The Chemical

Properties of the
Soil
➢ study of the interaction of solid and
liquid components of the soil system

 includes many and varied substances,

dominated by the silicate (inorganic) and
carbon (organic) systems

 soil solution which consists of water and

dissolved ions
  formation and properties of clays
 role of clay in soil-plant relationships
➢

 a system of very fine soil particles with an upper

diameter limit of 1 µm or µ
1 µm = 0.001 mm
Soil particle sizes?
Sand 2.0 – 0.02 mm
Silt 0.02 – 0.002 mm
Clay ≤ 0.002 mm
0.0019
Clays but not colloids
0.0012
0.0011
0.001 mm

colloid
  represented by humus

 clay of various kinds (silicate and non-silicate

clay minerals

☞ There are more inorganic colloids compared to

the organic colloids
Inorganic Colloids - clay
➢ Clay secondary mineral formed or
synthesized from primary minerals or
their weathering products

➢ It is made up of layers of plates or flakes

Hematite - Fe2O3 Limonite - Fe2O3.3H2O

Boehmite – AlOOH Gibbsite – Al(OH)3

 Si surrounded by 4 O

 also called as silica sheet

 sometimes called as tetrahedral sheet

 Al surrounded by 6 O or OH-

 also called as alumina sheet

 sometimes called as octahedral sheet

➢ kinds due to differences in the arrangement of the
tetrahedral and octahedral sheets

 1 tetrahedral sheet attached to one side of

octahedral sheet

 1 Si sheet:1 Al sheet
symmetrical arrangement of two tetrahedral
sheets about a central octahedral sheet
 2 Si sheet:1 Al sheet
 presence of an octahedral sheet between
adjacent 2:1 layers

 2 Si :1 Al :1 Mg
 6 OH
4 Al Alumina or octahedral sheet

4 O, 2 OH

4 Si Silica or tetrahedral sheet

6O

Al4Si4O10(OH)8 (1:1)
 Al4Si4O10(OH)8

6O
H-bond {
6 OH

Strong bond Al4Si4O10(OH)8

✰ Fixed distance

✰ H2O can not enter to the crevice

✰ non-expanding type
Kaolinite
▪ 1:1 type of structure)
▪ Low CEC (3-15 meq/100g)
▪ Low specific surface (m2/g) = 7- 30
▪ Low water holding capacity
▪ non-expanding
 6O
4 Si silica or tetrahedral sheet

4 O, 2 OH
4 Al alumina or octahedral sheet
4 O, 2 OH
4 Si silica or tetrahedral sheet
6O

Al4Si8O20(OH)4 (2:1)
 6O
O-O linkage { 6O

➢ weak linkage

➢ allows water to
enter
➢ expanding type
Montmorillonite
▪ 2:1 type of structure)

▪ High CEC (80-100 meq/100g

▪ High Specific surface (m2/g) = 600-800

▪ High water holding capacity

▪ High shrink-swell potential (expanding

type)
 Isomorphous
substitution is
replacement of
one ion with
➢ plus electrical
another ion of
attraction due to
similar size but
charges from of different
isomorphous charge
substitution
6O
O-O linkage { 6O

➢ allows only 2 layers

of water to enter

➢ Limited expansion
Vermiculite
▪ 2:1 type of structure)
▪ High CEC (100-150 me/100g)
▪ Limited expansion
▪ Variable d-spacing
14 Å expanded
10 Å collapsed
▪ Larger crystal than smectite (montmorillonite)
➢ negative charges that
arise from isomorphous
substitution are being
satisfied by K+
6O
O-O linkage { 6O

➢ K+ ions geometrically fits

the crevice of the mineral
rendering it
➢ non-expanding
Mica (Illite)
▪ 2:1 type of structure)
▪ Low CEC (15-40 meq/100g)
▪ Non-expanding
▪ Variable d-spacing
14 Å expanded
10 Å collapsed
▪ Larger crystal than montmorillonite
▪ Specific surface (m2 /g)= 100-120
Montmorillonite Vermiculite Illite

