Chapter Six: Highway Materials

Course Contents:
 Introduction and classification of highway materials

 Sub-grade soil

 Road Aggregate

 Bituminous road binder

 Tests on bitumen binders

 Bituminous mixes

6.1 Introduction and classification of highway materials:

The highway construction can be characterized by a large right-of-way having a length of a
considerable amount. Depending upon the type of highway pavement, flexible or rigid the material
required for highway construction has to be decided. Highway Materials can be classified into the
following three groups:

• Mineral Materials: Mineral materials are used for embankment construction, pavement
construction, and filler materials. Subgrade soil, sand, gravels, pebbles, blast furnace slag fall
into this type of material.

• Binding Materials: Stone dust, cement, lime, bitumen, tar, and other organic materials are
binding materials. Rigid or flexible bonds can be prepared by the selection of different materials.

• Common materials: Reinforcing steels, gabion wires, cobbles, boulders, bricks, stones, timber
are common materials used in highway construction.

Depending upon the classification, the following materials are used in normal highway construction:

 Soil

 Aggregates

 Bituminous Materials

 Portland Cement Concrete

 Pavement Marking Materials

 Admixtures

 Structural Steel

6.2 Sub-grade soil: In transportation engineering, the subgrade is the native material underneath a
construction road, pavement, or railway track. It is also called formation level as well as the subgrade
may also refer to imported material that has been used to build an embankment. The native soil is
compacted to resist its overload formed by any cutting, snatching, or filling. This can be a natural,
undisturbed material, although usually natural soil will be compacted to uniformity. The major works of
pavement depend on the use of soil. The properties of soil are used to determine the thickness of the
layer. The steps are taken to prepare foundations to manipulate and transport soils and prepare them for
use as aggregates account for well over 70 percent of the total cost of construction for a normal highway
project. It is easy to see then why knowledgeable consideration of every aspect of soils termed as
subgrade is very important to successful highway engineering. Subgrade soil provides support to the
pavement from beneath which possesses sufficient stability under adverse loading and climatic
conditions. Proper subgrade condition prevents the pavement from failure such as waves, pumping,
rutting, and shoving.

Subgrade performance depends on these basic characteristics:

 Load-bearing capacity.
 Moisture content.
 Stabilization with cement or asphaltic binder.
 Additional base layers.
 Strength and stiffness of subgrade soil.
Properties of sub-grade:
1. Stability:
Subgrade soils must have sufficient resistance to permanent deformation under traffic loads.

2. Incompressibility:
The finished surface of the subgrade should be well compacted so that it prevents compressive under
heavy traffic load and provides good support to the road pavement.

3. Durability:
Subgrade soil is the most important component of road pavement. If the subgrade is weak, it affects the
durability of the road pavement, hence the bearing capacity of subgrade soil should be sufficient for
long-term durability.

4. Drain ability:
Drain ability is also an important property of the subgrade. The subgrade must have excellent drain
capacity otherwise it affects the strength of the pavement. Good drainage is necessary so as to prevent
excessive moisture retention and minimize potential frost action.
5. Ease of compaction: Subgrade soils must have good compacting properties. A well-compacted
subgrade surface increases the strength and durability of road pavements. Ease of compaction ensures
high density and strength. Subgrade soils must have resistance to weathering, therefore, retain the
desired support. There should be a minimum change in the amount of stability under adverse weather
conditions and imposing water.
California Bearing Ratio (CBR) Test:

The CBR test is a measure of the resistance of a material to penetration of a standard plunger under
controlled density and moisture conditions. It was developed by the California Division of Highways as
a method of classifying and evaluating soil- subgrade and base course materials for flexible
pavements. CBR test, an empirical test, has been used to determine the material properties for pavement
design.

