Chapter 1

1.1 Data, Knowledge and information

- Data: raw letters, numbers or symbols with no meaning.
- Information: data which is given in context and meaning.
- Knowledge: information to which human experience has been applied.

Direct data: is a primary source of information which must be used for the same purpose and
process for which it was collected.
Eg: questionnaires, interviews, observation, data logging
Advantages:
- Source and method is known
- Exact data needed is collected
- Data is easily changed and updateda

Disadvantages:
- Not a large range of data
- May not be available for that exact location and time.

Indirect data: is a secondary source of information which was collected for a particular purpose
but then used for another purpose.
Eg: Online shop, electoral register, weather information

Advantages:
- Large range of data
- Data is already analysed
- From different locations and times

Disadvantages:
- Data may be biassed
- Not accurate enough
- Available to everyone

Static data: either fixed or has to be changed manually.

- Can be viewed offline
- Gets outdated easily
- More accurate

Dynamic data: updated automatically without user intervention.

- Needs internet connection in order to be viewed
- Up to date
- May contain errors
1.2 Quality of Information

Factors that affect the quality:

● Accuracy - if data is inaccurate, following information will also be wrong
● Relevance - must be relevant to its purpose. Do not allocate additional information that
isn't relevant to the topic
● Age - must be up to date in order to be useful. (be careful when using indirect data)
● Level of detail - must be at an appropriate level. Too much information makes it difficult
to find what you are looking for and too little information does not provide what you need.
● Completeness- needs to be complete to be useful. All information required must be
provided.

1.3 Encryption

Encryption: scrambling data so it cannot be understood without a decryption key to make it

unreadable if intercepted.

Caesar cipher - used to encrypt and decrypt messages. It selects replacement letters by shifting
along the internet.

Symmetric encryption- the key which decrypts the message. must be sent by the messenger to
the receiver. Both the sender and recipient use the same key.

Asymmetric encryption - there is a public key being used by the sender and the recipient uses a
private key to decrypt it. This requires a lot more processing but is more secure.
- This encryption is used for the secure sockets layer.

Applications of encryption:
● Hard disk - will encrypt every single bit of data stored on a disk, in order to access any
file on the disk, an encryption key will be required.
● HTTPS (hypertext transfer protocol secure): encryption standard used to secure web
pages. Using the SSL or TLS to encrypt and decrypt. TLS is usually used and more
trusted for banks.
● Email: uses asymmetric encryption. Recipients of the email must have a private key that
matches the public key. (digital certificates needed)
1.4 Checking accuracy of data

Validation: the process of checking data matches acceptable rules.

If data conforms to the rules it gets accepted, if not it will be rejected with an error message.

Methods of validation:
- Presence check: ensures that data is entered
- Range check: ensures that data is within a defined range
- Type check: ensures that data must be of a defined data type
- Length check: ensures that data is of a defined length
- Format check: Ensures data matches a defined format
- Lookup check: tests to see if data exists in a list
- Consistency check: compares data in one field that already exists within a record
- Check digit (redundancy check): a letter/number that is added to the end of an
identification number being input (algorithm should match the check digit)

Verification: the process of checking that the data entered into the computer system matches
the original source.

Methods of verification:
- Visual checking: proofread data that has been entered
- Double data entry: input data into the system twice and data is compared by the
computer system
- Hash total: calculated by adding together values for an input field for all the records that
need to be entered
- Control total: similar to hash totals but with more meaning
- Parity check: (used during data transmissions) each byte/word of data is checked
individually
- Checksum: a string of numbers and letters that act as a fingerprint for a file against
which later comparisons will be made to detect errors (used when computer is hacked)

The need for both validation and verification:

It is possible to enter valid data that is incorrect and vice versa, therefore they are both needed
to reduce errors.
1.5 Data processing

Data processing: is any activity that manipulates data/ carries out operations on it.
Eg: sorting data, searching data, printing, saving data

Batch processing: sets of data processed simultaneously without user interaction.