Diagrammatic representation of the 2:1 type

of clays
2:1:1 Chlorite

2:1
Si:Al

Mg layer
Chlorite
▪ 2:1:1 or 2:2 type of structure)
▪ Low CEC (10 – 40 me/100g)
▪ Non-expanding
▪ Moderate ability in absorbing water
 replacement of a cation by another cation of similar
size but of different charge in the tetrahedral or
octahedral layer

[Si3 Al O8 ] -
4+ 2- 0 4+ 3+ 2-  tetrahedral
[Si4 O8 ]
layer

3+ 1- 0 3+ 4+ 1- +  octahedral
[Al4 (OH)12 ] [Al3 Si (OH) ]
12
layer

 permanent charges in crystal lattice

OH + OH- O- + H2O  at high pH
✰ deprotonation

OH + H+ OH2+  at low pH

✰ protonation

 pH-dependent charges
 R
R-OH + OH-
R R-O- + HOH  at high pH
✰ deprotonation
R-OH + H+ R-OH2+  at low pH
✰ protonation
 pH-dependent charges
Kinds of charges based on their source

➢ formed through isomorphous substitution

➢ formed through deprotonation and protonation of

exposed hydroxyl groups of crystal lattice or
functional groups of humus occurring at high pH
and at low pH, respectively
 exchangeable Soil particle
ions
Exchangeable ions ➢ are
charges +- ions inside of the
+- electric double layer
+-
➢ also referred to as
+++ +-
- - - adsorbed ions
-+ +-
- - - -
+- ++++ +- Soluble or available
cations ➢ cations
+- +- outside of the
+- electric double
layer
soluble
ELECTRIC DOUBLE LAYER
 ➢ reversible process by which ions are
exchanged between between solid and liquid phases,
and between 2 solids that are in close contact with
each other

➢ reversible process by which cations

or positively charged ions are exchanged between
solid and liquid phases

+ Na+ + K+

solid liquid solid liquid

phase phase phase phase
 ➢ reversible process by which anions
or negatively charged ions are exchanged between
solid and liquid phases

+ OH- + Cl-

solid liquid solid liquid

phase phase phase phase
 Na+
NH4+
Ion Exchange K+
Ca2+ OH-
Na+
H+ OH-
K+
H+ Mg2+ Ca2+
H+ K+
H+ Cl-
H+
NH4+
Mg2+ H2PO4-
K+ Mg2+ Al3+
H+ OH- OH-
H+
H+ OH-
H+ Mg2+
Mg2+ Al3+ K+ Na+
NH4+
H+
Characteristics of cation exchange reactions are:
1. Reversibility
2. Speed ➢ extremely rapid
3. Extent
a. Concentration of the replacing cation
b. Relative replacing power of the cations

(H+, Al3+, Fe3+) > (Ca2+, Mg2+) > (NH4+, K+) > Na+
c. Relative adsorbability of cations

4. Stoichiometry  amounts exchanged are

chemically equivalent
# of me of a cation

weight of 1 me of cation

Equivalent weight

weight of 1 me of cation
Sample problems:
1. How many me of Al+++ should replace
10 me of K+?
2. How many me of Na+ should replace
0.08g Ca++?