The procedure of the California Bearing Ratio Test:

 The laboratory CBR apparatus consists of a mould 150 mm diameter with a base plate and a
collar, a loading frame, and dial gauges for measuring the penetration values and the expansion
on soaking.
 Sieve the sample through a 20mm IS sieve.
 Take 5 kg of the sample of soil specimen.
 Add water to the soil in the quantity such that optimum moisture content or field moisture
content is reached.
 Then soil and water are mixed thoroughly. A spacer disc is placed over the base plate at the
bottom of mould and coarse filter paper is placed over the spacer disc.
 The prepared soil water mix is divided into five.
 The mould is cleaned and oil is applied.
 Then fill one-fifth of the mould with the prepared soil. That layer is compacted by giving 56
evenly distributed blows using a hammer of weight 4.89kg.
 The top layer of the compacted soil is scratched.
 Again the second layer is filled and the process is repeated.
 After 3rd layer, the collar is also attached to the mould and the process is continued.
 After the fifth layer collar is removed and excess soil is struck off.
 Remove the base plate and invert the mould.
 Then it is clamped to the baseplate. Surcharge weights of 2.5kg are placed on the top surface of
the soil. The mould containing specimen is placed in position on the testing machine.
 The penetration plunger is brought in contact with the soil and a load of 4kg (seating load) is
applied so that contact between soil and plunger is established.
 Then dial readings are adjusted to zero.
 Load is applied such that the penetration rate is 1.25mm per minute. Load at penetration of 0.5,
1, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3, 4, 5, 7.5, 10 and 12.5mm are noted.
 The load/pressure vs. penetration curve should be plotted and fitted. The load/pressure value at
2.5 mm and 5mm penetration can be estimated from the graph.
6.3 Road Aggregates
Road Aggregate is a common term for the mineral materials such as sand, gravel, and crushed stone that
are used with a binding medium (such as water, bitumen, Portland cement, lime, etc.) to form compound
materials (such as bituminous concrete and Portland cement concrete). By volume, aggregate generally
accounts for 92 to 96 percent of Bituminous concrete and about 70 to 80 percent of Portland cement
concrete. Aggregate is also used for base and sub-base courses for both flexible and rigid pavements.
Aggregates can either be natural or manufactured. Natural aggregates are generally extracted from larger
rock formations through an open excavation (quarry). Extracted rock is typically reduced to usable sizes
by mechanical crushing. Manufactured aggregate is often a bye product of other manufacturing
industries.
Desirable properties of aggregate:
Strength
The aggregates used in top layers are subjected to (i) Stress action due to traffic wheel load, (ii) Wear
and tear, (iii) crushing. For a high-quality pavement, the aggregates should possess high resistance to
crushing, and withstand the stresses due to traffic wheel load.
Hardness
The aggregates used in the surface course are subjected to constant rubbing or abrasion due to moving
traffic. The aggregates should be hard enough to resist the abrasive action caused by the movements of
traffic. The abrasive action is severe when steel tyred vehicles move over the aggregates exposed at the
top surface.
Toughness
Resistance of the aggregates to impact is termed toughness. Aggregates used in the pavement should be
able to resist the effect caused by the jumping of the steel tyred wheels from one particle to another at
different levels causes a severe impact on the aggregates.
Shape of aggregates
Aggregates that happen to fall in a particular size range may have rounded, cubical, angular, flaky, or
elongated particles. It is evident that the flaky and elongated particles will have less strength and
durability when compared with cubical, angular, or rounded particles of the same aggregate. Hence too
flaky and too many elongated aggregates should be avoided as far as possible.
Adhesion with bitumen
The aggregates used in bituminous pavements should have less affinity with water when compared with
bituminous materials, otherwise, the bituminous coating on the aggregate will be stripped off in presence
of water.
Durability
The property of aggregates to withstand the adverse action of weather is called soundness. The
aggregates are subjected to the physical and chemical action of rain and bottom water, impurities there-
in, and that of atmosphere, hence it is desirable that the road aggregates used in the construction should
be sound enough to withstand the weathering action
Freedom from deleterious particles
Specifications for aggregates used in bituminous mixes usually require the aggregates to be clean, tough,
and durable in nature and free from the excess amount of flat or elongated pieces, dust, clay balls, and
other objectionable material. Similarly, aggregates used in Portland cement concrete mixes must be
clean and free from deleterious substances such as clay lumps, chert, silt, and other organic impurities.
Tests on-road aggregate:
In order to decide the suitability of the aggregate for use in pavement construction, the following tests
are carried out:
Crushing test
One of the models in which pavement material can fail is by crushing under compressive stress. A test is
standardized by IS: 2386 part-IV and used to determine the crushing strength of aggregates. The
aggregate crushing value provides a relative measure of resistance to crushing under a gradually applied
crushing load. The test consists of subjecting the specimen of aggregate in the standard mould to a
compression test under standard load conditions (Figure 1). Dry aggregates passing through 12.5 mm
sieves and retained 10 mm sieves are filled in a cylindrical measure of 11.5 mm diameter and 18 cm
height in three layers. Each layer has been tampered with 25 times with a standard tamping rod. The test
sample is weighed and placed in the test cylinder in three layers each layer being tampered again. The
specimen is subjected to a compressive load of 40 tonnes gradually applied at the rate of 4 tonnes per
minute. Then crushed aggregates are then sieved through a 2.36 mm sieve and the d weight of passing
material (W2) is expressed as a percentage of the weight of the total sample (W1) which is the aggregate
crushing value.