Eg: producing bills, payrolls, marking MCQ examinations, stock control
Advantages:
- Requires little human interaction
- Doesn’t prioritise certain information
- Scheduled to occur when computers aren’t needed
- No update errors

Disadvantages:
- Delay as data is not processed until specified time
- Only data of the same type can be processed
- Errors can’t be corrected until the processing is done.

Master file: contains all the important data a computer stores. The data in the master file is
sorted into order using one of the fields in the records in the file, known as the primary key field.
The primary key field must uniquely identify each record in the file.

Transaction file: Data that is used to update a master file. This file is in database form.
If one thing happens to one of the files, the other one won't be affected.

*Master file and transaction file will merge together to create a flat file which will be difficult to
maintain.

Online processing (interactive processing): where data is input by the user and feedback is
given in the form of outputs.
Eg: electronic funds transfer, online stores, automatic stock control, electronic data exchange
and business to business buying and selling

Real time processing: Data is processed as soon as it has been input and outputs are
generated immediately.
Eg: air traffic control, computer games
 Chapter 2

2.1 Mainframe computers and supercomputers

Mainframe: a powerful computer serving several terminals simultaneously.

Uses:
- Census
- Transaction processing
- Industry statistics
- Consumer statistics

*The performance of a mainframe computer is measured by how many instructions its

processors can perform every second (MIPs- millions of instructions per second)however it is
inaccurate

Supercomputer: large computer with parallel processing used to complete highly complex tasks
rapidly.

Uses:
- Quantum mechanics
- Weather forecasting
- Climate research

Advantages of mainframe and supercomputers:

- More reliable,available and serviceable than regular computers
- Scalable because processors and memory can be added as required
- They are designed to last for at least 10 years
- They are able to store and process extremely large amounts of data
- More than one operating system can be used at once which improves overall
performance of the system
- Hardware failures are notified immediately so that replacements can be made very
quickly

Disadvantages of mainframe and supercomputers:

- High costs (can only be used by large companies such as governments,banks)
- A lot of space is required to install them
- Temperature must be maintained so that it doesn't become too hot
- Specialist support staff are required for maintenance.
- Interface is command driven which can be difficult to understand
 - Need massive external storage drives that can read and write data quickly enough for
the processing

Characteristics of mainframe and supercomputers: (RAS)

● Reliability- hardware components must be capable of extensively self checking and
recovering automatically in case of failure
● Availability - must be able to continue to operate at all times
● Serviceability - failed component can be swapped out with a replacement without
affecting the operation of the mainframe

Factors that affect the processing speed

- Workload mix
- Memory and cache size (amount of main memory data it can hold)
- Amount of input and output activity
- Operating system and software
- Changes made to hardware

Performance measurement:
MFLOPS: the floating point operations per second. MFLOPS give a more reliable measure of
performance than MIPS but there are still discrepancies where some processors carry out single
floating point operations for the same result.

2.2 System Software

Software: programs which give instructions to the computer

User interface: communication between the user and the computer system.

System software: programs that are designed to maintain or operate a computer system

Types of system software:

- Operating systems:
Manage the hardware within a computer system. The first piece of software that will load after
application of input and output system. It carries out tasks such as allocating memory to
software, sending data and instructions to output devices, sending error messages or status
messages to applications/ users, opening and closing files on storage devices, and deals with
user logons and security.

- Device drivers:
Software that comes with an external hardware component and sends customised instructions
to that specific component. Allows hardware devices to run on the computer including printers,
sound,graphics and network cards.
 - Compilers:
Translator which creates a file containing the machine code (executable file). Which can only
run on operating systems for which the compiler has translated it.
Includes 3 stages:
1. Lexical analysis - code broken down into tokens
2. Syntax analysis - program structure will be analysed to check that it conforms to the
grammar of the programming language.
3. Code generation - source code is converted into machine code

- Interpreters:
Translates a program written in a high level programming language into machine code. Less
efficient than a compiler

- Linkers:
Compiles the object files together to form a single execution file.

