Pavement materials: Soil

Lecture notes in Transportation Systems Engineering

3 August 2009

Overview
Pavements are a conglomeration of materials. These materials, their
associated properties, and their interactions determine the
properties of the resultant pavement. Thus, a good understanding of
these materials, how they are characterized, and how they perform
is fundamental to understanding pavement. The materials which are
used in the construction of highway are of intense interest to the
highway engineer. This requires not only a thorough understanding
of the soil and aggregate properties which affect pavement stability
and durability, but also the binding materials which may be added to
improve these pavement features.

Sub grade soil

Soil is an accumulation or deposit of earth material, derived
naturally from the disintegration of rocks or decay of vegetation,
that can be excavated readily with power equipment in the field or
disintegrated by gentle mechanical means in the laboratory. The
supporting soil beneath pavement and its special under courses is
called sub grade. Undisturbed soil beneath the pavement is called
natural sub grade. Compacted sub grade is the soil compacted by
controlled movement of heavy compactors.

Desirable properties

The desirable properties of sub grade soil as a highway material are

Stability
Incompressibility
 Permanency of strength
Minimum changes in volume and stability under adverse
conditions of weather and ground water
Good drainage, and
Ease of compaction

Soil Types
The wide range of soil types available as highway construction
materials have made it obligatory on the part of the highway
engineer to identify and classify different soils. A survey of locally
available materials and soil types conducted in India revealed wide
variety of soil types, gravel, moorum and naturally occurring soft
aggregates, which can be used in road construction. Broadly, the
soil types can be categorized as Laterite soil, Moorum / red soil,
Desert sands, Alluvial soil, Clay including Black cotton soil.

Figure: Indian standard grain size soil

classification system

Gravel: These are coarse materials with particle size under

2.36 mm with little or no fines contributing to cohesion of
materials.
Moorum: These are products of decomposition and weathering
of the pavement rock. Visually these are similar to gravel
except presence of higher content of fines.
Silts: These are finer than sand, brighter in color as compared
to clay, and exhibit little cohesion. When a lump of silty soil
mixed with water, alternately squeezed and tapped a shiny
surface makes its appearance, thus dilatancy is a specific
property of such soil.
 Clays: These are finer than silts. Clayey soils exhibit stickiness,
high strength when dry, and show no dilatancy. Black cotton
soil and other expansive clays exhibit swelling and shrinkage
properties. Paste of clay with water when rubbed in between
fingers leaves stain, which is not observed for silts.

Tests on soil
Sub grade soil is an integral part of the road pavement structure as
it provides the support to the pavement from beneath. The sub
grade soil and its properties are important in the design of
pavement structure. The main function of the sub grade is to give
adequate support to the pavement and for this the sub grade should
possess sufficient stability under adverse climatic and loading
conditions. Therefore, it is very essential to evaluate the sub grade
by conducting tests.

The tests used to evaluate the strength properties of soils may be

broadly divided into three groups:

Shear tests
Bearing tests
Penetration tests

Shear tests are usually carried out on relatively small soil samples
in the laboratory. In order to find out the strength properties of soil,
a number of representative samples from different locations are
tested. Some of the commonly known shear tests are direct shear
test, triaxial compression test, and unconfined compression test.

Bearing tests are loading tests carried out on sub grade soils in-situ
with a load bearing area. The results of the bearing tests are
influenced by variations in the soil properties within the stressed soil
mass underneath and hence the overall stability of the part of the
soil mass stressed could be studied.
Penetration tests may be considered as small scale bearing tests in
which the size of the loaded area is relatively much smaller and
ratio of the penetration to the size of the loaded area is much
greater than the ratios in bearing tests. The penetration tests are
carried out in the field or in the laboratory.

California Bearing Ratio Test

California Bearing Ratio (CBR) test was developed by the California
Division of Highway as a method of classifying and evaluating soil-
sub grade and base course materials for flexible pavements. CBR
test, an empirical test, has been used to determine the material
properties for pavement design. Empirical tests measure the
strength of the material and are not a true representation of the
resilient modulus. It is a penetration test wherein a standard piston,
having an area of 3 in (or 50 mm diameter), is used to penetrate
the soil at a standard rate of 1.25 mm/minute. The pressure up to a
penetration of 12.5 mm and it's ratio to the bearing value of a
standard crushed rock is termed as the CBR.

In most cases, CBR decreases as the penetration increases. The

ratio at 2.5 mm penetration is used as the CBR. In some case, the
ratio at 5 mm may be greater than that at 2.5 mm. If this occurs,
the ratio at 5 mm should be used. The CBR is a measure of
resistance of a material to penetration of standard plunger under
controlled density and moisture conditions. The test procedure
should be strictly adhered if high degree of reproducibility is
desired. The CBR test may be conducted in re-moulded or
undisturbed specimen in the laboratory. The test is simple and has
been extensively investigated for field correlations of flexible
pavement thickness requirement.

Test Procedure
The laboratory CBR apparatus consists of a mould 150 mm
diameter with a base plate and a collar, a loading frame and dial
gauges for measuring the penetration values and the expansion
on soaking.
The specimen in the mould is soaked in water for four days and
the swelling and water absorption values are noted. The
surcharge weight is placed on the top of the specimen in the
mould and the assembly is placed under the plunger of the
loading frame.
Load is applied on the sample by a standard plunger with dia of
50 mm at the rate of 1.25 mm/min. A load penetration curve is
drawn. The load values on standard crushed stones are 1370 kg
and 2055 kg at 2.5 mm and 5.0 mm penetrations respectively.

CBR value is expressed as a percentage of the actual load

causing the penetrations of 2.5 mm or 5.0 mm to the standard
loads mentioned above. Therefore,

Two values of CBR will be obtained. If the value of 2.5 mm is

greater than that of 5.0 mm penetration, the former is adopted.
If the CBR value obtained from test at 5.0 mm penetration is
higher than that at 2.5 mm, then the test is to be repeated for
checking. If the check test again gives similar results, then
higher value obtained at 5.0 mm penetration is reported as the
CBR value. The average CBR value of three test specimens is
reported as the CBR value of the sample.
 Figure: CBR Test

Plate Bearing Test

Plate bearing test is used to evaluate the support capability of sub-
grades, bases and in some cases, complete pavement. Data from
the tests are applicable for the design of both flexible and rigid
pavements. In plate bearing test, a compressive stress is applied to
the soil or pavement layer through rigid plates relatively large size
and the deflections are measured for various stress values. The
deflection level is generally limited to a low value, in the order of
1.25 to 5 mm and so the deformation caused may be partly elastic
and partly plastic due to compaction of the stressed mass with
negligible plastic deformation. The plate-bearing test has been
devised to evaluate the supporting power of sub grades or any other
pavement layer by using plates of larger diameter. The plate-
bearing test was originally meant to find the modulus of sub grade
reaction in the Westergaard's analysis for wheel load stresses in
cement concrete pavements.

Test Procedure

The test site is prepared and loose material is removed so that

the 75 cm diameter plate rests horizontally in full contact with
the soil sub-grade. The plate is seated accurately and then a
seating load equivalent to a pressure of 0.07 kg/cm2 (320 kg
for 75 cm diameter plate) is applied and released after a few
seconds. The settlement dial gauge is now set corresponding to
zero load.
A load is applied by means of jack, sufficient to cause an
average settlement of about 0.25 cm. When there is no
perceptible increase in settlement or when the rate of
settlement is less than 0.025 mm per minute (in the case of
soils with high moisture content or in clayey soils) the load dial
reading and the settlement dial readings are noted.

Deflection of the plate is measured by means of deflection

dials; placed usually at one-third points of the plate near it's
outer edge.
To minimize bending, a series of stacked plates should be used.
Average of three or four settlement dial readings is taken as the
settlement of the plate corresponding to the applied load. Load
is then increased till the average settlement increase to a
further amount of about 0.25 mm, and the load and average
settlement readings are noted as before. The procedure is
repeated till the settlement is about 1.75 mm or more.
Allowance for worst subgrade moisture and correction for small
plate size should be dealt properly.
Calculation A graph is plotted with the mean settlement
versus bearing pressure (load per unit area) as shown in
Figure  [*]. The pressure corresponding to a settlement is
obtained from this graph. The modulus of subgrade reaction is
calculated from the relation.

(1)
 Figure: Plate load test

Summary
The quality of any pavement is affected by the materials used for
construction. Coming to the subgrade, soil is the most important
material. Here we have seen various tests used for finding the
strength of soil, the prominent ones being CBR and plate load test.
CBR test assesses the strength of soil, whereas plate load test is
used to evaluate its support capability.

Problems

1. The load value on standard crushed stone for 2.5mm

penetration in CBR test is
1. 1370kg
2. 1730 kg
3. 2055kg
4. 1500kg
2. Modulus of subgrade reaction is
1.

2.

3.

4.

Solutions
 1. The load value on standard crushed stone for 2.5mm
penetration in CBR test is
1. 1370kg

2. 1730 kg
3. 2055kg
4. 1500kg
2. Modulus of subgrade reaction is
1.

2.

3.

4.

No References!

Prof. Tom V. Mathew 2009-08-03

 24-03-2023

THEORY OF
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
THEORY AND DESIGN

1 24-Mar-23 2 24-Mar-23

1
 24-03-2023

What is pavement ? Types of Pavement

 A structure consisting of superimposed layers of

processed materials above the natural soil sub- PAVEMENT
grade, whose primary function is to distribute the
applied vehicle loads to the sub-grade.

FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT RIGID PAVEMENT

3 24-Mar-23 4 24-Mar-23

2
 24-03-2023

Flexible pavement: Load transfer:

 Load is transferred to the lower layer by grain to

 Flexible pavements are those which on a whole have grain distribution as shown in the figure given below;
low or negligible flexural strength and rather flexible
in their structural action under load.

5 24-Mar-23 6 24-Mar-23

3
 24-03-2023

TYPICAL LAYERS OF A FLEXIBLE

Load Transfer (continue …) PAVEMENT :
 Typical layers of a conventional flexible pavement
 The wheel load acting on the pavement will be
includes seal coat, surface course, tack coat, binder
distributed to a wider area, and the stress decreases
course, prime coat, base course, sub-base course,
with the depth. Flexible pavement layers reflect the
compacted sub-grade, and natural sub-grade.
deformation of the lower layers on to the surface
layer

7 24-Mar-23 8 24-Mar-23

4
 24-03-2023

TYPICAL LAYERS OF A FLEXIBLE TYPICAL LAYERS OF A FLEXIBLE

PAVEMENT PAVEMENT (Continue ….)

 Seal coat is a thin surface treatment used to water-  Surface course is the layer directly in contact with
proof the surface and to provide skid resistance. traffic loads and are constructed with dense graded
asphalt concrete.
 Tack coat is a very light application of asphalt
emulsion diluted with water. And It provides bonding  Binder course purpose is to distribute load to the
between two layers of binder course.
base course. Binder course requires lesser quality of
mix as compared to course above it.
 Prime coat is an application of low viscous cutback
bitumen to an absorbent surface like granular bases
on which binder layer is placed and provides  Base course provides additional load distribution
bonding between two layers. and contributes to the sub-surface drainage

9 24-Mar-23 10 24-Mar-23

5
 24-03-2023

TYPICAL LAYERS OF A FLEXIBLE

PAVEMENT (Continue ….) FACTORS AFFECTING PAVEMENT DESIGN

 Sub-base course the primary functions are to  1. Design Wheel Load

provide structural support, improve drainage, and  Max. Wheel load
reduce the intrusion of fines from the sub-grade in  Axle configuration
the pavement structure  Contact pressure
 ESWL.
 Sub-grade The top soil or sub-grade is a layer of  Repetition of loads
natural soil prepared to receive the stresses from the  2. Climatic Factor
layers above  3. Pavement component material

11 24-Mar-23 12 24-Mar-23

6
 24-03-2023

Design Wheel Load. Design Wheel Load (Continue)

 Axle configuration - the axle configuration is important to

 Max. Wheel load - It is used to determine the depth know the way in which the load is applied on the pavement
of the pavement required to ensure that the surface.
subgrade soil does not fail.

 Contact pressure - It determines the contact area and the

contact pressure between the wheel and the pavement
surface. For simplicity elliptical contact area is consider to
be circular.

13 24-Mar-23 14 24-Mar-23

7
 24-03-2023

Example 1

Design Wheel Load (Continue) Find ESWL at depths of 5cm, 20cm and 40cm for a dual wheel
carrying 2044 kg each. The center to center tyre spacing is 20cm
and distance between the walls of the two tyres is 10cm.
 Equivalent single wheel load (ESWL)

15 24-Mar-23 16 24-Mar-23

8
 24-03-2023

Design Wheel Load (Continue) Climatic Factor

 Repetition of loads :  1. Temperature -

 Wide temperature variations may cause damaging
effects.
 Each load application causes some deformation and the
 Pavement becomes soft in hot weather and brittle in very
total deformation is the summation of all these.
cold weather.

 Although the pavement deformation due to single axle

load is very small, the cumulative effect of number of load  2. Variation in moisture condition –
repetition is significant.  It depends on type of the pavement, type of soil type,
ground water variation etc.
 Therefore, modern design is based on total number of  It can be controlled by providing suitable surface and sub-
standard axle load (usually 80 KN single axle) surface drainage.