3. How many g of K+ should replace 5 me

of Mg++?

wt. of cation = # of me x wt. of 1 me of cation

4. How many g of H+ should replace 0.072 g
of NH4+?
5. How many g of Na++ should replace 0.048 g
of Mg++
++?
2. How many me of Na+ should replace
0.08g Ca++?
me of Na+ = wt. of present cation (g) / wt. of 1
me of cation (g/me)
= 0.08 g / (40/2)/1000
= 0.08 g / 0.02 g/me
= 0.08 me / 0.02
= 4 me of Na+
3. How many g of K+ should replace 5 me
of Mg++?
g of K+ = 5 me of Mg x 0.012g/ me of Mg
g of K+ = 0.06
me of K+= 5
4. How many g of H+ should replace 0.072 g
of NH4+?
g of H+ = 0.072 g NH4+
me of H+ = 0.072 g NH4+ / 0.018 g/me of NH4+
me of H+ = 0.072 me /0.018
me of H+ = 4
g of H+ = 4 me of H+ x 0.001 g/me of H+
= 0.004 g of H+ = 0.072 g NH +
4
5. How many g of Na+ should replace 0.048 g
of Mg++?
➢ capacity of the soil to hold and to exchange
cations
➢ the total negative charges on the soil
CEC = Σ me cations/100g

= Σ cmol cations/kg
Sample problem:
1. A 100-g soil sample was found to contain 0.10g Ca++,
0.004g H+, 0.048g Mg++, 0.092g Na+ and 0.027gAl+++.
Calculate the following:
a. CEC of the soil
No. of me of a cation

# me Ca++ = 5 me Ca++/100g

4 me H+/100g
4 me Mg++/100g
4 me Na+/100g
3 me Al+++/100g
CEC = 20 me/100g
Sample problem:
2. A 50-g soil sample was found to contain
0.09g NH4+, 0.003g H+ and 0.04g Ca++.
Calculate the :

a. CEC of the soil

kg/ha

= # of me/100g x eq. wt. x 20

➢ Since one hectare of soil is assumed to weigh

2,000,000 kg or 2M kg, then:

parts per million (ppm) is given as:

ppm
Sample problem:
1. A 100-g soil sample was found to contain 0.10g Ca++,
0.004g H+, 0.048g Mg++, 0.092g Na+ and 0.027gAl+++.
Calculate the following:
a. CEC of the soil c. ESP CEC = 20 me/100g
b. % BS d. % Al saturation % BS = 65%
e. kg cation/ha ESP = 20%
f. ppm cation % Al = 15%
5 me Ca++/100g
kg/ha = # of me/100g x eq. wt. x 20 4 me H+/100g
kg Ca++/ha = 5 x 20 x 20 4 me Mg++/100g
4 me Na+/100g
= 2,000 kg/ha
3 me Al+++/100g

ppm cation

ppm Ca++ = 1,000 ppm Ca++

 Fine textured soil with its high surface area
has higher CEC

 High amount of organic matter increases

potential pH-dependent charges

 CEC increases with increase in pH

 higher amount of clay, higher CEC; more

montmorillonitic type, the higher CEC
 SPECIFIC SURFACE CEC
CLAY MINERALS
AREA (m2/g) (cmol/kg)
Kaolinite 7-30 8
Montmorillonite 600-800 100
Vermiculite 600-800 150
Illite 65- 100 30
Hydrous oxides 15-40 4
Organic matter 200
☞ CEC of the whole soil is the sum of the exchange
sites of both organic and mineral colloids

CEC = % o.m. (CEC of o.m.) + % clay (CECclay)

Sample problem:
1. A soil contains 5% organic matter and 30% montmori-
llonitic clay. What is its CEC?

(Note: CECom = 200 me/100g while the

CECmontmorillonite = 100 me/100g)

CEC = (0.05 x 200 me/100g) + (0.30 x 100 me/100g)

= 10 me/100g + 30 me/100g) = 40 me/100g)

Classification of the CEC:
1. Low < 10 me/100g
2. Moderately low 10 - 20 me/100g

3. Moderately high 21 - 30 me/100g

5. high 31 - 50 me/100g

6. Very high > 50 me/100g

☞ The magnitude of CEC of soils indicate

their relative capacities to retain cation
forms of fertilizer nutrients
(a) acidic cations
H+ , Fe3+ and Al3+

 dominate acidic soils (low pH)