- Utilities:
Help to manage and maintain computer resources and performance by running specific tasks.

2.3 Utility software

Utility software: software that performs some sort of maintenance on the computer system.
Does not include the operating system.

Antivirus: (antimalware software)

Deals with threats such as adware and spyware as well as viruses.
1. Antivirus monitor that is continually monitoring the system for any malware and viruses.
If any are detected then it prevents them from being executed
2. Checks for viruses or malware that may already be in the system

Backup:
Create a second copy of data programs that are in storage. Users are able to select which
folders and files will be backed up and can decide where backup files will be stored.

Data compression:
Will reduce the original size of files so that they use up less storage space. It will take longer to
open a compressed file than the uncompressed file.

Defragmentation (in HDD)

Reduces the amount of fragmented files on a hard drive. It will put all the same files together
(organize them) and put all free space together. This makes the computer run faster & more
efficient as the search will be easier since all files of one software are in the same area

*SSDs don't require defragmentation because they don’t have moving pieces

Formatting:
Process of organising the tracks on a disc into sectors where data will be stored.

2.4 Custom writing and off the shelf software

Custom written: written especially to meet the requirements of a client

made specifically for one organisation and their requirements.
Example: restaurants have their own order software, websites (for school)
Advantages:
- Suits the company specifications
- Only used functions
- Developers ensure compatibility
Disadvantages:
- Expensive
- More mistakes
- Takes time to develop

Off the shelf : general purpose software that is available to a large market.
Example: spreadsheets, databases, word processors
Advantages:
- No mistakes
- Widely available
- Costs spread
- Less bugs
- Wide range of support
Disadvantages:
- Storage size of application is big
- No one to contact if any compatibility issues

Proprietary software:
Owned by a single person or organisation who sells it for use under an agreed licence.
Only files that are needed to run the software are made available and the source code used to
create the software remains with the owner

Open source software:

Has the source code freely available with the executable version of the software. It can be freely
used, accessed, changed or shared.

2.5 User interfaces

User interface: the boundary/communication between the user and the computer system.

Command line interface:

Allows users to enter text commands to which the computer will respond by producing results in
text format. It uses very little memory so useful for technical users who need to carry out
complex operations. However, it is very difficult to learn and use because of memorisation of
commands.

Graphical user interface:

Most common type of interface used on desktop computers, tablet computers, mobile phones,
televisions, set-top boxes, photocopiers and some in-car entertainment systems. Easy to learn
how to use them because commands are represented by pictures.
Includes:
- Windows: an area of a screen devoted for a specific task
- Icons: an image that is used to represent a program, file or task
- Menus: words on the screen which represent a list of options that can be expanded into
further sub-menus
- Pointers: method of representing movement from a pointing device such as mouse or
human finger on a touchscreen.
Form controls used:
- Labels
- Text boxes
- Tick boxes
- Option buttons
- Buttons

Dialogue interface:
Using spoken words to communicate with a computer system. Suitable for use in cars or when
holding a telephone as no physical interference is required to work them. However, the
computer system may not recognise the spoken word.

Gesture based interface:

Recognises human motion. For example: tracking eyes and lips, hand signals or monitoring
whole body movements. Difficult to control as sometimes inaccurate.
 Chapter 3
3.1 Sensors

Sensor: type of input device that is used to collect data about a physical environment
automatically. The data collected from a sensor is input into a system and any necessary action
required is taken.
Advantages:
- Data can be repeatedly collected 20 hours a day
- Data can be collected in harmful and dangerous environments without the need of
human interactions
- It is more consistent in the data that it samples as it is a mechanical drive (more
accurate)

Disadvantages:
- Sensors can be subject to wear and tear and may become faulty, leading to incorrect
readings.

Common types of sensors:

- Light/UV
- Temperature
- Pressure
- Sound
- Infrared
- Humidity
- Touch
- Electromagnetic field
- Proximity

3.2 Calibration
To make sure that the data collected by a sensor is accurate it can be put through a process of
calibration. This is where the device is modified and tested to make sure that it is taking the
correct readings.