17 24-Mar-23 18 24-Mar-23

9
 24-03-2023

Characteristic of Pavement material

Characteristic of Pavement material (Continue ….)
 1. California bearing ratio- It determines the strength  The following material properties are consider for
of soil sub-grade, sub-base or base and it is used for both flexible and rigid pavements.
the design of pavement.  When pavements are considered as linear elastic, the
 2. Elastic modulus -It measures the materials elastic moduli and poisson ratio are specified.
resistance to being deformed elastically upon
application of the wheel load.  If the elastic modulus of a material varies with the time of
loading, then the resilient modulus is selected.
 3. Poisson Ratio – It is the ratio of lateral strain to the
axial strain caused by a load parallel axis along axial
strain.
 4. Resilient modulus- The elastic modulus based on
the recoverable strain under repeated loads is called
the resilient modulus MR =σd/σr .
19 24-Mar-23 20 24-Mar-23

10
 24-03-2023

Design procedures for flexible pavements: Mechanistic-empirical design

 1. It can be used for both existing pavement

rehabilitation and new pavement construction
Design Procedures
 2. It can accommodate changing load types
 3. It uses material proportion that relates
Empirical Design Mechanistic- Mechanistic better with actual pavement performance
Empirical Design Design
 4. It provides more reliable performance
predictions
IRC:37-2012 is based on Mechanistic-Empirical
Design

21 24-Mar-23 22 24-Mar-23

11
 24-03-2023

1. ALLIGATOR OR MAP CRACKING

Failures of flexible pavements:
(FATIGUE CRACKING)
 Different types of failure encountered in flexible
 Followings are the primary causes of
pavements are as follow. this type of failure.
 1. Alligator cracking or Map cracking (Fatigue)
 2. Consolidation of pavement layers (Rutting)  Relative movement of pavement
 3. Shear failure cracking layer material
 4. Longitudinal cracking
 5. Frost heaving  Repeated application of heavy
 6. Lack of binding to the lower course wheel loads
 7. Reflection cracking
 8. Formation of waves and corrugation  Swelling or shrinkage of subgrade
 9. Bleeding or other layers due to moisture
 10.Pumping variation

23 24-Mar-23 24 24-Mar-23

12
 24-03-2023

2. CONSOLIDATION OF PAVEMENT
LAYERS (RUTTING) 3. SHEAR FAILURE CRACKING:
 Formation of ruts falls in this
type of failure.  Shear failure causes
 A rut is a depression or upheaval of pavement
groove worn into a road by
the travel of wheels. material by forming a
 This type of failure is caused fracture or cracking.
due to following reasons.
 Followings are the primary
 •Repeated application of
load along the same
causes of shear failure
wheel path resulting cracking.
longitudinal ruts.  •Excessive wheel loading
 •Wearing of the surface  •Low shearing resistance of
course along the wheel pavement mixture
path resulting shallow
ruts.
25 24-Mar-23 26 24-Mar-23

13
 24-03-2023

4. LONGITUDINAL CRACKING: 5. FROST HEAVING:

 This types of cracks extents to the
full thickness of pavement.  Frost heaving causes
upheaval of localized
 The following are the primary portion of a pavement.
causes of longitudinal cracking. The extent of frost
 Differential volume changes in heaving depends upon
subgrade soil
the ground water table
 Settlement of fill materials
and climatic condition.
 Sliding of side slopes

27 24-Mar-23 28 24-Mar-23

14
 24-03-2023

6. LACK OF BINDING WITH LOWER LAYER

(POTHOLES & SLIPPAGE) 7. REFLECTION CRACKING:
 When there is lack of
binding between surface  This type of failure
course and underlying occurs, when
layer, some portion of bituminous surface
surface course looses up course is laid over the
materials creating patches existing cement
and potholes. concrete pavement
 Slippage cracking is one with some cracks. This
form of this type of failure. crack is reflected in
 Lack of prime coat or tack the same pattern on
coat in between two layers bituminous surface.
is the primary reason
behind this type of failure.
29 24-Mar-23 30 24-Mar-23

15
 24-03-2023

8. FORMATION OF WAVES &

CORRUGATION : 9. BLEEDING:

 Excess bituminous
 Transverse binder occurring on the
undulations appear pavement surface
at regular intervals causes bleeding.
due to the unstable Bleeding causes a shiny,
surface course glass-like, reflective
caused by stop-and- surface that may be
go traffic. tacky to the touch.
Usually found in the
wheel paths.

31 24-Mar-23 32 24-Mar-23

16
 24-03-2023

10. PUMPING: FAILURES OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS

DESIGN CONSIDERATION:

 Seeping or ejection  The design of flexible pavement as per IRC is

of water and fines based on two major failure that are, fatigue
from beneath the cracking and rutting failure.
pavement through
cracks is called
pumping

33 24-Mar-23 34 24-Mar-23

17
 24-03-2023

IRC METHOD OF DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE

PAVEMENTS (IRC: 37-2012) Continue ….
 1. IRC:37-1970  3. IRC:37-2001
 based on California Bearing Ratio (CBR) of subgrade  based on Mechanistic-Empirical method
 Traffic in terms of commercial vehicles (more than 3  Pavements were required to be designed for traffic as
tonnes laden weight) high as 150 msa.
 2. IRC:37-1984  The limiting rutting is recommended as 20 mm in 20 per
 based on California Bearing Ratio (CBR) of subgrade cent of the length for design traffic
 Design traffic was considered in terms of cumulative  4. IRC:37-2012
number of equivalent standard axle load of 80 kN in  based on Mechanistic-Empirical method
millions of standard axles (msa)  The limiting rutting is recommended as 20 mm in 20 per
 Design charts were provided for traffic up to 30 msa using cent of the length for design traffic up to 30 msa and 10
an empirical approach. per cent of the length for the design traffic beyond
 .
35 24-Mar-23 36 24-Mar-23

18
 24-03-2023

Guidelines for Design by IRC: 37: 2012 Traffic growth rate (r):
 Design Traffic:  Estimated by Analyzing:
 The recommended method considers design traffic  The past trends of traffic growth,
in terms of the cumulative number of standard axles
(80 kN) to be carried by the pavement during the
 Change in demand of Traffic by factors like specific
design life.
development, Land use changes etc.
 Only the number of commercial vehicles having
gross vehicle weight of 30 kN or more and their axle-
loading is considered for the purpose of design of  If the data for the annual growth rate of commercial
pavement. vehicles is not available or if it is less than 5 per
cent, a growth rate of 5 per cent should be used
 Assessment of the present day average traffic
(IRC:SP:84-2009).
should be based on seven-day-24-hour count made
in accordance with IRC: 9-1972 "Traffic Census on
37Non-Urban Roads".
36 24-Mar-23
26/10/2016 38 24-Mar-23

19
 24-03-2023

Design life (n) Vehicle damage factor (VDF)

 It is defined as equivalent number of standard axles
per commercial vehicle.
 The design life is defined in terms of the cumulative  The Vehicle Damage Factor (VDF) is a multiplier to
number of standard axles in msa that can be carried convert the number of commercial vehicles of
before a major strengthening, rehabilitation or different axle loads and axle configuration into the
capacity augmentation of the pavement is number of repetitions of standard axle load of
necessary. magnitude 80 kN.

 Depending upon road type, Design traffic is ranges
from 10 to 15 years.

39 24-Mar-23 40 24-Mar-23

20
 24-03-2023

EALF and ESAL EALF and ESAL

41 24-Mar-23 42 24-Mar-23

21
 24-03-2023

Continue …. Example on VDF:

43 24-Mar-23 44 24-Mar-23

22
 24-03-2023

Numerical

Let number of load repetition

Numerical
expected by 80 KN standard axle is
1000, 160 KN is 100 and 40 KN is
10000. Find the equivalent axle load. Let the number of load repetition expected by 120
kN axle is 1000, 160 kN is 100, and 40 kN is 10,000.
Answer: 3225 KN Find the equivalent standard axle load if the
equivalence criteria is rutting. Assume 80 kN as
standard axle load and the

Solution:
Answer: 8905 KN

45 24-Mar-23 46 24-Mar-23

23
 24-03-2023

Numerical

Answer: 6031 KN

47 24-Mar-23 48 24-Mar-23

24
 24-03-2023

Sample Size for Axle Load Survey: Lane distribution factor

 Distribution of commercial traffic in each direction
and in each lane is required for determining the total
equivalent standard axle load applications to be
considered in the design.

 In the absence of adequate and conclusive data, the

following distribution may be assumed until more
reliable data on placement of commercial vehicles
on the carriageway lanes are available:

49 24-Mar-23 50 24-Mar-23

25
 24-03-2023

From IRC 37-2012

Lane distribution calculation:

 1) Single-lane roads:

 2) Two-lane single carriageway roads:

 3) Four-lane single carriageway roads:

 4) Dual carriageway roads:

51 24-Mar-23 52 24-Mar-23

26
 24-03-2023

Computation of Design traffic: Sub-grade

 The design traffic in terms of the cumulative number  Requirements of CBR: Sub grade is made up of in-
of standard axles to be carried during the design life situ material, select soil or stabilized soil.
of the road should be computed using the following  Compacted to a minimum of 97% of laboratory dry
equation: density achieved with heavy compaction.
 Minimum CBR of 8% for traffic > 450 CVPD
 CBR can also be determined from Dynamic Cone
Penetrometer (60º cone) by ..
 Log10 CBR = 2.465-1.12log10 N
 Where, N = mm/blow

53 24-Mar-23 54 24-Mar-23

27
 24-03-2023

Sub-grade (Continue…) Effective CBR

 Where different types of soils are used in sub grade  Where there is significant difference between the
minimum 6 to 8 average value for each type is required. CBRs of the select sub grade and embankment
 90th percentile for high volume and 80th percentile for soils, the design should be based on effective CBR.
other category of road is adopted as design CBR .
The effective CBR of the subgrade can be
 Maximum permissible variation
determined from Fig.

 Where variation is more average CBR should be average

of 6 samples and not three.

55 24-Mar-23 56 24-Mar-23

28
 24-03-2023

Lab procedure for CBR calculation: Continue ….

 The test must always be performed on remoulded  If data is available for moisture variation in the
samples of soils in the laboratory. existing in-service pavements of a region in different
seasons, molding moisture content for the CBR test
 The pavement thickness should be based on 4-day can be based on field data.
soaked CBR value of the soil, remoulded at
placement density and moisture content ascertained
from the compaction curve.  Wherever possible the test specimens should be
 In areas with rainfall less than 1000 mm, four day prepared by static compaction. Alternatively dynamic
soaking is too severe a condition for well protected compaction may also be used.
sub-grade with thick bituminous layer and the
strength of the sub-grade soil may be
underestimated.
57 24-Mar-23 58 24-Mar-23

29
 24-03-2023

Resilient Modulus: Continue ….

 Resilient modulus is the measure of its elastic  The CBR of the sub-grade should be determined as
behavior determined from recoverable deformation per IS: 2720 (Part 16) (36) at the most critical
in the laboratory tests. moisture conditions likely to occur at site.
 The modulus is an important parameter for design
and the performance of a pavement.
 The relation between resilient modulus and the
effective CBR is given as:

59 24-Mar-23 60 24-Mar-23

30
 24-03-2023

Principle of pavement design: Check for Fatigue:

 Pavement Model:  Micro cracks at the bottom of bituminous layer are
developed with every load repetition
 Modeled as linear elastic
multilayer structure.  These cracks goes on expending till they propagate
 Stress Analysis is based on to the surface due to the large load repetition
IITPave software  In these guidelines, cracking in 20 per cent area has
 Critical parameters for
analysis are been considered for traffic up to 30 msa and 10 per
 1. Tensile strain at the bottom cent for traffic beyond that.
of bituminous layer
 2. Vertical sub-grade strain at
the top of sub-grade.
 Failure of pavement is
considered due to cracking
and rutting

61 24-Mar-23 62 24-Mar-23

31
 24-03-2023

Check for Fatigue (Continue….) Check for Fatigue (Continue….)

 Two fatigue equations developed based on  To consider the effect of volume of the bitumen and air
voids equation (b) is modified as follows
performance data collected during various study are  Nf =0.5161 * C * 10-04 x [1/ εt]3.89 * [1/MR]0.854………(c)
 Nf= 2.21 * 10-04x [1/εt]3.89* [1/MR]0.854 (80 %
reliability)…(a)
 Nf= 0.711 * 10-04x [1/εt]3.89* [1/MR]0.854 (90 %
reliability)...(b)  Va= per cent volume of air void and Vb= per cent volume
 Where, of bitumen in a given volume of bituminous mix.
 Nf= fatigue life in number of standard axles,  Nf= fatigue life, єt= maximum tensile strain at the bottom
of DBM.
 εt= Maximum Tensile strain at the bottom of the  MR= Resilient modulus of bituminous mix.
bituminous layer, and  For traffic < 30 msa consider equation (a); For traffic >
 MR= resilient modulus of the bituminous layer. 30msa equation (c) is recommened.
 Equation for 90% reliability implies that only 10% of
55the pavement area will have more than2624-Mar-23
63
2/100/%2016cracks. 64 24-Mar-23

32
 24-03-2023

Check for Rutting: Rutting (Continue …)

 Rutting is the permanent deformation in pavement  Based on various studies the two equation develops
usually occurring longitudinally along the wheel path. are;
 Causes –
 1. Deformation in sub grade /non-bituminous layer  N = 4.1656 x 10-08[1/εv]4.5337 (80 per cent reliability)
 2. Secondary compaction and shear deformation of
bituminous layer
 N = 1.41x 10-8x [1/εv]4.5337 (90 per cent reliability)
 Limiting value
 20 mm in 20% length for upto 30 msa
 20 mm in 10% length for > 30 msa  Where,
 Rutting affects the serviceability of pavement.  N = Number of cumulative standard axles, and
 εv= Vertical strain in the sub-grade

65 24-Mar-23 66 24-Mar-23

33
 24-03-2023

Pavement composition as per IRC: SUB-BASE LAYER

 A flexible pavement covered in these guidelines  UNBOUND SUB-BASE LAYER
consists of different layers as shown in figure;  Sub-base materials may consist of natural sand,
moorum, gravel, laterite, kankar, brick metal,
crushed stone, crushed slag
 Sub-base materials passing 425 micron sieve when
tested in accordance with IS:2720 (Part 5) should
have liquid limit and plasticity index of not more than
25 and 6 respectively.

