many common nouns, like "engineer" or "teacher", can refer to men or women. Once, many
English nouns would change form depending on their gender. For example: A man was
called an "author" while a woman was called an "authoress".

For example:

 David Garrick was a very prominent eighteenth-century actor.

 Sarah Siddons was at the height of her career as an actress in the 1780s.
 The manager was trying to write a want ad, but he couldn't decide whether he was
advertising for a "waiter" or a "waitress"

Types of Nouns

 Proper nouns are the names of specific things, people, or places, such as Jhon,
France. They usually begin with a capital letter.
 Common nouns are general names such as person, mansion, and book. They can
be either concrete or abstract.
 Concrete nouns refer to things which you can sense such as clock and telephone.
 Abstract nouns refer to ideas or qualities such as liberty and truth.
 Countable nouns refer to things which can be counted (can be singular or plural)
 Uncountable nouns refer to some groups of countable nouns, substances, feelings
and types of activity (can only be singular)

PRONOUN
Definition: A pronoun usually refers to something already mentioned in a sentence or piece
of text. A pronoun is a word that substitutes a noun or noun phrase used to prevent
repetition of the noun to which they refer. One of the most common pronouns is it.

Rule for Pronouns

A pronoun must agree with the noun it refer. Therefore, if the noun is singular, therefore the
pronoun must be singular; if the noun is plural, use a plural pronoun; if the noun is feminine,
use a feminine pronoun, and so on.

For example:

 The train was late, it had been delayed.

 The trains were late, they had been delayed.

Types of pronouns
English Pronouns are divided into sub-categories. These are Demonstrative, Personal,
Reflexive, Possessive, Interrogative, Negative, Reciprocal, Relative and Quantifier
 Type About Example
Takes the place of a specific or named person
Personal Pronoun I, you, he, she, etc..
or thing.
Adds information by pointing back to a noun
Reflexive Pronoun myself, yourself, etc..
or another pronoun.
Demonstrative this, that, these,
Points out a specific person, place, or thing.
Pronoun those
Begins a subordinate clause and relates the who, whose, which,
Relative pronoun
clause to a word in the main clause. that, etc..
Interrogative who, what, where,
Is used to ask a question.
Pronoun etc..
Possessive Used to substitute a noun and to show
mine, yours, his, etc..
Pronoun possession or ownership.
nothing, no, nobody,
Negative Pronoun
etc..
Reciprocal Express an interchangeable or mutual action each other, one
pronoun or relationship. another
some, any,
Quantifier something, much,
etc.

TIPS FOR TEACHERS.

Here are some tips to help you on your teaching experience.

1. Dress right. Jeans, sneakers, and just-out-of-bed hair may be okay for teachers in the
U.S., but in many parts of the world, a neat appearance counts far more than credentials. In
Korea dark clothes lend an air of authority. Red is to be avoided at all costs. In Morocco
female teachers don’t wear pants, sleeveless blouses, or short skirts.

2. Behave appropriately. When it asked 250 students at the Sichuan Institute of Foreign
Languages in China what they liked and disliked about native speaker English teachers, the
students’ main gripe was the informality of foreign teachers, who often seem to undermine
their own authority by acting in undignified ways. In the U.S. teachers go on a first-name
basis with students, sit on their desks, sip coffee, and even bounce off the walls without
causing student discomfort or losing prestige. But these behaviors don’t export well.

3. Don’t worry if students seem unresponsive at first. Americans are used to

participatory classrooms with plenty of teacher-student dialogue. Elsewhere, students are
often trained to be silent, good listeners, and memorizers. It’s disconcerting to stand in front
of a sea of blank faces, but expecting it reduces the shock. Introduce new concepts, such as
discussion and role-play gradually. You’ll be surprised at how students will come to embrace
the change.
4. Choose topics carefully. There are still many countries in the world where people are
hesitant to voice opinions because of a fear of reprisal. If you’re conducting a classroom
debate, remember that there’s a distaste for Western-style argumentation in Middle-Eastern
societies, and in Japan it’s offensive for an individual to urge others to accept his opinion.
Certain topics may be taboo for cultural reasons: Most Americans don’t want to discuss their
salaries or religious beliefs; Japanese may be disinclined to talk about their inner feelings;
the French think questions about their family life are rude.

5. Don’t ask, “Do you understand?” In China and Japan, students will nod yes, even if
they’re totally lost, in an attempt to save face for the teacher. Even in a country as far west
as Turkey, yes often means no.

6. Avoid singling students out. Our society fosters a competitive individualism which is
clearly manifested in our classrooms. American students are not shy about displaying their
knowledge. In classrooms outside the U.S., however, showing solidarity with classmates and
conforming to the status quo is often more important than looking good for the teacher. In
Turkey and Montenegro students told me they disliked volunteering answers too often
because it made them look like show-offs and attracted the evil eye of envy. If you want to
play a game, make the competition among groups rather than among individuals. If you
need to discipline a student, do so in private.

7. Be aware of cross-cultural communication styles. French students appreciate wit.

Venezuelan students like boisterous rapid-fire exchanges. In Japan, where debate is not as
valued as in the U.S., students appreciate long pauses in discussions and silent “think time”
after you ask a question. “Hollow drums make the most noise” goes a Japanese proverb, and
Japanese students are uncomfortable blurting out the first thing that comes to mind.
American teachers, who are uncomfortable with silence, tend to anticipate the student’s
words or repeat their original question—both irritating interruptions for the Japanese
student.

8. Present a rationale for what you do in class. Your pedagogy is going to be very
different from what students are used to. They’ll conform much more eagerly to new
classroom content and procedures if they understand the benefits.

9. Expect the best of your students. They’ll be serious about learning English because
their economic advancement often depends upon mastering it.

10. Relax and enjoy yourself. Happiness in the classroom is contagious. .