How to calibrate:
- Test readings against those of a calibrated sensor
- Use a physical reference - like a ruler or measuring tape- to find out if an item that
should trigger the proximity sensor does so from a correct distance.

3 main categories a sensor can be in:

- Offset (readings are higher or lower than ideal reference)
- Sensitivity (readings change over a range at a different rate to the ideal reference)
- Linearity (readings are directly proportional to ideal reference)
Types of calibration:
● One point: corrects offset curve
1. Take a reading with the sensor.
2. Compare it with a device measuring the ideal standard.
3. Subtract reading from reference to get the offset.
4. Add the offset to every reading to get a calibrated value.

● Two point calibration: corrects both offset and sensitivity

1. Take two different readings with sensor (lower end and higher end)
2. Compare these to readings of device measuring ideal standard
3. Subtract lowest from highest (get range)
4. Do the same for the ideal measuring device
5. Correct value= ((SensorCurrentValue - SensorLowValue)* IdealRangeValue /
SensorRangeValue) + IdealLowValue

● Multipoint calibration: similar to the others but uses many different readings to increase
the accuracy further. Helps calibrate sensors which do not have a linear line of
inaccuracy.

3.3 Monitoring systems

Designed to collect the data and then store it so that it can be used at a later stage.

For example: data may be collected about the temperature in a garden for a period of 24 hours
for a week. The data is then analysed at a later stage to see which day was the warmest
temperature.

● Used in a swimming pool to determine the chlorine levels:

- pH sensor is placed in the swimming pool
- It takes readings at regular intervals
- Readings are sent to storage device
- Put into a graph so she can analyse the data

● Used in weather stations:

To provide everyone with daily information about the weather in their area. Temperature,
pressure and humidity sensors are spread across a region or country. Data collated can
now be used to predict what the weather will be like in the future.
3.4 Control Systems
Designed to collect data and send this to a computer system so that it can be analysed and any
resulting action is taken.

Microprocessor:
Electronic component that can perform similar functions to a central processing unit. It
processes instructions and performs mathematical calculations and comparisons.
Registers - small areas to hold data.

Advantages:
- Execute several different tasks
- Small in size so can be easily built into different technologies
- Fast at moving data between different memory locations

Disadvantages:
- There is a limit on the size of data they can handle
- Can overheat if too much demand is placed on them

Actuator:
Used to move and operate other different mechanisms or devices.
They control operations such as opening and closing a valve, turning a switch on and off or
driving a mechanism to open a door. Can also be used to drive each of the individual parts in a
robot.

Can be: hydraulic, pneumatic or electric

Advantages:
- Hydraulic and electric actuators are quiet
- Pneumatic actuators aren’t expensive
- Have high speed abilities to perform actions

Disadvantages:
- Pneumatic actuators are noisy
- Hydraulic and electric actuators are expensive
- Hydraulic actuators may have fluid leaks

Stages in the process of control systems:

1. Sensor collects data at set time intervals
2. Data is sent to a microprocessor
3. Microprocessor will analyse the data. ( compare it to pre-stored value or range of values)
4. If data does not match stored data then it will send a signal to the actuator or device
5. The actuator or device will trigger any action that needs to be taken
Real world example - Air conditioning system:
Algorithm:

Flowchart:

Chapter 4
4.1 Algorithms
A series of steps/instructions that are followed to achieve a certain outcome.

Before writing an algorithm on a computer, you need to design them by using a flowchart and/or
using pseudocode.

Flowchart: A set of symbols put together with commands that are followed to solve a problem.

Pseudocode: A language that is used to display an algorithm. This is a combination of computer

languages and spoken languages. Example: FD (forward), BK (backward), RT (turn right), LT
(turn left)

Steps in problem solving:

1. First, produce a general algorithm (one can use pseudocode).
2. Refine your steps until you get to an easy sequence, the point is to simplify the language
to an understandable process.