67 24-Mar-23 68 24-Mar-23

34
 24-03-2023

SUB-BASE LAYER(Unbound SB Continue…) SUB-BASE LAYER

 When coarse graded sub-base is used as a drainage  Bound Sub base
layer, Los Angeles abrasion < 40  Material for bound sub-base may consist of soil,
 Required permeability; fines passing 0.075 mm aggregate or soil aggregate mixture modified with
should be less than 2 per cent. chemical stabilizers such as cement, lime-flyash.
 Sub-base is constructed in two layers, the lower  The drainage layer of the sub-base may consist of
layer forms the separation/filter layer to prevent coarse graded aggregates bound with about 2 per
intrusion of subgrade soil into the pavement and the cent cement while retaining the permeability.
upper GSB forms the drainage layer to drain away  Drainage and separation layers are essential when
any water water is likely to enter into pavements from the
 Resilient modulus (MR) for granular sub-base shoulder, median or through the cracks in surface
 MRgsb = 0.2 h0.45 * MR subgrade layer.
 Where, h = thickness of sub-base layer in mm
69 24-Mar-23 70 24-Mar-23

35
 24-03-2023

SUB-BASE LAYER(Unbound SB Continue…) BASE LAYER

 UNBOUND BASE LAYER
 Base layer may consist of wet mix macadam, water
 Strength Parameter: bound macadam, crusher run macadam, reclaimed
 Elastic Modulus E of bound sub-bases is concrete etc.
 Ecgsb = 1000 * UCS  Resilient modulus of the granular base is given as..
 Where UCS = 28 day strength of the  MR granular = 0.2 * h0.45 MR subgrade
cementitious granular material  Where h = thickness of granular sub-base and base,
mm
 Poisson's ratio of granular bases and sub-bases
is recommended as 0.35.

71 24-Mar-23 72 24-Mar-23

36
 24-03-2023

BASE LAYER(Continue..) Criteria for selecting Bitumen grade.

 CEMENTITIOUS BASES :  The recommended resilient modulus values of the
 Cemented base layers may consist of aggregates or bituminous materials with different binders are:
soils or both stabilized with chemical stabilizers, to
give a minimum strength of 4.5 to 7 MPa in 7/28
days.
 Default values of modulus of rupture are
recommended for cementitious bases (MEPDG).
 Cementitious stabilized aggregates - 1.40 MPa
 Lime—flyash-soil - 1.05 MPa
 Soil cement - 0.70 MPa
 Poisson's ration of the cemented layers may be
taken as 0.25.
73 24-Mar-23 74 24-Mar-23

37
 24-03-2023

Continue ….. Drainage Layer

 The Poisson’s ratio of bituminous layer depends upon the
pavement temperature and a value of 0.35 is  Improvement of drainage can significantly reduce the
recommended for temperature up to 35°C and value of magnitude of seasonal heave. The desirable
0.50 for higher temperatures. requirements are:
 Higher viscosity of bituminous binders, which can be  (a). Provision must be made for the lateral drainage of the
achieved either by using higher viscosity grade bitumen pavement structural section. The granular sub-base/base
or modified bitumen will improve both fatigue and rutting should accordingly be extended across the shoulders
behavior of mixes as compared to mixes with normal
bitumen.  (b). No standing water should be allowed on either side of
the road embankment.
 Fatigue equation at any pavement temperature from
20°C to 40°C can be evaluated by substituting the  (c). A minimum height of1 m between the subgrade level
appropriate value of the resilient modulus of the and the highest water level
bituminous mix, air void and volume of bitumen.
Catalogue of designs has been worked out for a
temperature of 35°C.
75 24-Mar-23 76 24-Mar-23

38
 24-03-2023

Drainage Layer(Continue…) Drainage Layer(Continue…)

 Some typical drainage system is illustrated in  Fig. 2 Pavement with Filter and Drainage Layers
following Figs….
 Fig.1 Pavement along a Slope

77 24-Mar-23 78 24-Mar-23

39
 24-03-2023

Drainage Layer(Continue…)
 Criteria to be satisfied:
 The filter/separation layer should satisfy the following
criteria: DESIGN OF
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT :
 To prevent entry of soil particles into the drainage layer:

 D85 means the size of sieve that allows 85 per cent by

weight of the material to pass through it.
https://pavementinteractive.org/
 Similar is the meaning of D50 and D15.

79 24-Mar-23 80 24-Mar-23

40
 24-03-2023

Design procedures
What is design ?
For flexible pavements, structural design is mainly concerned with
determining appropriate layer thickness and composition. The main design
factors are stresses due to traffic load and temperature variations. Two
methods of flexible pavement structural design are common today:
Empirical design and mechanistic empirical design.

 Design of pavement includes deciding

the number of layers, its composition and
thickness for selected material, to
support traffic load safely without failure.

81 24-Mar-23 82 24-Mar-23

41
 24-03-2023

Design procedures
Various cases in design.
For flexible pavements, structural design is mainly concerned with
determining appropriate layer thickness and composition. The main design
factors are stresses due to traffic load and temperature variations. Two
methods of flexible pavement structural design are common today:
 The flexible pavement with different combinations of
Empirical design and mechanistic empirical design. traffic loads and material properties.

 1) Granular base and Granular sub-base.

 2) Cementitious base and sub-base with agg.
Interlayer.
 3) Cementitious base and sub-base with SAMI.
 4) RAP agg. Over cemented sub-base
 5) Cemented base and Granular sub-base

83 24-Mar-23 84 24-Mar-23

42
 24-03-2023

Problem statement. Data collection

 Design the pavement for construction of a  Material properties :

new flexible pavement with the following data:
 California Bearing Ratio (CBR)
 Four lanes divided National Highway.  Resilient Modulus (MR)
 Modulus of Elasticity (E)
 Design life is 15 years.  Poisson’s ratio (µ)

85 24-Mar-23 86 24-Mar-23

43
 24-03-2023

Material properties Solution :

 Arrange in ascending order : 2.8, 2.9, 3.8, 3.9, 4.0,
4.2, 4.3, 4.5, 4.6 and 4.7.
 CBR : The CBR values are calculated after  Calculate the percentage greater than equal of the
every kilometre on selected stretch of 10 km value as follows:
having the same type of soil. Suppose the  For CBR of 3.8, percentage of values greater than
values obtained are: 3.8, 2.8, 4.5, 3.9, 4.2, 2.9, equal to 3.8 = (8/10) x100 = 80%
4.7, 4.3, 4.0 and 4.6%. Based on the
 Similarly for 2.8 % is 100%, 4.5% CBR is 30% and
collected data the design CBR (90th percentile
so on.
CBR) is calculated as below:
 Now a plot is made between Percentages of values
greater than equal to the CBR values versus the
CBR as follows.

87 24-Mar-23 88 24-Mar-23

44
 24-03-2023

Continue … Effective CBR:

RESULT : The 90th Percentile CBR value is 2.90%  (Figure 5.1, Page 11, IRC: 37: 2012)

89 24-Mar-23 90 24-Mar-23

45
 24-03-2023

Poisson’s ratio Elastic modulus

 Poisson’s ratio µ is define as the ratio of lateral strain
(ɛl) to the axial strain (ɛa), caused by load parallel to  Elastic moduli of various pavement materials
the axis along which ɛa is measured. are obtained either through tests or through
 It is found that for most of the pavement structures, the recommendations available in the
the influence of µ value is normally small. guidelines.
 For most of cement treated materials (soil cement,
cement treated base, lean concrete and PCC), the  Repeated flexure or indirect tensile tests are
value of µ normally lies between 0.10 and 0.25. carried out to determine the dynamic modulus
 Unbound granular material lie between 0.2 and 0.5 Ed of bituminous mixes.
and those for bituminous mixes range from 0.35 to
0.50

91 24-Mar-23 92 24-Mar-23

46
 24-03-2023

Resilient modulus Calculation of MR for Sub-grade.

 Resilient modulus is the measure of its elastic

 The resilient modulus is calculated as follow;
behaviour determined from recoverable deformation
in the laboratory tests.
 MR (Mpa) = 10 x CBR …………. For CBR 5
 The behaviour of the subgrade is essentially elastic
under the transient traffic loading with negligible = 17.6 x CBR0.64 ………For CBR > 5
permanent deformation in a single pass.
 (From equation 5.2, Page no. 12, IRC: 37: 2012)
 This can be determined in the laboratory by
conducting tests.

93 24-Mar-23 94 24-Mar-23

47
 24-03-2023

Calculation of MR for Granular base and Traffic count

sub-base.  Assessment of average daily traffic should be normally
based on 7 day-24hr count made in accordance with
 The resilient modulus is calculated as follow; IRC: 9 “Traffic census on non-urban roads”.
 Classify traffic into different categories such as two
wheelers, three wheelers, passenger cars, trucks etc.
 MRgsb = 0.20 x h0.45 x MR subgrade  But only commercial vehicle with laden weight > 3 tonne
is taken into consideration of design.
 h = Thickness of sub-base layer in mm, …… sub-  Commercial vehicles are further categorised as single
base, axle single wheel, single axel dual wheel, Tandem axle
dual wheel and Tridem axle dual wheel.
 = Cumulative thickness of Base layer and Sub-
 Where no traffic count data is available, data from roads
base layer in mm ... for base of similar classification and importance may be used to
predict the design traffic

95 24-Mar-23 96 24-Mar-23

48
 24-03-2023

Calculation of Design factor Design Traffic:

 1) Design Traffic,
 2) Axle load survey,  Initial traffic after construction in terms of number of
Commercial Vehicles per day (CVPD).
 3) Vehicle Damage Factor
 Traffic growth rate during the design life in
 4) Lane Distribution Factor
percentage.
 Design life in number of years.
 Spectrum of axle loads.
 Vehicle Damage Factor (VDF).
 Distribution of commercial traffic over the
carriageway.

97 24-Mar-23 98 24-Mar-23

49
 24-03-2023

Calculation of Design traffic: Axle load survey :

 For our case the number of heavy commercial vehicle
per day is taken as 7 day average for 24 hour count  Required for VDF calculation and Fatigue damage
comes to be 2792 vehicle per day as per the last count.
analysis of cementitious base.

 The axle load spectrum is formulated by considering

 i. e. P = 2792 cvpd, r = 7 %, and x = 10 years 10 kN, 20 kN and 30 kN intervals for single, tandem
and tridem axle respectively.
 A = 2792 (1+0.07)10 = 5000 cvpd.
 RESULT: As per study the percentage of Single,
 RESULT: Traffic in the year of completion of construction Tandom and Tridom axle are 45%, 45% and 10%
is 5000 cvpd in both the directions. respectively

99 24-Mar-23 10 24-Mar-23
0

50
 24-03-2023

Axle load spectrum Vehicle damage factor

Single Axle Load Tandem Axle Load Tridem Axle Load
 The formula to calculate VDF is given as follows:
Axle load Class Percentage of Axle load Class Percentage of Axle load Class Percentage of
(KN) Axles (KN) Axles (KN) Axles

185-195 0.64 390-410 1.85 585-615 1.40

175-185 0.80 370-390 2.03 555-585 1.60
165-175 0.80 350-370 2.03 525-555 1.60
155-165 2.58 330-350 2.08 495-525 1.80  W1, W2, ….. are the mean values of the various axle load
145-155 2.58 310-330 2.08 465-495 1.80 groups.
135-145 5.80 290-310 4.17 435-465 4.40
 V1, V2, …. are the respective traffic volumes.
125-135 5.80 270-290 4.17 405-435 4.40
115-125 11.82 250-270 12.67 375-405 13.10
 Ws is the standard axle load.
105-115 11.82 230-250 12.67 345-375 13.10  Standard axle load for Single axle, Tandem axle and
95-105 12.90 210-230 10.45 315-345 10.90 Tridem axle is 80 KN, 148 KN and 224 KN as per
85-95 12.16 190-210 10.45 285-315 10.40
IRC: 37:2012 (Page 7)
< 85 32.30 170-190 7.05 255-285 7.15
<170 28.28 <255 28.33  RESULT: The VDF for Single axle load, Tandem axle
Total 100 100 100 load and Tridem axle load is 4.11, 8.37 and 7.51.
10 24-Mar-23 10 24-Mar-23
1 2

51
 24-03-2023

Vehicle Damage factor (Continue.) Lane distribution factor.