A value less than 10 signifies an exceptionally strong aggregate while above 35 would normally be regarded as
weak aggregates.

Figure 1: Crushing test setup

Abrasion test
Abrasion test is carried out to test the hardness property of aggregates and to decide whether they are
suitable for different pavement construction works. Los Angeles abrasion test is a preferred one for
carrying out the hardness property and has been standardized in India (IS: 2386 part-IV). The principle
of the Los Angeles abrasion test is to find the percentage wear due to relative rubbing action between the
aggregate and steel balls used as an abrasive charge.
Los Angeles machine consists of a circular drum of internal diameter 700 mm and length 520 mm
mounted on a horizontal axis enabling it to be rotated. An abrasive charge consisting of cast iron
spherical balls of 48 mm diameters and weight 340-445 g is placed in the cylinder along with the
aggregates. The number of abrasive spheres varies according to the grading of the sample. The number
of aggregates to be used depends upon the gradation and usually ranges from 5-10 kg. The cylinder is
then locked and rotated at the speed of 30-33 rpm for a total of 500 -1000 revolutions depending upon
the gradation of aggregates.
After specified revolutions, the material is sieved through a 1.7 mm sieve, and the passed fraction is
expressed as the percentage total weight of the sample. The sample should be specified as per the grade of
aggregate.

Grading Number of balls Sample weight, grams

A 12 5000+/-25

B 12 4584+/-25

C 12 3300+/-20

D 12 2500+/-15

E 12 5000+/-25

F 12 5000+/-25

G 12 5000+/-25

This value is called the Los Angeles abrasion value. A maximum value of 40 percent is allowed the for
WBM base course in Indian conditions. For bituminous concrete, a maximum value of 35 is specified.

Figure 2: Los Angeles abrasion test setup

Impact test
The aggregate impact test is carried out to evaluate the resistance to the impact of aggregates.
Aggregates passing 12.5 mm sieve and retained on 10 mm sieve is filled in a cylindrical steel cup of
internal diameter 10.2 mm and depth 5 cm which is attached to a metal base of impact testing machine.
The material is filled in 3 layers where each layer is tamped for 25 blows. Metal hammer of weight 13.5
to 14 Kg is arranged to drop with a free fall of 38.0 cm by vertical guides and the test specimen is
subjected to 15 blows. The crushed aggregate is allowed to pass through a 2.36 mm IS sieve. And the
impact value is measured as the percentage of aggregates passing sieve (W1) to the total weight of the
sample (W2).