Computer programming can be divided into two phases:

● Problem-solving phase: make an ordered sequence of steps that solves a problem.
(algorithm)
● Implementation phase: Implement using a programming language

4.2 Flowcharts and Pseudocode

Flowchart: visual representation of an algorithm.

*Must have a start and stop
 ● Process:
An action performed. (change is being made)
If you have a number stored in a variable, you could change it:
 ● Input and output:
Used to output messages on a screen and therefore to the user OR to take in data from the
user by using the keyboard.
Example: if you want to output something to the user like a sentence:
OUTPUT “hello world”
* should always be in quotation marks

● Connector:
Sometimes if a flowchart is long, it should be split up into smaller parts. The connector shows
where the flowchart continues

● Decision:
*Also known as comparison and selection.
Is either true or false.
If true then some code is run, if false then either different code is run or some code is skipped.

Pseudocode Constructs:
● Input: read, obtain, get
● Output: print, display, show
● Compute: compute, calculate, determine
● Initialise: set, init
● Add: increment, bump
● Sub: Decrement
● Decisions: is is replaced with if then OR else if for multiple

Loops (iteration):
Repetition; doing the same thing several times.
Used in two scenarios:
1. You know how many times you want to repeat the code (count-controlled loop)
2. You don’t know how many times you want to repeat the code, but want to keep going
until something happens (condition- controlled loop)

Count controlled:
Needs a counter to keep track of the number of repetitions you have done. The counter will be a
variable.
Before the loop is started, the counter needs to be set to the starting value (usually 0 or 1).
Then, inside the code that loops, you need to increment the counter (add 1 to it).

Condition controlled:
Same structure as the count controlled loop but it doesn't need a counting variable because
something else is controlling it. (could be controlled by an input from the user)
No variable counter.

String manipulation:
Collections of letters, characters and numbers represented by speech marks

Subroutines:
A set of instructions that are independent.
* Separate flow chart but instead of having start box it starts with the name of the sub routine
They have an identifier name and can be called from other parts of the program.
When it finishes running, control passes back to where it was called from.

- Procedure: performs a task and returns the control back to the program
- Function: returns a value to the program that called it

Example:
 Chapter 5

5.1 Personal Data

Any data that relates to you and your identity.
This includes: Name, address, telephone number, email address, bank details, medical reports,
salary, political opinions

Guidelines to be aware of to keep your data confidential:

- Have strong passwords
- Encrypt your sensitive data
- Have a firewall present and active
- Regularly scan and diagnose your computer with Anti-Virus software
- Make use of any biometric devices. (Devices that measure a person's biological data)
- Only visit and provide data to trusted websites
- Do not open suspicious emails
- Be cautious about what you post
- If possible use a VPN (Virtual private network)
How it is collected:

Phishing
Phishing is when a person sends a legitimate-looking, but malicious email to a user, in hopes of
taking their sensitive data. The victim is usually tricked into replying with personal data, or
clicking a link where the criminal can take the data.
There are several precautions to take if you want to avoid phishing:
● Don't open an email that isn't from a trusted source
● Legitimate companies would never ask you for your personal data using email.
● Legitimate companies will normally address you by your name, be suspicious of any
email that addresses you as “Dear Member” or “Dear Customer”
● Legitimate companies will send an email that uses their domain name
● Legitimate companies are protective of their professional reputation

Smishing
Smishing (SMS phishing) is a variant of phishing that uses SMS text messages to lure users
into providing their personal details. Users should block any numbers that they believe are
suspicious.

Vishing
Vishing (Voice phishing) has the same aim as phishing, to obtain a user’s personal details. The
user receives a telephone call that could either be an automated system or a real person.
No company will ever call you and ask you to provide any login details.

Pharming
Pharming is when an unauthorised user installs malicious code on a person's hard drive or
server. The malicious code is designed to redirect a user to a fake website when they type in the
address of a legitimate one. The fake website is made to look like the real one, the user will then
enter their personal details into the fake website.
How to prevent pharming
● Have a firewall installed and operational
● Have anti-virus software installed that is designed to detect malicious pharming code
● Be aware when using public Wi-Fi connections (Use a VPN)

5.2 Malware
(malicious software) refers to any software that is designed to disrupt or damage a computer
system or sometimes a user.