 Were sufficient information on axle loads are not  Distribution of commercial traffic in each direction
available or the small size of project does not and in each lane is required for determining the total
warrant an axle load survey the default values of equivalent standard axle load applications to be
VDF may be adopted as given in the table given considered in the design.
below.  Single lane road : Total vehicle in both direction.
 Two lane single carriage way : 50% of total vehicle in
both direction.
 Four lane single carriage way : 40% of total vehicle
in both direction.
 Dual carriage way: Two lane 75%, Three lane 60%,
Four lane 45% of number of CV in each direction.

10 24-Mar-23 10 24-Mar-23
3 4

52
 24-03-2023

Lane distribution factor (Continue….) Million standard axle

 The design traffic is calculated in terms of cumulative
number of standard axle of 80 kN carried during the
design life of the road.

 RESULT: In the present design problem we are

given to design a four lane divided highway,
therefore the Lane distribution factor is 75 percent of
 r = 7.5 %,
number of commercial vehicle in each direction.
 n = 20 yr. ( Expressway and Urban roads), 15 yr (NH
and SH), In this problem we have to design National
highway take n as 15 years,
 A is 5000cvpd in both direction and 2500 in one
direction
10 24-Mar-23 10 24-Mar-23
5 6

53
 24-03-2023

Calculation of Million std. axle. Calculation of Million std. axle. (Continue…)

 Single axle load (N1): 45 percent vehicles are of single
axle.
A : 0.45 x 2500 = 1125, F : 4.11  Total msa (N1+N2+N3)
N1 = 33.06 x 106 = 33.06 msa
 = 33.06 + 67.33 + 13.42
= 113.81 ̴ 150 msa (Aprox.)
 Tandem axle load (N2): 45 percent vehicles are of
tandem axle.
A : 0.45 x 2500 = 1125, F : 8. 37  RESULT: The cumulative million standard axles to
N2 = 67.33 x 106 = 67.33 msa
be consider for design is 150 msa.

 Tridem axle load (N3): 10 percent vehicles are of tridem

axle. 97A : 0.10 x 2500 = 250, F : 7.51

10 24-Mar-23
26/10/2016 10
108 24-Mar-23
7 8

54
 24-03-2023

Determination pavement thickness Determination of thickness for Case 1

 Case 1 : Bituminous pavement with untreated  The thickness of various layers is determined with
granular layer the help pavement design catalogue given in IRC:
37: 2012 from page 26 to 28, for various values of
effective CBR.

10
109 24-Mar-23 11
110 24-Mar-23
9 0

55
 24-03-2023

Case 2 : Bituminous pavement with

Determination of thickness for Case 1 cemented base and cemented sub-base
(Continue ….) with aggregate inter layer of 100mm

 RESULT:
 For design traffic of 150msa and CBR of 7%
 Thickness of subbase (GSB) is 230 mm,
 Thickness of base (G. Base) is 250 mm,
 Thickness of Dense Bitumen macadam (DBM) is 140
mm,
 Thickness of Bituminous concrete (BC) is 50 mm

11
111 24-Mar-23 11
112 24-Mar-23
1 2

56
 24-03-2023

Continue …. Determination of thickness for case 2.

 RESULT:
 For design traffic of 150msa and CBR of 7%
 Thickness of Cementitious sub-base (CT Subbase)
is 250 mm,
 Thickness of Cementitious base (CT Base) is
120 mm, Aggregate interlayer is 100mm
 Thickness of Dense Bitumen macadam (DBM) is 50
mm
 Thickness of Bituminous concrete (BC) is 50 mm are
 Obtained by interpolating the thickness of CBR 5%
and 10%.
11
113 24-Mar-23 11
114 24-Mar-23
3 4

57
 24-03-2023

Calculation of Resilient Modulus (MR) for Case 3 : Bituminous pavement with

case 2 cemented base and cemented sub-base with
 MR subgrade = 17.6 x CBR0.64 = 17.6 x 70.64 = 61.15 SAMI layer over cemented base.
Mpa.
 MR Bituminous layer = 3000 Mpa (From table 7.1
Resilienent Modulus of Bituminous Mixes, page 23,
IRC: 37: 2012)
 Pavement composition for 90 per cent Reliability is
BC + DBM = 100 mm,
 Aggregate interlayer = 100 mm (MR = 450 MPa),
 Cemented base = 120 mm (E = 5000 MPa),
 Cemented subbase = 250 mm (E = 600 Mpa)

11
115 24-Mar-23 11
116 24-Mar-23
5 6

58
 24-03-2023

Continue …. Determination of thickness for Case 3

RESULT:
 Design traffic of 150 msa and CBR of 7%
 thickness of Cementitious sub-base (CT Subbase) is
250 mm,
 Thickness of Cementitious base (CT Base) is 165
mm,
 Thickness of Dense Bitumen macadam (DBM) is 50
mm
 Thickness of Bituminous concrete (BC) is 50 mm
PAGE 33 AND 34 OF IRC: 37: 2012
are
 obtained by interpolating the thickness of CBR 5%
and 10%.
11
117 24-Mar-23 11
108 24-Mar-23
26/10/2016
7  SAMI is provided on the top of cemented base.
8

59
 24-03-2023

Case 4 Bituminous pavement with base of

fresh aggregate or RAP treated with foamed Continue …
bitumen/ Bitumen emulsion and cemented
sub-base

PAGE 36 AND 37 OF IRC: 37: 2012

11
119 24-Mar-23 12
120 24-Mar-23
9 0

60
 24-03-2023

Case 5 : Bituminous pavement with

Determination of thickness for case 4 cemented base and granular sub-base with
 RESULT: 100mm WMM layer over cemented base:
 Design traffic of 150 msa and CBR of 7%
 Thickness of Cementitious sub-base (CT Subbase) is
250 mm,
 Thickness of Treater reclaimed aspalt pavement (Treated
RAP) is 180 mm,
 Thickness of Dense Bitumen macadam (DBM) is 50 mm
 Thickness of Bituminous concrete (BC) is 50 mm are
 Obtained by interpolating the thickness of CBR 5% and
10%.
 Instead of RAP base of fresh aggregates treated with
bitumen emulsion/ foamed bitumen can be used to obtain
11s
121tronger base. 24-Mar-23
26/10/2016 12
122 24-Mar-23
26/10/2016
1 2

61
 24-03-2023

Continue … Determination of thickness for case 5

 RESULT:
 Design traffic of 150 msa and CBR of 7%
 Thickness of Granulated Subbase (GSB) is 250 mm
 Cementitious sub-base (CT Subbase) is 195 mm,
 Thickness of aggregate layer is 100 mm, Thickness
of Dense Bitumen macadam (DBM) is 50 mm
 Thickness of Bituminous concrete (BC) is 50 mm
 Obtain by interpolating the thickness of CBR 5% and
10%.
 The upper 100 mm of granular sub-base should be
open graded so that its permeability is about 300
mm/day or higher for quick removal of water entering
from surface.
12
123 24-Mar-23
26/10/2016 12
124 26/10/2016
24-Mar-23
3 4

62
 24-03-2023

Calculation of Resilient Modulus (MR) and

Modulus of Elasticity (E): Design check
 For traffic of 150 msa, Subgrade CBR 7%,  To check the suitability of pavement design
discussed above we carry out checks, which ensure
 MR subgrade = 17.6 x CBR0.64 = 17.6 x 70.64 = 61.15
safety against the failure of designed pavement.
Mpa.
 The flexible pavement is checked for two types of
 MR Bituminous layer = 3000 Mpa (From table 7.1
failures i.e. Rutting in pavement and Fatigue in
Resilienent Modulus of Bituminous Mixes, page 23,
bottom layer of bituminous surfacing.
IRC: 37: 2012)
 The following condition should be satisfied for the
 MR Aggregate = 450 Mpa and
design to be satisfactory
 E of cemented base is 5000 MPa,
 Design strain < Allowable strain
 E Granular subbase = MR subgrade x 0.20 x h0.45  Allowable strain = Obtained by fatigue model and
 Where, h = Thickness of GSB = 250 mm rutting model
 = 61.15 x 0.20 x 2500.45 = 146.72 Mpa.  Design strain = IITpave software
12
125 26/10/2016
24-Mar-23 12
126 26/10/2016
24-Mar-23
5 6

63
 24-03-2023

Design of Drainage layer Continue ...

 Design a granular drainage layer for a four lane  Depth of drainage layer = 450 mm (WMM 250mm
heavy duty divided highway for an annual and Sub-base 200mm) By design.
precipitation of 1200 mm. Longitudinal slope = 3 per  Width of drainage layer : Calculate
cent, Camber = 2.5 percent.  AB = 8.5+1+2x0.45 = 10.4 m (1m unpave shoulder)
 Crack Infiltration Method  AC = 10.4 x(3/2) = 12.48 m.
 AD = 16.24 m
 (hypotenious of AB and AC)
 Elevation drop :
 Along AC: 12.48x3% = 0.374m
 Along CD: 10.40x2.5% = 0.26m
 Total drop = 0.634

12
127 24-Mar-23
26/10/2016 12
128 24-Mar-23
26/10/2016
7 8

64
 24-03-2023

Continue …. Continue.
 Hydraulic gradient = [Elevation drop/ length  Amount of water infiltrated (Q);
 AD] = [0.634/16.24] =0.039  Q = 0.083 x 1 x 16.24 = 1.35 Cub.meter/ day.
 Compare with
 Infiltration rate calculation:  Q = KIA
 qi = Ic [Nc/W p + W c / (W p.Cs)]  A = Area of cress section = 1 x 0.1 = 0.1 sq.m
 Ic = 0.223 cub. m/day/meter  K = Coeff of permeability (Unknown)
 I = Hydraulic gradient (0.039)
 Nc = 3
 1.35 = K x 0.039 x 0.1
 Wp = 10.4 m
 K = 346.62 m/day
 Wc = Wp,
 This value of K is useful for deciding gradation.
 Cs = 12 m
 q = 0.083 Cub.meter/day/meter
12
129 26/10/2016
24-Mar-23 13
130 26/10/2016
24-Mar-23
9 0

65
 24-03-2023

(Decide grade by using table) Recommendation

% Passing
Sieve
 Specifications should be modified according to local
Opening,
Mm
Grading 1 Grading 2 Grading 3 Grading 4 Grading 5 Grading 6
condition. In wet climate wearing course should be
20 100 100 100 100 100 100 impermeable.
12.5 85 84 83 81.5 79.5 75
9.5 77.5 76 74 72.5 69.5 63  long duration and low intensity rainfall causes more
4.76
2.36
58.3
42.5
56
39
52.5
34
49
29.5
43.5
22
32
5.8
damage as compare with rainfall of small duration
2.00 39 35 30 25 17 0 and more density.
0.84 26.5 22 15.5 9.8 0 0
0.42 18.2 13.3 6.3 0 0 0  If DBM and SDBC/BC are designed properly (4% air
0.25 13.0 7.5 0 0 0 0
0.10 6 0 0 0 0 0 voids and protected shoulder) impermeably can be
0.075 0 0 0 0 0 0
ensure.
Coeff. Of
permeability 3 35 100 350 850 950  Adequate provision for sub-surface drainage prevent
m/day
pavement damage.
Provide Grading 4 for K 346.62 m/day = 350m/day
13
131 26/10/2016
24-Mar-23 13
132 26/10/2016
24-Mar-23
1 2

66
 24-03-2023

Recommendations. Conclusion
 Thickness charts with BC/ SDBC are valid for all  Time to time revisions of code provision are needed
rainfall area. keeping in view changes in traffic pattern and
 For pavement carrying heavy traffic wearing course development of new technologies. Further with the
laid over WBM shows better performance. gain of experience in the design as well as
 For low traffic (upto 5 msa) bitumen surfacing with construction procedure of flexible pavement have
two coats is found to be suitable. demanded certain changes.
 Hence by considering the above factors IRC: 37:
2012 includes some conceptual changes in the
design of flexible pavement such as inclusion of
Resilience moduli and consideration of strain in
design.

13
133 26/10/2016
24-Mar-23 13
134 26/10/2016
24-Mar-23
3 4

67
 24-03-2023

Conclusion . • Problem 1: Design the pavement for construction of a new two lane carriageway for

 This code also encourages the use IIT pave software design life 15 years using IRC method. The initial traffic in the year of completion in
which is newly recommended.
each direction is 300 CVPD and growth rate is 5%. Vehicle damage factor based on
 Since the use of semi-mechanistic approach, the
design is not only based on the experience but it axle load survey = 2.5 std axle per commercial vehicle. Design CBR of subgrade

also gives parameters (strain parameter) to check soil=4%.

the obtained design. Answer: 4.4 msa

 Solution to the above pavement design problem

shows that the thickness design varies with the
variation in various factors.

13
135 26/10/2016
24-Mar-23 13 24-Mar-23
5 6

68
 24-03-2023

Problem 2: Design the pavement for construction of a new bypass with References
the following data:
• Two lane carriage way
• Initial traffic in the year of completion of construction = 400 CVPD  [1] IRC: 37: 2012, “Guidelines for Design of Flexible
(sum of both directions)
pavement”, second revision.
• Traffic growth rate = 7.5 %
• Design life = 15 years  [2] IRC: 37: 2001, “Tentative guidelines for Design of
• Vehicle damage factor based on axle load survey = 2.5 standard axle Flexible pavement”
per commercial vehicle
• Design CBR of subgrade soil = 4%.