Figure 3: Impact test setup

Aggregates to be used for wearing course, the impact value shouldn't exceed 30 percent. For bituminous
macadam, the maximum permissible value is 35 percent. For Water bound macadam base courses the
maximum permissible value defined by IRC is 40 percent.
Soundness test
The soundness test is intended to study the resistance of aggregates to weathering action, by conducting
accelerated weathering test cycles. The Porous aggregates subjected to freezing and thawing are likely to
disintegrate prematurely. To ascertain the durability of such aggregates, they are subjected to an
accelerated soundness test as specified in IS: 2386 part-V. Aggregates of the specified size are subjected
to cycles of alternate wetting in a saturated solution of either Sodium Sulphate or Magnesium Sulphate
for 16 - 18 hours and then dried in oven at 105-110 օC to a constant weight. After five cycles, the loss in
weight of aggregates is determined by sieving out all undersized particles and weighing. And the loss in
weight should not exceed 12 percent when tested with Sodium Sulphate and 18 percent with Magnesium
Sulphate solution.
Shape tests
The particle shape of the aggregate mass is determined by the percentage of flaky and elongated
particles in it. Aggregates which are flaky or elongated are detrimental to the higher workability and
stability of mixes.
The flakiness index is defined as the percentage by weight of aggregate particles whose least dimension
is less than 0.6 times their mean size. Test procedure had been standardized in India (IS: 2386 part-I)

Figure 4: Flakiness gauge

The elongation index of an aggregate is defined as the percentage by weight of particles whose greatest
dimension (length) is 1.8 times their mean dimension. This test is applicable to aggregates larger than
6.3 mm. This test is also specified in (IS: 2386 Part-I). However, there are no recognized limits for the
elongation index.

Figure 5: Elongation gauge

Testing Procedure:

Aim:

i. To determine the elongation index of the given aggregates

ii. To determine the flakiness index of the given aggregates

Apparatus:

The apparatus for the shape tests consists of the following:

(i) A standard thickness gauge

(ii) A standard length gauge

(iii) IS sieves of sizes 63, 50, 40, 31.5, 25, 20, 16, 12.5,10 and 6.3mm

(iv) A balance of capacity 5kg, readable and accurate up to 1 gm.

Procedure:

i) Sieve the sample through the IS sieves (as specified in the table).
ii) Take a minimum of 200 pieces of each fraction to be tested and weigh them.

iii) In order to separate the flaky materials, gauge each fraction for thickness on a thickness
gauge. The width of the slot used should be of the dimensions specified in column (4) of
the table for the appropriate size of the material.

iv) Weigh the flaky material passing the gauge to an accuracy of at least 0.1 percent of the
test sample.

v) In order to separate the elongated materials, gauge each fraction for length on a length
gauge. The width of the slot used should be of the dimensions specified in column (6) of
the table for the appropriate size of the material.

vi) Weigh the elongated material retained on the gauge to an accuracy of at least 0.1 percent
of the test sample.
Specific Gravity and water absorption
The specific gravity and water absorption of aggregates are important properties that are required for the
design of concrete and bituminous mixes. The specific gravity of a solid is the ratio of its mass to that of
an equal volume of distilled water at a specified temperature. Because the aggregates may contain water-
permeable voids, two measures of specific gravity of aggregates are used: apparent specific gravity and
bulk specific gravity.
 Apparent Specific Gravity, Gapp, is computed on the basis of the net volume of aggregates i.e. the
volume excluding water-permeable voids. Thus

(1)

 Where MD is the dry mass of the aggregate, VN is the net volume of the aggregates excluding the
volume of the absorbed matter, W is the density of water.
 Bulk Specific Gravity, Gbulk, is computed on the basis of the total volume of aggregates including
water permeable voids. Thus

(2)

 Where VB is the total volume of the aggregates including the volume of absorbed water.
 Water absorption, the difference between the apparent and bulk specific gravities is nothing but
the water-permeable voids of the aggregates. We can measure the volume of such voids by
weighing the aggregates dry and in a saturated, surface dry condition, with all permeable voids
 filled with water. The difference between the above two is M w. The Mw is the weight of dry
aggregates minus the weight of aggregates saturated surface dry condition. Thus

(3)

The specific gravity of aggregates normally used in road construction ranges from about 2.5 to 2.9.
Water absorption values range from 0.1 to about 2.0 percent for aggregates normally used in road
surfacing.
Bitumen adhesion test:
Bitumen adheres well to all normal types of road aggregates provided they are dry and free from dust. In
the absence of water, there is practically no adhesion problem of bituminous construction. Adhesion
problem occurs when the aggregate is wet and cold. This problem can be dealt with by removing
moisture from the aggregate by drying and increasing the mixing temperature. Further, the presence of
water causes stripping of binder from the coated aggregates. These problems occur when the bitumen
mixture is permeable to water. Several laboratory tests are conducted to arbitrarily determine the
adhesion of a bitumen binder to an aggregate in the presence of water. The static immersion test is one
specified by IRC and is quite simple. The principle of the test is by immersing aggregate fully coated
with the binder in water maintained at temperature for 24 hours. IRC has specified maximum
stripping value of aggregates should not exceed 5%.