(b) exchangeable bases

 Ca, Mg, Na, K

➢ neutralize soil acidity

 ➢ refers to the extent at which the
exchange capacity of the soil is
saturated with bases

% BS
Sample problem:
1. A 100-g soil sample was found to contain 0.10g Ca++, 0.004g
H+, 0.048g Mg++, 0.092g Na+ and 0.027gAl+++. Calculate the
ff:
a. CEC of the soil 5 me Ca++/100g
b. % BS 4 me H +/100g

4 me Mg++/100g
4 me Na+/100g
% BS 3 me Al+++/100g
CEC = 20 me/100g

= 65 %
Exchangeable Sodium Percentage (ESP)

✰ ESP refers to the proportion of the exchange sites

occupied by exchangeable Na

☞ Soils with high ESP (> 15%) are considered sodic

soil and need to be reclaimed
Sample problem:
1. A 100-g soil sample was found to contain 0.10g Ca++, 0.004g H+,
0.048g Mg++, 0.092g Na+ and 0.027gAl+++. Calculate the
following:
a. CEC of the soil CEC = 20 me/100g
% BS = 65%
b. % BS 5 me Ca++/100g
c. ESP 4 me H+/100g
4 me Mg++/100g
4 me Na+/100g
3 me Al+++/100g

= 20%
Percentage Aluminum saturation

✰ The extent by which the exchange site is saturated

with exchangeable Al
Sample problem:
1. A 100-g soil sample was found to contain 0.10g Ca++, 0.004g H+,
0.048g Mg++, 0.092g Na+ and 0.027gAl+++. Calculate the ff:
a. CEC of the soil CEC = 20 me/100g
b. % BS % BS = 65%
c. ESP 5 me Ca++/100g
4 me H+/100g
d. % Al saturation
4 me Mg++/100g
4 me Na+/100g
3 me Al+++/100g

= 15%
Aluminum saturation tolerance of some crops

Critical Al saturation for good

Crop
growth, %

Groundnut <65
Soybean <45
Corn <25
Mungbean <15
➢ capacity of the soil to hold and to exchange
anions

➢ expression of the positive charges of the soil

➢ increases with the acidity of the soil

AEC = Σ me anions/100g

= Σ cmol anions/kg
 ➢ ability of the electrolytic solution to conduct
current
➢ an index of the concentration of ions present in the
solution expressed in mhos/cm

EC (mhos/cm) Characteristics associated

0–2 Salinity effects are mostly negligible
2–4 Yields of very sensitive crops reduced
4–8 Yields of many crops reduced
8 – 16 Only tolerant crops yields satisfactorily
> 16 Only very tolerant crops survive
➢ refers to degree of acidity or alkalinity of the soil
commonly expressed as pH
Mathematically,
14
pH = log 1/[H+]
basic : [OH-] > [H+]
= - log [H+]

pOH = log 1/[OH-] 7  neutral : [OH-] = [H+]

= - log [OH-]
acidic : [H+] > [OH-]
☞ pH + pOH = 14
0
Sample problems:
1.Calculate the pH of the solution with a
hydrogen ion concentration of 0.0054M

2. Calculate the pH of the solution with a

hydrogen ion concentration of 0.0000085M

3. What is the pOH of the solution having

hydroxyl ion concentration of 0.00000063M?

4. What is the pOH of the solution in no. 1?

Sample problems:
1.Calculate the pH of the solution with a
hydrogen ion concentration of 0.0054M

2. Calculate the pH of the solution with a

hydrogen ion concentration of 0.0000085M

3. What is the pOH of the solution having

hydroxyl ion concentration of 0.00000063M?