13 24-Mar-23 13
138 26/10/2016
24-Mar-23
7 8

69
 15-03-2023

Module III , Chapter I

Properties, Tests on Aggregates and
Bitumen
By
Dr. Hari Krishna Gaddam

Aggregates
DESIRABLE PROPERTIES AND TESTS

1
 15-03-2023

Source of Aggregates
• Igneous rocks
• Metamorphic rocks
• Sedimentary rocks

Types of aggregate
• Crushed Gravel: Pit gravel (or sand) that has
been put through a crusher either to break
the rounded gravel particles into smaller sizes
or to produce rougher surfaces
• Crushed Rock: Aggregate from the crushing of
bedrock. All particles are angular and not
rounded as in gravel
• Screenings: Chips, dust, powder that are
produced from crushing

2
 15-03-2023

Types of aggregate
• Fine Aggregate : Aggregate particles mainly
between the 4.75 mm size and the 75µm
sieve.

• Coarse Aggregate: Aggregate particles mainly

larger than 4.75 mm.

• Pit Run : Aggregate from a sand or gravel pit

with no processing.

Types of aggregates
• Concrete Sand: Sand that has been washed to
remove dust and fines

• Fines: Silt, clay, or dust particles smaller than

75um usually the undesirable impurities in
aggregates

3
 15-03-2023

Desirable properties of Aggregates

• Strength

• Hardness

• Toughness

• Shape of aggregates

• Adhesion with bitumen

• Durability

4
 15-03-2023

Strength

• The aggregates used in top layers are

subjected to (i) Stress action due to traffic
wheel load, (ii) Wear and tear, (iii) crushing.
For a high quality pavement, the aggregates
should posses high resistance to crushing, and
to withstand the stresses due to traffic wheel
load.

Hardness
• The aggregates used in the surface course are
subjected to constant rubbing or abrasion due
to moving traffic. The aggregates should be
hard enough to resist the abrasive action
caused by the movements of traffic. The
abrasive action is severe when steel tyred
vehicles moves over the aggregates exposed
at the top surface.

10

5
 15-03-2023

Toughness

• Resistance of the aggregates to impact is

termed as toughness. Aggregates used in the
pavement should be able to resist the effect
caused by the jumping of the steel tyred
wheels from one particle to another at
different levels causes severe impact on the
aggregates.

11

Shape of aggregates

• Aggregates which happen to fall in a particular

size range may have rounded, cubical, angular,
flaky or elongated particles. It is evident that
the flaky and elongated particles will have less
strength and durability when compared with
cubical, angular or rounded particles of the
same aggregate. Hence too flaky and too
much elongated aggregates should be avoided
as far as possible.

12

6
 15-03-2023

Adhesion with bitumen

• The aggregates used in bituminous pavements

should have less affinity with water when
compared with bituminous materials,
otherwise the bituminous coating on the
aggregate will be stripped off in presence of
water.

13

Durability

• The property of aggregates to withstand

adverse action of weather is called soundness.
The aggregates are subjected to the physical
and chemical action of rain and bottom water,
impurities there-in and that of atmosphere,
hence it is desirable that the road aggregates
used in the construction should be sound
enough to withstand the weathering action

14

7
 15-03-2023

Freedom from deleterious particles

• Specifications for aggregates used in

bituminous mixes usually require the
aggregates to be clean, tough and durable in
nature and free from excess amount of flat or
elongated pieces, dust, clay balls and other
objectionable material. Similarly aggregates
used in Portland cement concrete mixes must
be clean and free from deleterious substances
such as clay lumps, chert, silt and other
organic impurities.

15

Aggregate tests
• In order to decide the suitability of the aggregate for use in
pavement construction, following tests are carried out:
▪ Crushing test
▪ Abrasion test
▪ Impact test
▪ Soundness test
▪ Shape test
▪ Specific gravity and water absorption test
▪ Bitumen adhesion test

16

8
 15-03-2023

Crushing test IS:2386 part-IV

Strength of Aggregate

• The aggregate crushing value provides a relative measure of resistance to

crushing under gradually applied crushing load.

• Dry aggregates passing through 12.5 mm sieves and retained 10 mm sieves are

filled in a cylindrical measure of 11.5 mm diameter and 18 cm height in three

layers.

• Each layer is tampered 25 times with at standard tamping rod. The test sample

is weighed and placed in the test cylinder in three layers each layer being

tampered again.

• The specimen is subjected to a compressive load of 40 tonnes gradually applied

at the rate of 4 tonnes per minute.

17

• Then crushed aggregates are then sieved through 2.36 mm sieve and weight

of passing material (W2) is expressed as percentage of the weight of the

total sample (W1) which is the aggregate crushing value.

Aggregate crushing value = (W2/W1) *100

• IS recommendations: Crushing value for good quality aggregates to be

used in base course shall not exceed 45 % and for surface course shall be
less than 30%.

Crushing test setup

18

9
 15-03-2023

Abrasion test (IS:2386 part-IV)

• Abrasion test is carried out to test the hardness property of aggregates.

• Los Angeles abrasion test: The principle of Los Angeles abrasion test is to
find the percentage wear due to relative rubbing action between the aggregate
and steel balls used as abrasive charge.

• It consists of circular drum of internal diameter 700 mm and

and inside
lengthlength
520 mmof 500 mm

mounted on horizontal axis enabling it to be rotated.

• An abrasive charge consisting of cast iron spherical balls of 48 mm diameters

and weight 340-445 g is placed in the cylinder along with the aggregates.

• The number of the abrasive spheres varies according to the grading of the
sample. The quantity of aggregates to be used depends upon the gradation and
usually ranges from 5-10 kg.

19

• The cylinder is then locked and rotated at the speed of 30-33 rpm for a total
of 500 -1000 revolutions depending upon the gradation of aggregates.

• After specified revolutions, the material is sieved through 1.7 mm sieve and
passed fraction is expressed as percentage total weight of the sample.

• IS specifications: Los Angeles abrasion value should be less than 30% for
cement concrete and bituminous concrete. Up to 50% are allowed for base
courses like WBM and bituminous macadam.
Water Bound Macadam

20

10
 15-03-2023

21

22

11
 15-03-2023

Impact test (IS:2386 part-IV)

• The aggregate impact test is carried out to evaluate the resistance to impact of
aggregates or toughness of the aggregates.

• Aggregates passing 12.5 mm sieve and retained on 10 mm sieve is filled in a

cylindrical steel cup of internal dia 10.2 mm and depth 5 cm which is attached
to a metal base of impact testing machine.

• The material is filled in 3 layers where each layer is tamped for 25 number of
blows.

• Metal hammer of weight 13.5 to 14 Kg is arranged to drop with a free fall of

38.0 cm by vertical guides and the test specimen is subjected to 15 numbers of
blows.

23

• The crushed aggregate is allowed to pass through 2.36 mm IS sieve.

And the impact value is measured as percentage of aggregates
passing sieve (W2) to the total weight of the sample (W1).
Aggregate impact value = (W2/W1)*100
• IS specifications: Impact value should not exceed 30% for wearing
courses, 35% fornon-wearing
45% for bituminous macadam
course andhigh40%
and 22% for for concrete
strength WBM >M base
65

course.

24

12
 15-03-2023

25

Shape tests (IS:2386 part-I)

• The particle shape of the aggregate mass is determined by the
percentage of flaky and elongated particles in it.

• The flakiness index is defined as the percentage by weight of aggregate

particles whose least dimension is less than 0.6 times their mean size.

• The elongation index of an aggregate is defined as the percentage by

weight of particles whose greatest dimension (length) is 1.8 times their
mean dimension. This test is applicable to aggregates larger than 6.3
mm.

26

13
 15-03-2023

Flakiness gauge
Elongation gauge

REQUIRED SAMPLE
Max. Size Present In Substantial Min. Weight Of Sample To Be
Proportions.( Mm ) Taken. (Kgs.)
63.0 50
50 35
40 or 31.5 15
25 5
20 or 16 2
12.5 1
10 0.5
6.3 0.2

27

Flakiness Index
• Collect the sample and weigh it. [A]. Do the sieve analysis.

• Take the retained sample in each sieve [except 63-mm sieve] and pass it
through the Thickness [metal] gauge.

• Take the weights of the passed sample. Add all these weights [B].

• Flakiness Index = [B / A] x 100.

Elongation Index
• Collect the sample and weigh it. (A). Do the sieve analysis.

• Take the retained sample in each and every sieve (except 50-mm sieve) and
pass it through the Length (metal) gauge.

• Take the weights of the retained sample. Add all these weights (B).

• Elongation Index = [B / A] x 100.

28

14
 15-03-2023

29

30

15
 15-03-2023

Observation table: Flakiness Index

31

32

16
 15-03-2023

33

Observation Table: Elongation Index

34

17
 15-03-2023

Angularity Number

35

Specific Gravity and Water

Absorption IS 2386 - Part -III
• The specific gravity and water absorption of aggregates are important
properties that are required for the design of concrete and bituminous
mixes.
• The specific gravity of a solid is the ratio of its mass to that of an equal
volume of distilled water at a specified temperature.
• The aggregates may contain water-permeable voids, so two measures of
specific gravity of aggregates are used: apparent specific gravity and
bulk specific gravity.
• Stones having low specific gravity are generally weaker than those
having higher values.

36

18
 15-03-2023

• 2kg of dry aggregate sample is placed in wire basket and immersed in water
for 24hrs.

• The sample is weighed in water and buoyant weight is found.

• The aggregates are then taken out weighed after drying the surface. Then the
aggregates are dried in an oven for 24hrs at a temperature of 100-110˚C, and
then the dry weight is determined.

• The specific gravity is calculated by dividing the dry weight of aggregate

by weight of equal volume of water.

• The water absorption is expressed in terms of over dried weight of

aggregates.

• Specific gravity of vary from 2.6 to 2.9. Water absorption greater than 0.6 are
not acceptable.

37

Calculations

38

19
 15-03-2023

Soundness test (IS:2386 part-V)

• Soundness test is intended to study the resistance of aggregates to weathering
action, by conducting accelerated weathering test cycles.

• To ascertain the durability aggregates are subjected to freezing and thawing.

• Aggregates are subjected to cycles of alternate wetting in a saturated solution of

either sodium sulphate or magnesium sulphate for 16 - 18 hours and then dried
in oven at 105-110 ˚C to a constant weight.

• After five cycles, the loss in weight of aggregates is determined by sieving out
all undersized particles and weighing.

• And the loss in weight should not exceed 12 percent when tested with sodium
sulphate and 18 percent with magnesium sulphate solution

39

40

20
 15-03-2023

Bitumen adhesion test

• Bitumen adheres well to all normal types of road aggregates provided they are
dry and free from dust. In the absence of water there is practically no adhesion
problem of bituminous construction. Adhesion problem occurs when the
aggregate is wet and cold. This problem can be dealt with by removing moisture
from the aggregate by drying and increasing the mixing temperature. Further,
the presence of water causes stripping of binder from the coated aggregates.
These problems occur when bitumen mixture is permeable to water.
• Several laboratory tests are conducted to arbitrarily determine the adhesion of
bitumen binder to an aggregate in the presence of water. Static immersion test
is one specified by IRC and is quite simple. The principle of the test is by
immersing aggregate fully coated with binder in water maintained
at 40˚C temperature for 24 hours. IRC has specified maximum stripping value
of aggregates should not exceed 5%.

41

Bitumen
DESIRABLE PROPERTIES AND TESTS

42

21
 15-03-2023

Pavement materials: Bitumen

• Bituminous materials or asphalts are used for roadway construction,
because of their excellent binding characteristics and water proofing
properties and relatively low cost

• Bituminous materials consists of bitumen which is a black or dark

coloured solid or viscous cementitious substances consists chiefly high
molecular weight hydrocarbons derived from distillation of petroleum
or natural asphalt, has adhesive properties, and is soluble in carbon
disulphide

• Tars are residues from the destructive distillation of organic substances

such as coal, wood, or petroleum and are temperature sensitive than
bitumen. Bitumen will be dissolved in petroleum oils where unlike tar.

43

44

22
 15-03-2023

Requirements of Bitumen
• The bitumen should not be highly temperature susceptible: during the
hottest weather the mix should not become too soft or unstable, and
during cold weather the mix should not become too brittle causing
cracks.

• The viscosity of the bitumen at the time of mixing and compaction

should be adequate. This can be achieved by use of cutbacks or
emulsions of suitable grades or by heating the bitumen and aggregates
prior to mixing.

• There should be adequate affinity and adhesion between the bitumen

and aggregates used in the mix.

45

Note

Cutback bitumen is a range of binders that are

produced by adding a hydrocarbon solvent such as
paraffin or mineral turpentine to the penetration
grade bitumen and mixing them. as the solvent
evaporates, the binder returns to its original form
(penetration grade) to stick the particles with one
another.

46

23
 15-03-2023

Tests on bitumen
The following tests are usually conducted to evaluate different properties of
bituminous materials.
• Penetration test
• Ductility test
• Softening point test
• Specific gravity test
• Viscosity test
• Flash and Fire point test
• Float test
• Water content test
• Loss on heating test

47

Penetration test
• It measures the hardness or softness of bitumen by measuring the
depth in tenths of a millimeter to which a standard loaded needle
will penetrate vertically in 5 seconds.