Dry mix design: The objective of dry mix design is to determine the amount of various sizes of
mineral aggregates used to get a mix of maximum density. The dry mix design involves three important
steps, viz. selection of aggregates, aggregates gradation, and proportion of aggregates.
Selection of aggregates:
The desirable qualities of a bituminous paving mixture are dependent to a considerable degree on the
nature of the aggregates used. Aggregates are classified as coarse, fine, and filler. The function of the
coarse aggregates in contributing to the stability of a bituminous paving mixture is largely due to the
interlocking and frictional resistance of adjacent particles. Similarly, fines or sand contributes to stability
failure function in filling the voids between coarse aggregates. Mineral filler is largely visualized as a
void filling agent. Crushed aggregates and sharp sands produce higher stability of the mix when
compared with gravel and rounded sands.
Aggregate gradation:
It might be reasonable to believe that the best gradation is one that produces maximum density. This
would involve a particle arrangement where smaller particles are packed between larger particles, thus
reducing the void space between particles. This creates more particle-to-particle contact, which in
bituminous pavements would increase stability and reduce water infiltration. However, some minimum
amount of void space is necessary to:
 Provide adequate volume for the binder to occupy,
 Promote rapid drainage
 Provide resistance to frost action for base and sub-base courses.
A dense mixture may be obtained when this particle size distribution follows Fuller law.

Where, d is the percent by weight of the total mixture passing any given sieve sized, D is the size of the
largest particle in that mixture, and n is the parameter depending on the shape of the aggregate (0.5 for
perfectly rounded particles).
Proportioning of aggregates:
After selecting the aggregates and their gradation, proportioning of aggregates has to be done. This can
be done by trial and error method, graphical method, and analytical method.
 Trial and error procedure: Vary the proportion of materials until the required aggregate
gradation is achieved.
 Graphical Methods: Two graphical methods in common use for proportioning of aggregates are
the triangular chart method and Roch's method. The former is used when only three materials are
to be mixed.
 Analytical Method: In this method, a system of equations is developed based on the gradation of
each aggregate, required gradation, and solved by numerical methods. With the advantage of the
computer, this method is becoming popular. The resulting solution gives the proportion of each
type of material required for the given aggregate gradation.
6.4 Bituminous road binders:

Bituminous materials or asphalts are extensively used for roadway construction, primarily because of
their excellent binding characteristics and waterproofing properties, and relatively low cost. Bituminous
materials consist of bitumen which is a black or dark-colored solid or viscous cementitious substance
consisting chiefly of high molecular weight hydrocarbons derived from the distillation of petroleum or
natural asphalt, has adhesive properties, and is soluble in carbon disulphide. Tars are residues from the
destructive distillation of organic substances such as coal, wood, or petroleum and are temperature
sensitive than bitumen. Bitumen will be dissolved in petroleum oils where, unlike tar.
Production of Bitumen
Bitumen is the residue or by-product when the crude petroleum is refined. A wide variety of refinery
processes, such as the straight distillation process, and solvent extraction process may be used to produce
bitumen of different consistency and other desirable properties. Depending on the sources and
characteristics of the crude oils and on the properties of bitumen required, more than one processing
method may be employed.
Vacuum steam distillation of petroleum oils
In the vacuum-steam distillation process, the crude oil is heated and is introduced into a large cylindrical
still. Steam is introduced into the still to aid in the vaporization of the more volatile constituents of the
petroleum and to minimize decomposition of the distillates and residues. The volatile constituents are
collected, condensed, and the various fractions stored for further refining if needed. The residues from
this distillation are then fed into a vacuum distillation unit, where residue pressure and steam will further
separate out heavier gas oils. The bottom fraction from this unit is the vacuum-steam-refined asphalt
cement. The consistency of asphalt cement from this process can be controlled by the amount of heavy
gas oil removed. Normally, asphalt produced by this process is softer. As the asphalt cools down to room
temperature, it becomes a semi-solid viscous material.