Types of malware:

Virus:
A virus is the only type of malware that infects new files in the computer system. It attaches to a
clean file, replicates itself, then attaches to another clean file.
Once a virus has infected a file, it may replicate immediately or it can lay dormant until a certain
action triggers it.
*The aim of a virus is to corrupt data in your system. It's a method of sabotage.

Signs that your computer has been infected with a virus:

● Slower system performance
● Files multiplying or duplicating on their own
● Files being deleted without your knowledge

Minimising the risk of a virus:

Antivirus software can detect the presence of a virus in a file by comparing the code to a
database of known virus codes; if it finds a code that matches, it will quarantine the file.
A Firewall can be used to minimise the risk of a virus, it acts as a filter, monitoring incoming and
outgoing traffic.

Trojan:
A Trojan is a type of malware that disguises itself as legitimate software or is included in
legitimate software that may have been infiltrated. When a Trojan file is opened, it will normally
release another type of malware, such as a virus.

Minimising the risk of a Trojan:

The main way to minimise the risk of a Trojan is to only open files and click to run software that
you know is safe and from a trusted source.

Worm:
Acts in a similar way to a virus. It replicates itself but it doesn’t attach itself to a file to cause
damage. It exploits security holes and issues in a computer.
*aims to fill up all the free space on a computer to slow it down

Minimising the risk of a worm:

Regularly check for and install updates for your operating system and applications.
Anti virus software also checks for worms.

Spyware:
Spyware is a global term that is used to describe malware that is designed to gather information
about your interactions with your computer. The aim of spyware is to spy on the user.

A common example of spyware is a keylogger. A keylogger is installed on a user’s computer,

normally without their consent. The keylogger will record any key presses that are carried out,
all this data is sent to the person who created the spyware. Then the data could be analysed to
look for patterns, such as passwords or email addresses.
Minimising the risk of Spyware
Be very careful about what you download, especially when downloading software that is free of
cost. Do not click any links or offers in pop-up adverts. Anti-malware software can be used to
scan your computer to see if any keylogging software is present. If it does find a keylogger you
should change all your passwords immediately.

Adware:
Displays targeted advertising on your computer. It manages this by collecting data about your
internet browsing habits. Adware can be both legitimate and illegitimate. Adware as malware will
present adverts when a user is browsing the web that is often shown constantly, they are
normally in the form of pop-ups or windows that cannot be closed.

Minimising risk of adware:

Check exactly what is being downloaded onto your computer. It may take several scans with
anti-malware software to detect and remove the adware.

Rootkit:
A Rootkit is a computer program that enables a person to gain administrator access to a victim's
computer. They are designed to stay hidden on a user’s computer and allow the computer to be
controlled from a remote location.
A rootkit allows the unauthorised user to do several criminal acts with the computer, such as
hide illegal files on the computer.
Rootkits can get installed because a victim’s password is cracked or a vulnerability in the
security of a computer system is exploited.

Minimising risk of rootkit:

Have a strong password set for your computer system to keep out the unauthorised user from
your computer system.

Malicious bot:
A bot is an application that is automated and used to carry out simple and repetitive tasks.
These are normally tasks that a human would find time-consuming.

Malicious bots are used by cybercriminals in a variety of ways:

● SPAM bots are used to bombard people’s email inboxes with SPAM emails.
● Zombie bots are used to create a bot network and the network will be used to launch an
attack on an organisation.
● Chatter bots will pretend to be humans on sites such as social networking and dating
sites, with the goal of obtaining personal data.

Bots often have worm-like capabilities because they can replicate and spread themselves.
Minimising risk of malicious bot:
Minimise it by avoiding the click on unknown links and sources that can lead you to a fake
website. Don't send personal information over the internet while chatting. Anti-malware software
can detect malicious bots on your computer system.