• The penetrometer consists of a needle assembly with a total weight

of 100g and a device for releasing and locking in any position.

• The bitumen is softened to a pouring consistency, stirred thoroughly

and poured into containers at a depth at least 15 mm in excess of the
expected penetration.

• The test should be conducted at a specified temperature of 25˚ C.

48

24
 15-03-2023

49

• It may be noted that penetration value is largely influenced by any

inaccuracy with regards to pouring temperature, size of the needle,
weight placed on the needle and the test temperature.

• A grade of 40/50 bitumen means the penetration value is in the range

40 to 50 at standard test conditions. In hot climates, a lower
penetration grade is preferred.

Penetration Test Setup

50

25
 15-03-2023

Grading of bitumen helps to assess its suitability in different climatic

conditions and types of construction. For bituminous macadam and
penetration macadam, IRC suggests bitumen grades 30/40, 60/70,
80/100. In warmer regions, lower penetration grades are preferred to
avoid softening whereas higher penetration grades like 180/200 are
used in colder regions to prevent the occurrence of excessive
brittleness. High penetration grade is used in spray application works.

Bitumen Penetration Test IS Code is IS:1203-

1978 – Method of testing bitumen and tar.

51

Ductility test
• Ductility is the property of bitumen that permits it to undergo great
deformation or elongation.

• Ductility is defined as the distance in cm, to which a standard sample or

briquette of the material will be elongated without breaking.

• This test is to measure the adhesive property of bitumen and its ability
to stretch.

• The bitumen sample is heated and poured in the mould assembly placed
on a plate.

• These samples with moulds are cooled in the air and then in water bath
at 27 ˚ C temperature.

52

26
 15-03-2023

• The excess bitumen is cut and the surface is leveled using a hot knife.

• Then the mould with assembly containing sample is kept in water bath
of the ductility machine for about 90 minutes.

• The sides of the moulds are removed, the clips are hooked on the
machine and the machine is operated.

• The distance up to the point of breaking of thread is the ductility value

which is reported in cm.

• The ductility value gets affected by factors such as pouring temperature,

test temperature, rate of pulling etc. A minimum ductility value of 75 cm
has been specified by the BIS.

Ductility Test

53

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TE8zYxUJHt0

54

27
 15-03-2023

Viscosity test
• Viscosity denotes the fluid property of bituminous material and it is a
measure of resistance to flow.

• Low or high viscosity during compaction or mixing has been observed

to result in lower stability values.

• At high viscosity, it resist the compactive effort and thereby resulting

mix is heterogeneous, hence low stability values.

• And at low viscosity instead of providing a uniform film over

aggregates, it will lubricate the aggregate particles.

55

• Orifice type viscometers are used to indirectly find the viscosity of

liquid binders like cutbacks and emulsions.

• The viscosity expressed in seconds is the time taken by the 50 ml

bitumen material to pass through the orifice of a cup, under standard
test conditions and specified temperature.

• Viscosity of a cutback can be measured with either 4.0 mm orifice at

25 ˚ C or 10 mm orifice at 25 or 40˚ C

Viscosity Test

56

28
 15-03-2023

Softening point test

• Softening point denotes the temperature at which the bitumen attains a
particular degree of softening under the specifications of test.
• Higher softening point indicates lower temperature susceptibility and is
preferred in hot climates.
• The test is conducted by using Ring and Ball apparatus.
• A brass ring containing test sample of bitumen is suspended in liquid
like water or glycerin at a given temperature.
• A steel ball is placed upon the bitumen sample and the liquid medium is
heated at a rate of 5 ˚ C per minute.
• Temperature is noted when the softened bitumen touches the metal plate
which is at a specified distance below.

57

Softening point of various bitumen grades used in paving jobs vary

between 35 to 70˚C

Softening Point Test Setup

58

29
 15-03-2023

59

Flash and fire point test

• At high temperatures depending upon the grades of bitumen
materials leave out volatiles.
• These volatiles catch fire which is very hazardous and therefore it is
essential to qualify this temperature for each bitumen grade.
• BIS defined the flash point as the temperature at which the vapour
of bitumen momentarily catches fire in the form of flash under
specified test conditions.
• The fire point is defined as the lowest temperature under specified
test conditions at which the bituminous material gets ignited and
burns.

60

30
 15-03-2023

• Pensky-Martens Closed Tester or open tester is used.

• The material is filled in the cup up to a filling mark. The lid is placed to
close the cup in a closed system. All accessories including thermometer
of the specified range are suitably fixed.

• The bitumen sample is then heated. The heating is done at the rate of 5 to
6˚ C per minute. The stirring is done at a rate of approximately 60
revolutions per minute.

• The test flame is applied at intervals depending upon the expected flash
and fire points.

• First application is made at least 17˚ C below the actual flash point and
then at every 1˚ to 3˚ C. Minimum flash point is 175 ˚ C

61

• The stirring discontinued during the application the of the test flame

• The flash point is taken as the temperature read on the thermometer

at the time of the flame application that causes a bright flash in the
interior of the cup in closed system.

• For open cup it is the instance when flash appears first at any point
on the surface of the material.

• The heating is continued until the volatile ignites and the material
continues to burn for 5 seconds.

• The temperature of the sample material when this occurs is recorded

as the fire point.

62

31
 15-03-2023

63

Specific gravity test

• In paving jobs, to classify a binder, density property is of great use. In
most cases bitumen is weighed, but when used with aggregates, the
bitumen is converted to volume using density values. The density of
bitumen is greatly influenced by its chemical composition. Increase in
aromatic type mineral impurities cause an increase in specific gravity.
• The specific gravity of bitumen is defined as the ratio of mass of given
volume of bitumen of known content to the mass of equal volume of
water at 27 ˚C.
• The specific gravity can be measured using either pycnometer or
preparing a cube specimen of bitumen in semi solid or solid state. The
specific gravity of bitumen varies from 0.97 to 1.02.

64

32
 15-03-2023

https://pavementinteractive.org/reference-desk/testing/asphalt-
tests/bulk-specific-gravity/

65

66

33
 15-03-2023

Self exploration

1. Dynamic Viscosity Vs. Kinematic Viscosity

2. Bulk Specific gravity Vs. Apparent specific gravity
3. Role of specific gravity, buoyancy forces, density, mass Vs. Weight
4. CBR Vs. Plate load test
5. Bitumen Vs. Asphalt Vs. Tar
6. Cutbacks Vs. Emulsifiers
7. Penetration Grade Vs. Viscosity Grade

67

34
 15-03-2023

Tests on soil

By
Dr. Hari Krishna Gaddam

California Bearing Ratio Test (CBR)

1
 15-03-2023

CBR (IS: 2720 (Part 16): 1987)

• California Bearing Ratio (CBR) test was
developed by the California Division of
Highway as a method of classifying and
evaluating soil-sub grade and base course
materials for flexible pavements
• CBR test, an empirical test, has been used to
determine the material properties for
pavement design.

CBR
• Empirical tests measure the strength of the
material and are not a true representation of the
resilient modulus.
• It is a penetration test wherein a standard piston,
having an area of 50 mm diameter, is used to
penetrate the soil at a standard rate of 1.25
mm/minute. The pressure up to a penetration of
12.5 mm and it's ratio to the bearing value of a
standard crushed rock is termed as the CBR.

2
 15-03-2023

CBR
• In most cases, CBR decreases as the
penetration increases. The ratio at 2.5 mm
penetration is used as the CBR.
• In some case, the ratio at 5 mm may be
greater than that at 2.5 mm. If this occurs, the
ratio at 5 mm should be used.

CBR
• The CBR is a measure of resistance of a material
to penetration of standard plunger under
controlled density and moisture conditions.
• The test procedure should be strictly adhered if
high degree of reproducibility is desired.
• The CBR test may be conducted in re-moulded or
undisturbed specimen in the laboratory. The test
is simple and has been extensively investigated
for field correlations of flexible pavement
thickness requirement.

3
 15-03-2023

CBR Applications
• This test method is used to evaluate the
potential strength of subgrade, subbase, and
base course materials, including recycled
materials for use in the design of road and
airfield pavements. The CBR value obtained in
this test forms an integral part of several
flexible pavement design methods.

4
 15-03-2023

CBR Test Procedure

• The laboratory CBR apparatus consists of a mould 150 mm diameter
with a base plate and a collar, a loading frame and dial gauges for
measuring the penetration values and the expansion on soakinkg

• The specimen in the mould is soaked in water for four days and the
swelling and water absorption values are noted. The surcharge
weight is placed on the top of the specimen in the mould and the
assembly is placed under the plunger of the loading frame

• Load is applied on the sample by a standard plunger with dia of 50

mm at the rate of 1.25 mm/min. A load penetration curve is drawn.
The load values on standard crushed stones are 1370 kg and 2055 kg
at 2.5 mm and 5.0 mm penetrations respectively

CBR Test Procedure

• CBR value is expressed as a percentage of the actual load causing the
penetrations of 2.5 mm or 5.0 mm to the standard loads mentioned above.
Therefore,

10

5
 15-03-2023

CBR Test Procedure

• Two values of CBR will be obtained. If the value of 2.5 mm is greater than that
of 5.0 mm penetration, the former is adopted. If the CBR value obtained from
test at 5.0 mm penetration is higher than that at 2.5 mm, then the test is to be
repeated for checking.
• If the check test again gives similar results, then higher value obtained at 5.0
mm penetration is reported as the CBR value. The average CBR value of three
test specimens is reported as the CBR value of the sample.

11

CBR corrections

12

6
 15-03-2023

Plate Load Test

13

PLATE LOAD TEST (IS:1888-1982)

• The subgrade modulus is defined as the load intensity ‘p’ applied on the
standard plate per unit deflection i.e. k=p/d, where the value of
deflection d = 1.25 mm

• The plate load test was originally devised to find the modulus of
subgrade reaction of prepared subgrade soil in the Westergaaard’s
analysis for wheel load stresses in cement concrete pavements.

14

7
 15-03-2023

APPLICATION OF THE PLATE

LOAD TEST
• K-value is used in the analysis of stresses in rigid pavements.

• The value of radius of relative stiffness (ℓ) depends upon the

properties of the pavement slab & the subgrade modulus (k)

• The relation b/w ‘k’ & ‘ℓ’ can be had from the equation below:

• ℓ = [Eh3/12k(1-µ2)]0.25

• K-value has the following applications in pavement design &

evaluation apart from the above:

15

Application of K-value in pavement

design & evaluation
• Repeated plate load test is carried out to find the subgrade support in
flexible pavement design by ‘McLeod’ method of flexible pavement
design

• The exact load-deflection behavior of the soil or the pavement layer in-
situ for static loads is obtained by conducting plate load test at the site

• The loaded area may be kept equal to the actual loaded area under the
design wheel load in field

• The supporting power of the soil subgrade or a pavement layer may be

found for the evaluation of pavements

16

8
 15-03-2023

Cont…
• The elastic modulus values and the ratio of E1/E2 are found by
carrying out plate load tests on the subgrade and the base coarse layer,
in flexible pavement design using Burmister’s elastic two layer theory

• Similarly, the ratios E1/E2 and E2/E3 are made use of the design
using elastic three layer theoryplate load tests on the subgrade and the
base coarse layer, in flexible pavement design using Burmister’s
elastic two layer theory

17

EQUIPMENT & PROCEDURE

• Equipment:
▪ Bearing plate
▪ Loading equipment
▪ Instruments to measure the applied loads & resulting settlement or
deflection
• Bearing plate
▪ It consists of a mild steel plate of dia 750 mm & thickness 25 mm
▪ Smaller bearing plates of dia 450 or 300 mm & thickness 25 mm
may also be used.
▪ Stiffening plates of dia 600, 450, 300 & 225 mm and thickness of
25 mm are used to prevent bending of the large plate of dia 750
mm during application of heavy loads

18

9
 15-03-2023

19

• Loading Equipments

▪ It consists of a reaction frame or a dead load and a hydraulic or screw jack

of capacity 15,000 kg

▪ The reaction frame may suitably be loaded to give the reaction load of
about 15 tonnes on the plate

▪ The load applied may be measured either by a proving ring with dial
gauge assembly or a load cell
• Settlement Measurements:
▪ It may be made by means of three or four dial gauges with an accuracy of
0.01 mm, fixed on the periphery of the nearing plate from an independent
datum frame/ bar

▪ The datum frame should be supported far from the loaded area

20

10
 15-03-2023

PROCEDURE
• Preparation of test area & seating

• Test set up

• Seating the plate

• Loading procedure & calculation

• Corrections for k-value-

▪ Correction of k-value to account for smaller plate size

▪ Correction of k-value to account for subsequent soaking of

subgrade

▪ Correction of k-value to account for other factors

21

Preparation of test area & seating

• The test site is prepared & loose material is removed so that the 750
mm dia plate rests horizontally in full contact with the surface of soil
subgrade

• If the k-value of natural ground is to be ascertained, the top soil is

stripped off & removed up to a depth of about 250 mm

• If the test is to be got conducted on the compacted fill or subgrade,

care is to be taken that the test is conducted at the dry density &
moisture content of the soil that are likely to exist subsequent to the
construction

22

11
 15-03-2023

Preparation of test area & seating

• In order to ensure full contact of the plate, oil is applied on the
bottom of the plate and the plate is rotated to mark the irregularities
and high spots of the seating surface is trimmed