Different forms of bitumen

Cutback bitumen
Normal practice is to heat bitumen to reduce its viscosity. In some situations, preference is given to use
liquid binders such as cutback bitumen. In cutback bitumen suitable solvent is used to lower the
viscosity of the bitumen. From the environmental point of view also cutback bitumen is preferred. The
solvent from the bituminous material will evaporate and the bitumen will bind the aggregate. Cutback
bitumen is used for cold weather bituminous road construction and maintenance. The distillates used for
the preparation of cutback bitumen are naphtha, kerosene, diesel oil, and furnace oil. There are different
types of cutback bitumen like rapid curing (RC), medium curing (MC), and slow curing (SC). RC is
recommended for surface dressing and patchwork. MC is recommended for premix with less quantity of
fine aggregates. SC is used for premix with the appreciable quantity of fine aggregates.

Bitumen Emulsion
Bitumen emulsion is a liquid product in which bitumen is suspended in a finely divided condition in an
aqueous medium and stabilized by suitable material. Normally cationic type emulsions are used in India.
The bitumen content in the emulsion is around 60% and the remaining is water. When the emulsion is
applied on the road it breaks down resulting in the release of water and the mix starts to set. The time of
setting depends upon the grade of bitumen. The viscosity of bituminous emulsions can be measured as
per IS: 8887-1995. Three types of bituminous emulsions are available, which are Rapid setting (RS),
Medium setting (MS), and Slow setting (SC). Bitumen emulsions are ideal binders for hill road
construction. Where heating of bitumen or aggregates is difficult. Rapid setting emulsions are used for
surface dressing work. Medium setting emulsions are preferred for premix jobs and patch repair work.
Slow-setting emulsions are preferred in the rainy season.
Requirements of Bitumen
The desirable properties of bitumen depend on the mix type and construction. In general, Bitumen
should possess the following desirable properties.
 The bitumen should not be highly temperature susceptible: during the hottest weather the mix
should not become too soft or unstable, and during cold weather, the mix should not become too
brittle causing cracks.
 The viscosity of the bitumen at the time of mixing and compaction should be adequate. This can
be achieved by the use of cutbacks or emulsions of suitable grades or by heating the bitumen and
aggregates prior to mixing.
 There should be adequate affinity and adhesion between the bitumen and aggregates used in the
mix.
Tests on bituminous binder:
There are a number of tests to assess the properties of bituminous materials. The following tests are usually
conducted to evaluate the different properties of bituminous materials.
1. Penetration test
2. Ductility test
3. Softening point test
4. Specific gravity test
5. Viscosity test
6. Flash and Fire point test
7. Float test
8. Water content test
9. Loss on heating test
Penetration test
It measures the hardness or softness of bitumen by measuring the depth in tenths of a millimeter to
which a standard loaded needle will penetrate vertically in 5 seconds. BIS had standardized the
equipment and test procedure. The penetrometer consists of a needle assembly with a total weight of
100g and a device for releasing and locking in any position. The bitumen is softened to a pouring
consistency, stirred thoroughly, and poured into containers at a depth at least 15 mm in excess of the
expected penetration. The test should be conducted at a specified temperature of 25 C. It may be noted
that penetration value is largely influenced by any inaccuracy with regards to pouring temperature, size
of the needle, weight placed on the needle, and the test temperature. A grade of 40/50 bitumen means the
penetration value is in the range of 40 to 50 at standard test conditions. In hot climates, a lower penetration
grade is preferred.