4. What is the pOH of the solution in no. 1?

Qualitative description of soil reaction (Hoskins, 1997):
SOIL REACTION NORMAL CROP
pH RANGE
DESCRIPTION RESPONSE
< 4.5 Extremely acid Very Poor*
4.5 - 5.0 Very strongly acid Poor*
5.1 - 5.5 Strongly acid Moderately good
5.6 - 6.0 Moderately acid Good
6.1 - <7.0 Slightly acid Very good
7.1 - 7.5 Slightly alkaline Very good
7.6 – 8.0 Mildly alkaline Moderately good**
8.1 - 8.5 Moderately alkaline Poor**
8.5 - 9.0 Strongly alkaline Very poor**
> 9.0 Very strongly alkaline Few grow
1. Hydrogen ➢ contributes directly to the H+
concentration in the soil solution
2. Aluminum ➢ contribute H+ indirectly i.e. upon its
hydrolysis:
Al3+ + H2O Al(OH)2+ + H+

Al(OH)2+ + H2O Al(OH)2+ + H+

Al(OH)2+ + H2O Al(OH)3 + H+

☞ 3 H+ are released per complete hydrolysis

of 1 Al+++
3. Iron ➢ contribute H+ indirectly i.e. upon its
hydrolysis:

Fe3+ + H2O Fe(OH)2+ + H+

Fe(OH)2+ + H2O Fe(OH)2+ + H+

Fe(OH)2+ + H2O Fe(OH)3 + H+

☞ 3 H+ are released per complete hydrolysis

of 1 Fe+++
1. adsorbed Ca
+ 2H2O + Ca++ + 2OH-
2. adsorbed Mg
+ 2H2O + Mg++ + 2OH-
3. adsorbed K

+ H2O + K+ + OH-

4. adsorbed Na

+ H2O + Na+ + OH-

 Acid forming processes in soils:
1. Continuous application of chemical fertilizers
particularly those ammonium-containing fertilizer
(NH4)2SO4 + H2O 2 NH4OH + H2SO4
2 NH4OH 2 NH4+ + 2OH-
☞ Under aerobic condition, nitrification would
occur
Nitrification ⇨ conversion of NH4+ to NO3-
Nitrosomonas
2 NH4+ + 3O2 2 NO2- + 4H+ + 2 H2O
Nitrobacter
2 NO2- + O2 2 NO3-
Acid forming processes in soils:
2. Leaching of metallic cations taking place in
the exchange sites and replaced by H and Al

3. Formation of H2SO4 by the microbial oxidation

of inorganic sulfur compounds

4. Production of CO2 during organic matter

decomposition
5. Inorganic acids such like H2SO4 and HNO3
which are components of acid rain
6. Cation uptake by plants or crop removal
1. Active acidity ➢ H+ concentration in soil
solution
 measured by soil pH
 tells us when to lime the soil
2. Reserve (exchangeable) acidity
➢ concentration of H+ , Fe3+ and Al3+ ions
adsorbed by soil colloids

 tells us how much lime to apply to

the soil
☞ Generally, lime is applied to the soil when it
is acidic

☞ Specifically, soils should be limed when

its pH falls below the pH preference of a
specific crop
 Crop pH preference Crop pH preference
abaca 6.0 - 7.0 lanzones 5.5 – 6.5
ampalaya 6.5 – 7.2 mango 5.5 – 7.5
banana 6.0 – 7.5 mungo 5.5 – 6.5
beans 5.5 – 6.5 peanuts 6.0 – 6.5
cabbage 6.0 – 7.5 pineapple 5.0 – 6.5
cacao 6.0 – 7.0 Rice (paddy) 6.0 – 6.5
coffee 5.5 – 7.0 Rice (upland) 5.0 – 6.5
corn 5.5 – 7.5 rubber 5.6 – 8.0
cowpea 5.0 – 6.5 sugarcane 6.0 – 8.0
eggplant 5.5 – 6.5 tomato 4.5 – 6.5
☞ Soil pH is an initial basis for the prediction
of the chemical behavior of soils particularly
in relation to nutrient availability and to
microbial activity
☞ Generally, at low soil pH, most of the macro-
nutrients are deficient while most micro-
nutrients are in toxic quantities
☞ Generally, an increase in soil acidity retards
the microbial activities, organic matter
decomposition and biochemical processes
pH and MICROBIAL ACTIVITY