• For granular soil with gravel particles, after leveling of the surface
by a straight edge, it may be necessary to apply a thin layer of
plaster of Paris & allow the same to set before applying the load

• The level surface of the plate is checked using a bubble tube place
on the plate in different positions

23

Test set up
• The bearing plate is seated on the prepared surface & the stiffening
plates are placed one above the other in the decreasing order of the dia

• The reaction load frame is set up above the center of the plate

• The loading jack is placed centrally above the top of the set of plates
& the proving ring with dial gauge b/w the loading jack & the reaction
load frame in order to measure the load applied

• Additional spacer discs or cylinders may be required to be placed b/w

the jack/load measuring device & the reaction load frame

24

12
 15-03-2023

25

26

13
 15-03-2023

Test set up
• Three or four dial gauges are to be uniformly spaced and set up near
the rim of the bearing plate from an independent datum frame or bar
in order to measure the settlement readings due to load application

• The supports of this datum are placed away from the loading plate
as well as the supports of the loading frame such they are not
affected by the loading operations

27

Seating the plate

• After seating the bearing plate & setting up the loading and
settlement measuring devices are installed, a seating load of 310 kg
is applied on the 75 cm dia plate, equivalent to a pressure of 0.07
kg/cm2 for light traffic pavements

• Seating load of 620 kg, or seating pressure of 0.14 kg/cm2 is applied

for heavy traffic pavements

• The seating load may be held till there is no significant settlement

and then it is released

• Cyclic loading under seating load may be applied if required, to

obtain good seating

28

14
 15-03-2023

LOADING PROCEDURE &

CALCULATION (METHOD-1)
• The seating load applied is released & the load reading is set to zero

• All the settlement dial gauge readings are either set to zero or the
initial dial reading are noted corresponding to zero load

• Then the load is applied by means of the jack and it is increased to

sufficient magnitude to cause an average settlement of about 0.25 mm
and the load is retained, observing the settlement dial readings

• When there is no appreciable increase in settlement or when the rate

of settlement is less than 0.025 mm per minute, the load dial reading
& the settlement dial readings of the individual dial gauges are noted

29

Contd…

• The average of the three of four dial readings is taken as the average
settlement of the plate corresponding to the applied load

• The load is then increased till the average settlement increase to a

further amount of about 0.25 mm , and the load and the settlement
dial readings are noted as before

• The procedure is repeated till the total average settlement of the plate
is not less than 1.75 mm

30

15
 15-03-2023

Observation sheet
Load dial Load/un
Av. (proving ring it area
Approx. Settlement dial readings, Settlement,d dial) reading p, Remarks
settlem division mm dividions kg/cm2
ent, mm
1 2 3 4
0.00
0.25
0.50
0.75
1.00
1.25
1.50
1.75

31

Modulus of subgrade reaction (k)

• K = p/d = p/0.125 kg/cm3

• p = pressure corresponding to average settlement, d = 0.125 cm,

obtained from the graph, Settlement Vs Pressure
Mean load pressure, kg/cm2

p kg/cm2
K = p/ ∆
0.5
K = p/0.125 kg/cm2

0 0.1 0.2
Mean settlement, ∆ cm

32

16
 15-03-2023

LOADING PROCEDURE &

CALCULATION, METHOD-2
• After the application of seating load & hold it for sufficient time,
without releasing the seating load, the settlement dial gauges are set
to zero and an additional load of 3100kg (31kN) is applied

• If the test is conducted on relatively weak cohesive soils (which is

indicated by average settlement exceeding 1.25 mm under 3100kg
load on the plate), the applied load is held until the rate of settlement
is less than 0.05 mm per minute and after that the readings are noted

33

Contd…
• If the test is conducted on granular soils or on relatively strong
cohesive soils (which is indicated by average settlement reading
much lower than 1.25mm under the applied load of 3100 kg on the
plate), additional load of 1550kg is applied on the plate (without
releasing the load already applied) and the settlement observations are
recorded when the rate of settlement is lower than the specified rate

• This process of applying of applying the load increments are

continued until the total load applied on the plate is 9300kg(93kN)

• This load is held for 15 minutes or until the rate of settlement is less
than 0.02 mm per minute

34

17
 15-03-2023

Correction of k-value to account for

smaller plate size
• This case is often practiced where soil with high bearing capacity is
encountered

• In such case, very heavy reaction load is needed to conduct standard

plate bearing test using 75 cm dia plate to find the standard k-value

• If the reaction load available is not adequate, a plate of dia smaller

plate size of 30 cm is often adopted

• For design of rigid pavement for highways, plate size of 30 cm is

often made use of for determination of k-value

35

Contd..
• In such cases, k1 is determined using smaller or non-standard plate
of radius a1, and this value is to be multiplied by a correction factor
in order to determine the subgrade modulus, k corresponding to the
standard plate dia 2a = 75 cm

• The subgrade modulus k1 of a soil is inversely proportional to the

radius a1 of the plate & therefore k.a. is a constant

• Hence, if ‘k’ is the subgrade modulus corresponding to standard

plate of radius ‘a’, then:

• ka = k1a1

• k= k1a1/a

36

18
 15-03-2023

37

Contd…

• Thus, the ratio (a1/a) is the correction factor to be applied to the

subgrade modulus k1 determined using non-standard plate of radius a1

• If a 30 cm dia is used for finding the subgrade modulus k30, the

corresponding factor to be applied to obtain the k75-value
corresponding to standard plate of dia 75 cm is = 15/37.5 = 0.4

• i.e. k75 = 0.4k30

38

19
 15-03-2023

Correction of k-value to account for

subsequent soaking of subgrade
• K-value found by plate load test depends on the moisture content &
density of the soil at the time of testing

• Subsequent increase in moisture content of the subgrade due to

soaking of the soil will result in decrease in k-value (ks)

• For the purpose of pavement design, it is necessary to determine this

decreased k-value (ks) under the highest possible field moisture
content or under soaked condition

39

Contd..
• As it is not practicable to conduct plate load tests in the field every
time under such adverse moisture condition, a simplified approach is
adopted to apply a correction factor for typical soil

• The correction factor to be applied is determined from the results of

two sets of consolidation tests carried out on undisturbed soil samples
collected from the same location of the subgrade

• One consolidation test is conducted on sample at the field moisture

content & the other test after allowing the specimen to absorb water
in the consoli-meter and getting saturated

40

20
 15-03-2023

Contd..
• The first undisturbed soil specimen at the field moisture content is
placed in the consolido-meter and a load equivalent to the seating
load to cause a pressure of 0.07 kg/cm2 on the specimen is applied

• This seating load is allowed to remain on the specimen until there is

no further settlement as indicated by the consolidation dial gauge
and the initial settlement dial reading is set to zero

• An additional load is applied to cause a pressure of 0.7kg/cm2 on

this consolidation test specimen and allowed to remain till there is
no vertical movement & then the settlement dial reading is recorded

41

Contd…
• The deformation or settlement of the specimen under the applied
load is given by difference between the initial and final readings of
the settlement dial & let this value be = d, mm

• The second specimen is placed in the consolidometer with water in

it and is allowed to get saturated under the initial applied seating
pressure of 0.07 kg/cm2 and the load is allowed to remain on the
sample till there is no vertical movement and then the initial dial
gauge reading is set to zero

• An additional load is applied to cause a pressure of 0.70kg/cm2 on

this soaked specimen and is allowed to remain till there is no
vertical movement & then final settlement dial reading is recorded

42

21
 15-03-2023

Contd..
• The difference between the initial & final readings of the settlement
dial of the soaked specimen is determined = ds mm

• The settlement value, ds of soaked specimen will be higher than the

settlement value d of the unsoaked specimen

• The ratio (d/ds), which is less than 1.0, is taken as the correction
factor to be applied to estimate the soaked subgrade modulus ks

• The estimated value of subgrade modulus under soaked condition,

ks is given by:

Ks =k d/ds

43

Correction of k-value to account for other

factors
• Under the heavy loads, the large bearing plate of 75 cm dia may
bend at the centre w.r.t. the rim

• A correction factor to account for the bending of the plate may be

applied using chart

• Correction may also be required to be applied on the load-deflection

curve, when it deviates from the straight line, particularly when the
loads applied on the plate are high, upto 9300 kg load when the
subgrade modulus exceeds 5.55 kg/cm3

44

22
 DC Dream Civil

Soil Tests for Road Construction : 5 Tests, Purposes & Advantages of

Soil Tests
January 16, 2020

Table of Contents
  1. Purposes of Soil Tests for Road Construction  
  2. Soil Tests for Road Construction  
  a. Moisture Content Test  
  b. Specific Gravity Test By Pycnometer Method  
  c. Particle Size Distribution Test  
  d. Proctor Test  
  e. California Bearing Ratio Test  
  f. Core Cutter Method  
  g. Sand Replacement Method  
  3. Advantages of Soil Tests for Road Construction  

Several soil tests for road construction must be carried out before the commencement of the road construction
work to understand the nature and properties of soil. Also, for any road construction, it is necessary to determine
the soil profile.

Soil tests are necessary to plan and design the proposed structure being constructed.

Soil can be regarded as the structural basis of any construction work as most structures are erected on the soil.
In this regard, soil can be considered the foundation of all types of surface construction, including roads.

Soil should have an acceptable quality to ensure adequate structural strength and safety. Thus, soil testing is the
first step in any construction work, particularly road construction.
 

  1. Purposes of Soil Tests for Road Construction  

a. To analyze the quality of the soil.

b. To determine the moisture present in the soil.

c. To determine the compaction characteristic of various soil.

d. To find out the strength of the subgrade.

e. To determine the nature of the soil.

  2. Soil Tests for Road Construction  

The soil tests that must be carried out for road construction are briefly explained as follows:

  a. Moisture Content Test  

The moisture content of the soil is the amount of water it contains and is expressed as the percentage of dry
mass.

The test for determining the moisture content of the soil is vital for assessing the existing natural state of the
soil.

It is also necessary to understand the bearing capacity and the probable settlement of the soil.

It is carried out in the laboratory itself.

Apparatus Required:

1. Non-corrodible airtight container

2. Weighing Balance of adequate sensitivity

3. Desiccator

4. Oven

Procedure:

The procedure for laboratory determination of moisture content can be listed as follows:

i. The air-tight container along with its lid must be first weighed(W1).
ii. The specimen sample is then taken in the container, and the container, along with its lid and the sample, is
weighed(W2).

iii. Then, the container is left in the oven. The specimen is dried to a constant weight at a temperature ranging
from 105 degrees Celsius to 110 degrees Celsius for about 16 to 24 hours.

iv. The container, lid, and dried sample are finally weighed(W3).

v. The moisture content is then calculated using the following formula:

W= [ (W2-W3) / (W3-W1) ] * 100

Where,

W1= Weight of the container with a lid in grams

W2= Weight of the container with lid and wet sample in grams

W3= Weight of the container with lid and dry sample in grams

  b. Specific Gravity Test By Pycnometer Method  

The specific gravity of soil may be defined as the ratio of the mass of solids to the mass of an equivalent
volume of water at 4ºC.

Mathematically, 

G = Ms / Mw = ρs / ρw = γs / γw

Where, 

ρs = Density of Solid

ρw = Density of Water 

γs = Unit Weight of Solid

γw = Unit Weight of Water

A specific gravity test is necessary to understand various soil properties such as void ratio, degree of saturation,
etc.

Pycnometer Method 

A pycnometer or constant volume method is most reliable for determining specific gravity. Normally about 200
gm of the dry mass of the sample and 500 cc. Constant volume bottles are taken.

Apparatus Required:

1. Pycnometer
Fig: Pycnometer

2. Weighing Balance with a weighing accuracy of 1gm

Procedure:

The laboratory procedure for determining the specific gravity of soil by pycnometer method can be listed as
follows:

1. Find the mass of the empty pycnometer, say M1.

2. Fill pycnometer with about 200 gm of dry sample and take its weight, say M2.

3. Add water to the pycnometer such that it is half full of water. The air in the soil sample is completely expelled
by heating or suction.

Then the water is added to its full capacity, and the pycnometer is weighed and say M3

4. Empty the pycnometer of all its contents and clean it. Next, the pycnometer is filled with water only, and its
weight is determined say M4.

Calculation: 

G = [M2-M1] / [ (M2-M1) – (M3-M4)]

Where,

G = Specific Gravity

M1 = Mass of empty container

M2 = Mass of Container + Dry Soil

M3 = Mass of Container + Dry Soil + Water

M4 = Mass of Container + Water

Read Also: Types of Pipes in Civil Engineering & Construction

  c. Particle Size Distribution Test  

The particle size distribution of soil may be defined as the proportion of the dry mass of soil distributed over
specified particle-size ranges, i.e., gradation of soil.

Determining particle size distribution is necessary to check the soil’s suitability for use in road construction.

This test aims to determine the percentages of different grain sizes contained in the soil.

Normally sieve analysis is used for determining the particle distribution for larger particles, and a hydrometer
test is used for the finer ones.

Sieve Analysis For Particle Distribution

Apparatus Required:

1. Weighing Balance

2. Set of sieves

3. Cleaning brush

4. Sieve shaker

Procedure:

The procedure for sieve analysis involves the following series of steps:

1. A sample of about 500 grams is first taken.

2. The representative sample is dried in a ventilated oven.

3. If the sample consists of lumped particles, the lumps must be crushed.

4. The sample is weighed, and its mass is duly recorded.

5. The sieves of different sizes are then taken and arranged in a particular order, i.e., the largest aperture size at
the top and the smallest at the bottom. A pan is placed at the bottom to collect the samples.