Figure 6: Penetration Test Setup

Ductility test
Ductility is the property of bitumen that permits it to undergo great deformation or elongation. Ductility
is defined as the distance in cm, to which a standard sample or briquette of the material will be elongated
without breaking. The dimension of the briquette thus formed is exactly 1 cm square. The bitumen
sample is heated and poured into the mould assembly placed on a plate. These samples with moulds are
cooled in the air and then in the water bath at 27 C temperature. The excess bitumen is cut and the
surface is leveled using a hot knife. Then the mould with the assembly containing sample is kept in the
water bath of the ductility machine for about 90 minutes. The sides of the moulds are removed, the clips
are hooked on the machine and the machine is operated. The distance up to the point of breaking of
thread is the ductility value which is reported in cm. The ductility value gets affected by factors such as
pouring temperature, test temperature, and rate of pulling. A minimum ductility value of 75 cm has been
specified by the BIS.
 Figure 7: Ductility Test
Softening point test
Softening point denotes the temperature at which the bitumen attains a particular degree of softening
under the specifications of the test. The test is conducted by using the Ring and Ball apparatus. A brass
ring containing a test sample of bitumen is suspended in liquid like water or glycerin at a given
temperature. A steel ball is placed upon the bitumen sample and the liquid medium is heated at a rate of
5 C per minute. Temperature is noted when the softened bitumen touches the metal plate which is at a
specified distance below. Generally, a higher softening point indicates lower temperature susceptibility
and is preferred in hot climates.

Figure 8: Softening Point Test Setup

Viscosity test
Viscosity denotes the fluid property of bituminous material and is a measure of resistance to flow. At the
application temperature, this characteristic greatly influences the strength of resulting paving mixes.
Low or high viscosity during compaction or mixing has been observed to result in lower stability values.
At high viscosity, it resists the compactive effort, and thereby resulting mix is heterogeneous, hence low
stability values. And at low viscosity instead of providing a uniform film over aggregates, it will
lubricate the aggregate particles. Orifice-type viscometers are used to indirectly find the viscosity of
liquid binders like cutbacks and emulsions. The viscosity expressed in seconds is the time taken by the
50 ml bitumen material to pass through the orifice of a cup, under standard test conditions and specified
temperature. The viscosity of a cutback can be measured with either 4.0 mm orifice at 25 C or 10 mm
orifice at 25 or 40 C.
 Figure 9: Viscosity Test

6.6. Bituminous mixes:

The mix design (wet mix) determines the optimum bitumen content. This is preceded by the dry mix
design discussed in the previous chapter. There are many methods available for mix design which varies
in the size of the test specimen, compaction, and other test specifications.
Marshall Mix design
The Marshall Stability and flow test provide the performance prediction measure for the Marshall Mix
design method. The stability portion of the test measures the maximum load supported by the test
specimen at a loading rate of 50.8 mm/minute. Load is applied to the specimen till failure, and the
maximum load is designated as stability. During the loading, an attached dial gauge measures the
specimen's plastic flow (deformation) due to the loading. The flow value is recorded in 0.25 mm (0.01
inch) increments at the same time when the maximum load is recorded. The important steps involved in
marshal mix design are summarized next.

Specimen preparation
Approximately 1200gm of aggregates and filler is heated to a temperature of 175-190 C Bitumen is
heated to a temperature of 121-125 C with the first trial percentage of bitumen (say 3.5 or 4% by
weight of the mineral aggregates). The heated aggregates and bitumen are thoroughly mixed at a
temperature of 154-160 C. The mix is placed in a preheated mould and compacted by a rammer with 50
blows on either side at a temperature of 138 C to 149 C. The weight of mixed aggregates taken for the
preparation of the specimen may be suitably altered to obtain a compacted thickness of 63.5+/-3 mm.
Vary the bitumen content in the next trial by +0.5% and repeat the above procedure. The number of
trials is predetermined. The prepared mould is loaded in the Marshall Test setup as shown in the figure.

Properties of the mix

The properties that are of interest include the theoretical specific gravity Gt, the bulk specific gravity of
the mix Gm, percent air voids Vv, percent volume of bitumen Vb, percent void in mixed aggregate VMA
and percent voids filled with bitumen VFB.

Figure: Phase diagram of a bituminous mix

The theoretical specific gravity of the mix G t: Theoretical specific gravity Gt is the specific gravity
without considering air voids, and is given by:

(1)

Where W1 is the weight of coarse aggregate in the total mix, W 2 is the weight of fine aggregate in the
total mix, W3 is the weight of filler in the total mix, W b is the weight of bitumen in the total mix, G 1 is
the apparent specific gravity of coarse aggregate, G 2 is the apparent specific gravity of fine aggregate, G 3
is the apparent specific gravity of filler and Gb is the apparent specific gravity of bitumen.