Ransomware:
Ransomware is a type of malware that restricts a user’s access to their computer system and
files. The ransomware will normally demand that the user pays a ransom in order to regain
access to their computer system.
Ransomware will normally try to enter a system in a similar way to a Trojan. If the user doesn't
pay the ransom in a set amount of time, they risk losing their data forever.

Minimising risk of ransomware:

Make sure that you have a copy of your data. Follow the same Trojan guidelines

Chapter 6
6.1 Digital Divide

The Digital Divide refers to the technological gap between different demographics. The gap
between people and regions that have access to aspects of modern technology and information,
and those with restricted or no access.

The Digital Divide that people experience can depend on several aspects, such as age, status,
and location.

Groups affected by the digital divide:

● People living in cities versus people living in rural areas

● People educated in using technology versus people uneducated in using technology
● Older people versus younger people
● Areas that are more industrially developed versus areas that are less industrially
developed
● Different socio-economic groups.
City vs Rural

Rural areas may not have the infrastructure for broadband and internet connections, while Cities
are much more connected and much more technologically advanced and developed.

Reducing the divide in rural areas

The quality of the infrastructure in rural areas could be improved. Many governments are
working with internet providers to improve infrastructure.

Tech educated vs Tech uneducated

People who are technologically educated have an easier time using technology, but people who
aren't find it frustrating and hard to use. People can be technologically uneducated for many
reasons, maybe they don't have access to technology and don't have much experience, or
simply they have no interest.

Reducing the educational divide

One effective way of reducing the divide is to provide accessible technological courses. Courses
can be low-cost or even free, that allow people to learn along with other people of their skill
level, and teachers or leaders can be present to help them.

Older people vs Younger people

Technology has developed a huge amount over the last 50 years, this means that some people
have grown up with technology and other people witnessed the development of technology.

Younger people may feel more confident using technology to complete tasks, while older people
prefer older methods of communicating and completing tasks.

Reducing the age divide

One of the biggest barriers to older people using technology is likely to be their fear of it. What
they may not see is that the use of older technology can be hugely beneficial to older people. By
using platforms such as social media, older people are less likely to feel isolated.

Industrially developed vs less industrially developed

The parts of the world that have greater access to modern technology are the USA, Europe, and
Northern Asia, these countries are some of the more developed countries. On the other hand,
some of the lesser developed countries, such as the ones in Africa, have little access to
technology. This is due to them not being as wealthy, or using the money for more important
purposes.
Reducing the divide in less developed areas

The internet has become one of the most fundamental global infrastructures. Satellite
technology may assist remote areas to access the internet.

Socio-economic differences

The digital divide between socio-economics groups often revolves around cost. Richer people
have more access to technology, and can have all the benefits that come with it. Lack of
information and technology can really affect poorer societies.

Reducing the divide between socio-economic groups

Many countries are developing initiatives that provide technology at a subsidised rate or even
for free to those in poorer communities. This is helping close the divide by giving those who
would not normally be able to afford those technologies, access to the advantages that
technology can provide.

Chapter 7

Expert system: An expert system is a computerised system that attempts to reproduce the
decision-making process of an expert human being.
They are designed to try and replicate the judgement of a human that has expert knowledge in a
certain field. By doing this they can be used to replace or assist a human expert.

Capabilities:
- Advising
- Instructing and assisting humans in decision making
- Demonstrating
- Providing a solution
- Diagnosing (identifying a problem or illness by analysis of symptoms)
- Suggesting alternatives to a problem

7.1 Components of an expert system

User Interface
The way that a user interacts with the expert system.
It guides the user about what data they need to input into the system and then display an output
Knowledge base
A component of an expert system that stores the knowledge provided by experts.
It is a dynamic resource
It stores information related to a particular subject which is required for the system to operate.
The developers of the expert system will interview a collection of experts to build the database
of knowledge. They will look to gain two types of knowledge from the experts.
● Factual knowledge: knowledge that is widely shared.
● Heuristic knowledge: knowledge that is more personal and is acquired through a range
of experiences and reasoning.