6. The weighed sample is poured into the top of the stack of sieves, and the lid is put.

7. The stack of sieves is stacked in the sieve shaker, and the clamps are fixed.
8. The timer is set to 10 or 15 minutes, and the sieve shaker is switched on.

9. Afterwards, the sample retained on each sieve is weighed.

10. The result is then calculated using the following formula:

% Retained = (W sieve /W total ) * 100%

Where,

W sieve = mass of aggregate in the sieve

W total = total mass of aggregate

% cumulative passing = 100% – % cumulative retained

The values are then plotted on the graph with the sieve size on X-axis and the
cumulative % passing on the Y-axis.

  d. Proctor Test  

The Proctor test is a type of compaction test carried out to determine the compaction properties of soil.

In actuality, this test is used for determining the mass of dry soil per cubic meter when the soil is compacted
over a range of moisture contents providing the maximum dry density at the optimum moisture content.
Proctor test includes establishing the relationship between the moisture content and dry density of soils
compacted in a mold of a specific size with a 2.5kg rammer dropped from a height of 30cm.

There are two methods of Proctor Tests.

a. Standard Proctor Test ( AASHO Test)

b. Modified Proctor Test ( Modified AASHO Test )

a. Standard Proctor Test ( AASHO Test)

R.R. Proctor developed Standard Proctor Test. This test is used to determine the optimum moisture content for
the soil under given compaction.

Apparatus Required

a. Standard Proctor Apparatus

i. Cylindrical metal mold of an internal diameter of 4 inches ( 102 mm ) and effective height of 4.6 inches ( 117
mm ) with an internal volume of 1/30 cu. ft ( 0.945 ltr ).

ii. A 50 mm diameter rammer of weight 2.5 kg and height of fall of 1 foot ( 305 mm ), moving in the metallic outer
sleeve.

iii. Detachable collar of 50 mm effective height ( 60 mm total height ).

iv. Detachable base plate

b. Thermostatically controlled oven (105°C +- 110°C)

c. Mixing Tools like a spoon, trowel, and spatula.

d. Tray & scoop

e. Containers

Procedure

i. About 3 kg of air-dried and pulverized soil passing through a 4.75 mm sieve is taken in a tray.

ii. The quantity of water added for the first trial is computed.  The computed quantity of water is added to the soil
in the tray and mixed thoroughly by hand to ensure uniform water distribution.

iii. The mold is cleaned and dried, and the weight of the empty mold with the base plate but without a collar is
taken ( say M1 ). The collar is then attached to the mold.

iv. The mold is filled with wet soil taken from a tray in 3 equal layers and compacted each layer with 25 uniformly
distributed blows on the surface using a standard rammer.

v. The collar is removed, and extra soil is trimmed off to make it level with the top of the mold.

vi. The mold weight with base plate and compacted soil is taken ( say M2 ).

vii. Knowing the mass of compacted soil ( M2-M1 ), bulk density(ρ) is calculated.

i.e. Bulk Density(ρ) = M / V = (M2-M1) / V

Where V = Volume of soil (the same as the volume of the mold).

viii. A representative sample of compacted soil is taken from the middle of the mold, and its water content is
determined. It is best to take 3 or more samples to determine water content.

The dry density of the soil is obtained as :

ρdry = ρ / (1+W)

ix. Several such tests are conducted with soil samples having different moisture content and ρdry workout for all
the tests. 

x. A graph is plotted between dry density and water content to obtain a compaction curve.

xi. The optimum moisture content and the corresponding maximum dry density are determined from the graph.

 
Observations & Calculations:

Dia. of the mold =

Mould Height =

Mould Volume, V=

The specific gravity of soil, G=

Determination No.
Sl. No. Observations and Calculations
1 2 3
Observation
1 Mass of empty mold with base plate
2 Mass of mold compacted soil and base plate
Calculations
3 Mass of compacted soil M = (2) – (1)

4
Bulk Density 
5 Water content, w

6
Dry density 

7
Void ratio 
Dry density at 100% saturation (theoretical)
8

9
Degree of saturation 

Result:  

Maximum dry density (from the plot) =

Optimum water content (from the plot) =

b. Modified Proctor Test ( Modified AASHO Test )

The modified proctor test was developed to give higher standard compaction with the advent of heavy vehicles
and the need for higher compaction.

As this test was standardized by the American Association of State Highway Officials, it is also known as the
modified AASHO test.

The test procedure is similar to a standard proctor test, except for applying higher compactive effort. The mold
used is the same as in the standard proctor test ( proctor mold of capacity 1/30 cu. ft. or 0.945 ltr). But the soil
compacted into 5 layers giving 25 blows to each layer, with a rammer of 10 lb (4.54 kg) and height of fall of 18
inches ( 45.72 cm ).

The dry densities are obtained for different water contents by adopting a similar procedure as in the standard
proctor test, and the compaction curve is drawn.
Since the compactive effort is more for this test than for a standard proctor test, the compaction curve for the
modified proctor lies higher.

The heavier compaction increases the maximum dry density but decreases the optimum moisture content.

  e. California Bearing Ratio Test  

California Bearing Ratio Test is carried out to check the strength of the subgrade of pavement.

By comparing the results of this test with a set of standard curves or values, the thickness of the subsequent
layers can also be determined.

It is a type of penetration test and is extensively used in the design of flexible pavements. This test was
developed by the California Division of Highways of the United States.

California Bearing Ratio is the ratio of force per unit area required to penetrate a soil mass with a piston of
1.25mm/min corresponding to that required for the penetration of a standard material.

CBR = ( Test load / Standard load ) * 100

Apparatus Required:

a. Steel: Cutting Collar

b. Dial Gauges

c. Weighs

d. IS Sieves

e. Penetration Plunger ( Diameter: 50 mm & Height: 100 mm )

f. Spacer Disc ( Diameter: 148 mm &  Height: 47.7 mm )

g. Loading Machine
h. Cylindrical Mould ( Diameter: 150 mm & Height: 175 mm )

i. Rammers

California Bearing Ratio Test Procedure:

The procedure for conducting the CBR test is as follows:

1. Prepare the soil sample passing through a 20 mm IS sieve but retained on a 4.75 mm IS sieve.

3. About 4.5kg to 5.5 kg of the sample is mixed with water ( commonly distilled water ). A spacer disc is placed
over the base plate, and coarse filter paper is placed over the spacer disc. Then internal oiling of the mold is
done, and the mold is fixed in its position. At the top of the mold, a collar is placed.

4. The soil mix is compacted in several layers by static or dynamic compaction.

For Static Compaction: Compacting soil in loading machine ( gradually increasing load ).

For Dynamic Compaction: Compacting soil by rammer ( impact load ).

For light compaction, the soil is compacted into 3 layers by 56 blows with a 2.6 kg rammer from a height of 31
cm.

For heavy compaction, the soil is compacted into 5 layers by 56 blows with a 4.89 kg rammer from a height of 45
cm.

Light Compaction Heavy Compaction

No. of layers 3 5
Rammer Weight 2.6 kg 4.89 kg
Fall 31 cm 45 cm
Blows 56 56

5. The collar is then removed, and the soil is trimmed. The mold is then turned over, and the base plate and
spacer disc are removed.

6. The mold is then weighed and bulk density, as well as dry density, is determined.

7. Then, the mold and the surcharge weight are placed on the penetration test machine.

8. The load is applied to the piston such that the rate of penetration is 1.25mm/min.

9. The load readings at penetrations of 0.5,1.0,2.0,2.5,3.0,4.0,5.0,7.5,10 and 12.5 mm are recorded.

10. The mold is detached from the loading equipment, and moisture content is determined.

 
Standard Load Values for California Bearing Ratio Test:  

Unit Standard
Penetration(mm) Standard Load(kg)
Load(kg/cm2)
2.5 1370 70
5 2055 105
7.5 2630 134
10.0 3180 162
12.5 3600 183

Observations During California Bearing Ratio Test:

Weight of soil taken =

Weight of surcharge =

Area of the plunger, A =

Proving Ring Calibration Factor =

 

Note: Tilt your mobile to view the full table. 

 

Penetration
Sl Proving dial Load on plunger Corrected Unit
(mm)
No. reading (kg) load Load

 Result of California Bearing Ratio Test:  

California Bearing Ratio at 2.5mm penetration =

California Bearing Ratio at 5.0mm penetration =

California Bearing Ratio of subgrade soil =

  f. Core Cutter Method  

Determining dry density by the core cutter method generally involves hammering or jacking a  steel cylinder (
with known mass and volume)  into the soil, thereby determining the mass of the soil.

This method is used for dry density determination.

This method is not desirable for coarse-grained soil or coarse-grained pavement materials.

Apparatus Required:  
1. A steel rammer of mass of 9kg and the overall length, including the foot and staff, of about 900mm.

2. A cylindrical core cutter with 100mm internal diameter and 130mm long.

3. Weighing balance with an accuracy of 1 gram.

4. Steel dolly with 100mm internal diameter and 25mm high.

5. Palette knife.

6. Straight edge, ruler of steel, etc.

Procedure:  

The procedure for the dry density determination by the core cutter method involves the following series of steps:

i. The experimental setup of the cylindrical core cutter is first made.

ii. The steel dolly is placed over the cutter to prevent damage to the edges of the core cutter.

iii. The cylinder is then embedded into the ground up to its full height with the help of a rammer and is taken out
by excavating its sides without disturbing the sample.

iv. The surplus soil at both ends is trimmed, and the weight of the cylinder with soil is determined.

v. Then, volume is determined from the cutter’s known dimension.

vi. Moisture content of the soil is determined with the oven drying method. 

vii. The dry density of the soil is then computed using the following formula:

Bulk Density (γ t ) = (W 2 – W 1 ) / V

Dry Density (γ d ) = γ t / ( 1 + W)

Where,
W 1 = Weight of cutter

W 2 = Weight of the soil + cutter

W 2 – W 1 = Weight of soil

V = Volume of the cutter

Observation and Calculations:  

Determination No.
Sl. No. Observations and Calculations
1 2 3
Observations
1 Core cutter No.
2 Internal diameter
3 Internal height
4 Mass of empty core cutter (M1)

5 Mass of core cutter with soils (M2)

Calculations
6 M=M2 – M1
7 The volume of cutter V
8 Water content
9 Dry density using formula

Results of Core Cutter Method:  

Dry density of the soil= ________g/ml.

Read Also: Los Angeles Abrasion Test

  g. Sand Replacement Method  

Usually, the soil after compaction in the field has to be checked for the specified dry density. This is usually done
by the sand replacement method.

This method is also commonly known as the Sand Cone Method.

The determination of dry density is of utmost importance as it is required for the estimation of the bearing
capacity of the soil.

Furthermore, it is also used for assessing the pressure on underlying strata of soil, settlement of the soil as well
as the stability of the soil layer.

This method is highly suitable for cohesionless soil.

The general test procedure for determining the dry density of soil by the sand replacement method is relatively
simple and easy to conduct.

The test can be carried out using a small or large cylinder. Commonly, it is conducted using a large cylinder.

The sand replacement test is mostly carried out at the ground or formation levels.

Apparatus: 

1. Sand Cone Apparatus or Sand Pouring Cylinder.

2. Soil excavation and cutting equipment such as scrapers.

3. A plane surface such as a square glass plate with a thickness of 9mm or larger.

4. A metal container for the collection of the excavated soil.

5. A square metal tray about 40 mm deep with a hole of about 100mm in diameter at the center of the tray.

6. Weighing balance with an accuracy of up to 1 gram.

7. A ventilated oven.

Procedure: 

The procedure for the determination of dry density by the sand replacement method involves the following series
of steps:
i. Initially, the apparatus is set up as shown in the figure below.

ii. The square tray is then placed on the leveled ground.

iii. A small quantity of soil is then excavated from the hole.

iv. The excavated soil is duly weighed, and the water content of the excavated soil is determined.

v. The hole is then filled by the sand of known density from a sand bottle.

vi. Then, the weight of the sand filling the cone of the sand bottle is taken separately.

vii. The dry density is computed as follows:

Weight of sand filling the hole = W 2 – W 3 – W 4

Unit weight of sand = γ

Volume of sand = (W 2 – W 3 – W 4 ) / γ = Volume of hole (V)

Bulk density (γ t ) = W 1 / V

Thus,

Dry Density (γ d ) = γ t / ( 1 + W)

Where,

W 1 = Weight of soil in the hole

W 2 = Weight of the sand bottle before pouring

W 3 = Weight of sand bottle after pouring

W 4 = Weight of sand filling conical funnel

W = Water Content

  3. Advantages of Soil Tests for Road Construction  

a. It helps to finalize the requirement of soil for road construction.

b. It gives the knowledge about various properties of soil.

c. It helps to determine the moisture content present in the soil.

d. It helps to find out the strength of road or pavement subgrade.

e. It helps to analyze the quality of the soil.

f. Material requirements for road construction and the nature of the road can be easily determined.

g. It helps to predict the thickness of the road pavement.

i. It helps to determine the load-bearing capacity of the road.

Read Also: Core Cutter Method 

Read Also: Parapet Wall | Types of Parapet Wall | Construction & Codal Provision of Parapet Wall