The bulk specific gravity of mix Gm: The bulk specific gravity or the actual specific gravity of the
mix Gm is the specific gravity considering air voids and is found out by:

(2)

Where Wm is the weight of mix in air, W w is the weight of mix in water, Note that W m-Ww gives the
volume of the mix. Sometimes to get accurate bulk specific gravity, the specimen is coated with a thin
film of paraffin wax, when weight is taken in the water. This, however, requires considering the weight
and volume of wax in the calculations.

Air voids percentage Vv: Vv is the percent of air voids by volume in the specimen and is given by:

(3)

Where Gt is the theoretical specific gravity of the mix and Gm is the bulk or actual specific gravity of the
mix.

The percentage volume of bitumen Vb: The volume of bitumen Vb is the percent of the volume of
bitumen to the total volume and given by:

(4)

Where, W1 is the weight of coarse aggregate in the total mix, W2 is the weight of fine aggregate in the
total mix, W3 is the weight of filler in the total mix, Wb is the weight of bitumen in the total mix, Gb is the
apparent specific gravity of bitumen, and Gm is the bulk specific gravity of mix.

Voids in mineral aggregate VMA: Voids in mineral aggregate VMA is the volume of voids in the
aggregates and is the sum of air voids and the volume of bitumen.

(5)

Voids filled with bitumen VFB: Voids filled with bitumen VFB are the voids in the mineral
aggregate framework filled with the bitumen.

(6)

Determine Marshall Stability and flow: Marshall Stability of a test specimen is the maximum load
required to produce failure when the specimen is preheated to a prescribed temperature placed in a
special test head and the load is applied at a constant strain (5 cm per minute). While the stability test is
in progress dial gauge is used to measure the vertical deformation of the specimen. The deformation at
the failure point expressed in units of 0.25 mm is called the Marshall Flow value of the specimen.

Apply stability correction: It is possible while making the specimen the thickness slightly varies from
the standard specification of 63.5 mm. Therefore, measured stability values need to be corrected to those
which would have been obtained if the specimens had been exactly 63.5 mm. This is done by
multiplying each measured stability value by appropriate correlation factors as given below.

Table: Correction factors for Marshall stability

values
Volume of Thickness Correction
Specimen of specimen Factor
(cm ) (mm)
457 - 470 57.1 1.19
471 - 482 68.7 1.14
483 - 495 60.3 1.09
496 - 508 61.9 1.04
509 - 522 63.5 1.00
523 - 535 65.1 0.96
536 - 546 66.7 0.93
547 - 559 68.3 0.89
560 - 573 69.9 0.86

Prepare graphical plots: The average value of the above properties are determined for each mix
with different bitumen content and the following graphical plots are prepared:
Determine optimum bitumen content: Determine the optimum binder content for the mix design by
taking the average value of the following three bitumen contents found from the graphs obtained in the
previous step.
1. Binder content corresponding to maximum stability
2. Binder content corresponding to maximum bulk specific gravity (Gm)
3. Binder content corresponding to the median of designed limits of percent air voids (Vv) in the
total mix (i.e. 4%)
The stability value, flow value, and VFB are checked with the Marshall Mix design specification chart
given in below. Mixes with very high stability value and low flow value are not desirable as the
pavements constructed with such mixes are likely to develop cracks due to heavy moving loads.
 Table: Marshall mix design specification
Test Property Specified Value
Marshall stability, kg 340 (minimum)
Flow value, 0.25 mm units 8 - 17

Percent air voids in the mix Vv % 3-5

Voids filled with bitumen VFB % 75 – 85

Numerical Example:
The specific gravities and weight proportions for aggregate and bitumen are as under for the preparation
of Marshall Mix design. The volume and weight of one Marshall Specimen were found to be 475 cc, and
1100 gm. The absorption of bitumen in aggregate is assumed zero, find Vv, Vb, VMA, and VFB.

Item A_1 A_2 A_3 A_4 B

Wt (gm) 825 1200 325 150 100
Sp. Gr 2.63 2.51 2.46 2.43 1.05