Once the knowledge base is built, it can be used by the expert system to inform
The questions it needs to ask and assist in providing the results.

Rule base
A set of rules that will be used to produce an output or decision by the expert system.
These rules are used by the inference engine as a base for reasoning, to obtain a solution to a
problem.
Each rule contains two parts: IF and THEN.
A rule can have multiple IF parts that will be joined together by boolean operators including
AND and OR.

Example: IF a>b AND a>c THEN highest = a

Inference engine
The part of the expert system that makes judgements and reasoning based on the knowledge
base and user interface.
It will ask the user questions and, based on their answer, it will follow a line of logic, leading to a
final result.
2 main methods that are used to stimulate reasoning:
- Backward chaining: breaking a goal down into sub-goals that allow the system to work
backward from the goal
- Forward chaining: a system that moves forward from rule to rule until it reaches a
possible outcome. (data driven)

Explanation system
A component of an expert system that provides an explanation of how the outcome was
achieved.
7.2 Are expert systems useful?
Advantages:
- Provides answers to questions that are outside the knowledge that you currently have
- Aids professionals by prompting them and guiding them to look at areas of knowledge
they may not have considered/ remembered
- Consistent in responses
- Can be used at any time
- Finds a solution to a problem faster than a human would

Disadvantages:
- Do not have the intuition humans have (not logical)
- Are only limited to the rules and data they are provided with
- May be errors in data
- Expensive to create
- Has to be upgraded

7.3 How they’re used

Mineral Prospecting
Expert systems are used to help in making decisions on where to drill for a specific
mineral. They help geologists evaluate whether particular sites are likely to contain
the mineral or ore being searched for.
1. First of all, the geologist enters data about the types of rocks and geological structure as
well as the minerals to be found at the site under
consideration.
2. The expert system’s knowledge base will store models of successful drilling
sites and their associated minerals together with a rules base.
3. The inference engine then compares this data with the models in the
knowledge base using the IF...THEN rules in the rules base.
4. The system may well ask the geologist further questions through the user interface and
the resulting percentage probabilities of finding the mineral at this site are produced.

Investment Analysis
Expert systems have been developed which act as assistants to financial advisors at
many banks. The financial advisor still makes the final decision, but the expert proves
to be a very useful tool in helping the advisor make recommendations to would-be investors.
When making a decision it is Important for the financial advisor to know four things about the
investor:
» The amount the client wishes to invest
» What level of risk the investor is willing to take
» The desired rate of return
» How long the investor is willing to make the investment for.

1. The user interface asks questions in the everyday language of the investor based
on the above factors.
2. Depending on the answers to the questions, the system may ask further
questions through the user interface.
3. The database of facts will consist of all the information the bank has gathered over the
years about the performance and stability of different companies.
4. The rules in the rules base will have been originally created by an expert
investor.
5. The inference engine will search the database of facts using the rules from the rules
base.
6. The expert system will then produce recommendations for purchasing stocks or shares
in a company, together with the reasons for recommending these particular stocks and
shares.

Financial Planning
Personal financial planning has become so complex that it is extremely difficult for
one human expert to deal with it. The result is a need for computerised expert systems
to assist in the process. There are so many variables to deal with that only a few can be
considered by one person in the time usually available.
1. Systems often involve the client completing a detailed questionnaire regarding
their personal and economic situation, including income, taxes paid or due,
investments, employee benefits, marital status, number of dependants, as well as
any future obligations such as retirement plans or funding their children’s university
education.
2. The inference engine analyses this information using the database of facts and a
very large number of rules in the system.
3. The database uses the results of books and articles which have been published
relating to personal financial planning as well as information gathered from
interviews with experts, such as professional financial advisors.
4. A report would then be produced by the financial advisor as to the client’s recommended
financial plans. The report would be based on a combination of a human expert’s
insights and the use of the results of the expert system. The report would serve as a
financial action checklist for the client in order to achieve their financial plans.