Strong Moderate Slight Slight moderate strong

acidity acidity acidity alkaline alkaline alkaline
 ➢ Plants differ in their tolerance to acid and/or
alkaline conditions
➢ pH effect is compounded and overshadowed
by Al toxicity, Mn toxicity, Ca deficiency
and Mo deficiency
➢ Plant roots are the first organs to show injury
owing to acid, Al toxicity or lack of Ca

☞ Most cultivated plants grow well on soils that

are not too acidic and not too alkaline
Relative acid sensitivity of some crops
Relative
Crops
sensitivity
Highly Cotton, pea, common bean,
sensitive Alfalfa, spinach

Sensitive Cabbage, wheat, soybean,

sorghum
Moderately
Corn, rice, peanut, potato, oats
tolerant
Tolerant Pineapple, tea, coffee
MOVEMENT OF NUTRIENTS TO THE ROOTS:
1. Diffusion - movement of nutrients due to an
imbalance of concentration (diffusion
gradient)
2. Mass Flow - water absorbed by the root creates a
water deficit near the root, more water moves
to the root carrying nutrients with the water
➢ Important for nutrients in large quantities
in soil solution
3. Root extension - roots could contact 3% of the
soil or nutrients in the soil
Estimated proportion of nutrients that move by mass flow,
diffusion and root interception
Approximate % supplied by
Nutrient
Mass flow Diffusion Root interception
Nitrogen 98.8 0.0 1.2
Phosphorus 6.3 90.9 2.8
Potassium 20.0 77.7 2.3
Calcium 71.4 0.0 28.6
Magnesium 38.0 50.0 12.0
Sulfur 95.0 0.0 5.0
Iron 53.0 36.0 11.0
Boron 90.0 0.0 10.0
Molybdenum 95.2 0.0 4.8
Copper 90.0 0.0 10.0
Zinc 33.0 33.0 33.0
Manganese 67.0 0.0 33.0
 ➢ ability of the soil to
resist drastic changes in soil pH upon the
addition of lime or an acid
Factors contributing to buffering capacity
of soils

➢ As the organic matter content increases,

buffering capacity of the soil also increases

➢ Generally, fine-textured soils have high buffering

capacity than the coarse-textured soils
≈
Problem soils in the Philippines (Source: Recel,1989)

Problem Soils Area, ha %

Soils with severe fertility
11,760,000 39.20
limitations (acid soils)
Acid sulfate soils 27,000 0.09
Heavy cracking soils 765,338 2.55
Peat soils 15,000 0.05
Saline/sodic soils 400,000 1.33
Soils of steeply sloping lands 8,903,262 29.69
Poorly drained soils 90,880 0.30
Coarse textured soils 482,849 1.61
Total 22,444,329 75.00
 ➢ low pH; typically associated w/
high rainfall and good drainage

Problems in strongly acid soil:

1. acid-induced toxicities associated with
excess soluble Al, Mn, or Fe in the soil
2. poor biological state resulting from
deficiency of most macronutrients and Mo
 prolonged recurrent leaching

input of acids
Causes
biological activity

cation exchange

Management of soil acidity:

1. flooding the soil
2. addition of amendments as lime
 ➢ any material containing Ca and/
or Mg which when added to the soil will
reduce the acidity of the hydrogen ion

Forms of lime:
1. carbonates of lime ➢ ground or crushed
limestone
CaCO3; CaMg(CO3)2 ; MgCO3

2. oxides of lime ➢ quicklime or burned lime

➢ CaO, MgO
Forms of lime:
3. hydroxides of lime ➢ slaked lime or
hydrated lime
➢ Ca(OH)2, Mg(OH)2

Factors Affecting Effectiveness of Lime

1. form of lime
oxides > hydroxides > carbonates
2. size of lime particles ➢ The smaller the
particles the more reactive is the lime
3. purity
 REACTION OF LIME IN THE SOIL

Neutralization of soil acidity:

before liming after liming

Relative neutralizing power or value, RNP or RNV
➢ capacity of the liming materials to neutralize
acidity based on an equal weight of pure CaCO3
with neutralizing power of 100

MW is molecular weight or sum of atomic

weights of elements present in a
compound
RNP of some liming material in their pure form
LIMING MATERIAL FORMULA RNP
Calcium Carbonate CaCO3 100
Calcium Hydroxide Ca(OH)2 132
Calcium oxide CaO 179

Magnesium Carbonate MgCO3 119

Magnesium Hydroxide Mg(OH)2 172

Magnesium oxide MgO 250

Calcium-magnesium carbonate
CaMg(CO3)2 109
(Dolomite)
Methods of determining lime requirement of soils
1. Veitch method
➢ involves addition of increasing amounts of 0.04N
Ca(OH)2 to the soil samples, allowing them to stand for
30 minutes and their pH’s would be determined
➢ The lime requirement will be calculated using the
volume of Ca(OH)2 needed to raise the pH of the soil to
the desired level
2. Calcium carbonate incubation in the laboratory
3. Field or pot lime trials
4. Exchangeable aluminum index method
5. Aluminum saturation method
Methods of Applying Lime
➢ Lime, especially the calcium carbonate form, has a very low
solubility
➢ It reacts readily with the soil only if the activity of the
hydrogen ions is still high as in acid soils
➢ Once the soil surrounding the particles of the lime is
neutralized, the remaining lime particles hardly react
anymore
➢ It is important therefore, that the lime is mixed thoroughly
with the soil in order that the reaction may be maximized
☞ Lime is best applied by broadcasting it on the soil before
plowing and harrowing
 These operations accomplish thorough mixing of the
lime with the soil
Frequency of Liming

➢ Liming should be done as often as necessary

➢ The rule is that soil should not be allowed

to have pH below the pH preference of a
given crop

➢ The capacity of soils to produce is greatly

reduced if the pH falls below this value
Chemical effects of lime
❖ Neutralize hydrogen ions and increase soil
pH

❖ Inactivates toxic monomeric aluminum

❖ Increase availability of P from Al and Fe-P

compounds

❖ Increase concentration of soil solution and

exchangeable Ca and Mg
Chemical effects of lime
❖ Increase availability of Mo
❖ Decrease availability of micronutrient
cations (Cu, Zn, Fe, and Mn)

❖ Decrease phosphate fixation

❖ Increases the CEC of the soil

Characteristics of saline and sodic soils
Sodic
Parameter Saline soil Saline-sodic
(alkali)
Soil pH <8.5 <8.5 8.5-10.0
EC, dS/m >4 >4 >4
ESP, % <15 <15 >15
High Ca, Mg, High Ca, Mg,
and Na High
Soluble and Na
sulfates, sodium
salts sulfates,
chlorides, carbonate
chlorides,
Bicarbonates Na2CO3
Bicarbonates
 ➢ refer to soils containing a
concentration of neutral soluble salts sufficient
to seriously interfere with the growth of most
plants
Effects: 1. deficiency/toxicity of nutrients
2. inhibit plant growth and development
(effect of  on )
Management:
1. Eradication - removal of excess salts by:
➢ leaching and flushing
2. Conversion - replacement of salts to less
injurious forms
➢ refers to soils containing high level of Na+
ions toxic to plants

➢ The resulting hydroxyl ions give pH of 10 and

above

Effects: 1. deficiency/toxicity of nutrients

2. destruction of some soil physical
properties
Management options:
➢ Grow plants that can thrive on these soils

Salt tolerant crops: cotton and barley

Moderately tolerant crops:
broccoli, oats, sorghum, soybean
and wheat