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IMPORTANT FORMULAS ON IRRIGATION ENGINEERING + HYDROLOGY

1. IRRIGATION TECHNIQUES

1.1. Time requirement

𝑦 𝑄
𝑡 = 2.3 × ×
𝑓 𝑄 − 𝑓𝐴

Here,
Q = discharge through supply ditch.
y = depth of water flowing over the border strip.
f = rate of infiltration of soil.
A = Area of land strip to be irrigated.
t = time required to cover the given area A.
1.2. QUALITY OF IRRIGATION WATER
C.Q
Cs 
[Q  (Cu  Peff )]

Where,
Q = the quantity of water applied
Cu = consumptive use of water.
Peff = useful rainfall
Cu – Peff = Used up irrigation water
C = Concentration of salt in irrigation water.
C. Q = Total salt applied to soil with Q amount of irrigation water.
Cs = The salinity concentration of the soil solution
1.3. PROPORTION OF SODIUM IONS TO OTHER CATIONS (SAR)

Na
SAR 
Ca   Mg 
2
classification of water based on its SAR value is as follows:
SAR Type of water

0 – 10 Low sodium water (S1)

10 – 18 Medium sodium water (S2)

18 – 26 High sodium water (S3)

> 26 Very high sodium water (S4)

2. SOIL MOISTURE RELATIONSHIP AND WATER REQUIREMENT OF CROPS

2.1. Relation between Duty and Delta

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8.64 𝐵
𝛥  =    𝑚
𝐷
864 𝐵
𝛥  =    𝑐𝑚
𝐷
B is in days and D is in ha/m3

Crop Delta on field (cm)

Sugarcane 120

Rice 120

Tobacco 75

Cotton 50

Wheat 40

Barley 30

Maize 25

Fodder 22.5

Peas 15

2.2. Kharif-Rabi Ratio or Crop Ratio

It is the ratio (in terms of area) of kharif season crop to rabi season crop
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝐾ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑜𝑛
𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑝 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑅𝑎𝑏𝑖 𝑠𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑜𝑛

2.3. Time Factor

The ratio of actual operating period of a canal to the crop period is called the time factor
of the canal.
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑟𝑢𝑛𝑠
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 =
𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑝 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑

2.4. Capacity Factor

The ratio of mean supply discharge in a canal to its design full capacity is known as
capacity factor.
𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒

2.5. IRRIGATION EFFICIENCIES

2.5.1. Water Conveyance Efficiency (𝜂 c)
This is the ratio of the water delivered into fields from the outlet point of the channel to
the water entering into the channel at its starting point.

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𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑉 𝑄

𝜂 =   =     ×  100  =     ×  100
𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑉 𝑄

It also takes the conveyance or transit losses into consideration.

2.5.2. Water Application Efficiency (𝜂 a)
It is the ratio of the quantity of water stored into the root zone of the crops to the quantity
of water actually delivered into the field. It may also be called on farm efficiency, as it
takes into consideration the water lost in the farm.

𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡 𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑉

𝜂 =  =    ×  100
𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑉

Also,
VRZ = Vf – Run off losses.
2.5.3. Water Storage Efficiency (𝜂 s)
It is the ratio of the water stored in the root zone during irrigation to the water needed
in the root zone prior to irrigation.
𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡 𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑉
𝜂 =  =    ×  100
𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡 𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑉

𝑉 = volume of water required in root zone

2.5.4. Water Use Efficiency(𝜂 u)
It is the ratio of the water beneficially used, including leaching water, to the quantity of
water delivered. Mathematically, it can be expressed as follow.
𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑉
𝜂 =   =     ×  100
𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑉

here,

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Vu = volume of water used by plant
Vf = volume of water supplied to field.
2.5.5. Water Distribution Efficiency (𝜂 d)
The effectiveness of irrigation may also be measured by its water distribution efficiency,
which is defined below.
𝑑
𝜂  =  1 −   ×  100
𝐷
D = Mean depth of water stored during irrigation.
d = Average of the absolute values of deviations from the mean.
2.6. CONSUMPTIVE USE OR EVAPOTRANSPIRATION (Cu)
Consumptive use for a particular crop can be defined as the total amount of water used
by the plant in transpiration and evaporation from adjacent soils or from plant leaves, in
any specified time.
𝑇  +  𝐸
𝐶  =   𝑚𝑚/𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝐵
T = transpiration
E = Evaporation
B = Base period
Values of monthly consumptive use are used to determine the irrigation requirement of
the crop.

Frequency of irrigation = =   = 

/

2.7. Determination of Consumptive Use

2.7.1. Direct Method
2.7.1.1. Tank Lysimeter method
2.7.1.2. Field Experimental Plots
2.7.1.3. Inflow outflow studies
The consumptive use is obtained by studying inflow and outflow in a certain area.
𝐸 =𝐼+𝑃−𝑂+𝐺 −𝐺

Where,
E = Consumptive use
I = Total inflow
P = Precipitation in that area
O = Total outflow
Gs = Ground water storage in the starting
Ge = Ground water storage at the end of year
2.7.2. Indirect Method
2.7.2.1. Blaney – Criddle Formula
It states that the monthly consumptive use is given as

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𝑘. 𝑝
𝐶𝑢  =    [1.8𝑡  +  32]
40
k = crop factor, it is determined by experiment for each crop, under the environmental
conditions of the particular area.
t = Mean monthly temperature is °C
p = monthly percent of annual day light hours that occur during the period.
2.7.2.2. Hargreaves Class Pan Evaporation Method
evapotranspiration is related to pan evaporation by a constant k called consumptive use
coefficient. The formula can be written as
𝐸𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑝𝑖𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝐶𝑢)
  =  𝑘
𝑃𝑎𝑛 𝐸𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝐸 )

Ep can be measured experimentally as well as empirically.

2.7.2.3. Penman Equation
This equation is derived by combining the energy balance and mass transfer approach of
the computation of evaporation and transpiration respectively. It is given as,
𝐴𝐻 + 𝐸 𝛾
𝐸 =
𝐴+𝛾

Et = Daily Potential evapotranspiration

A = Slope of the saturation vapour pressure vs temperature curve at the mean air
temperature
Hn = Net incoming solar radiation expressed in mm of evaporable water per day
Ea = A parameter including wind velocity and saturation deficit
γ = psychromatic constant
2.8. IRRIGATION REQUIREMENTS
(i) Effective rainfall (Peff): It is that portion of natural rainfall which falls during the
growth period of crop and is available for the evapotranspiration need of the crop.
(ii) Consumptive Irrigation Requirement (CIR): It is that part of consumptive use
which has to be supplied by the provision of irrigation and mathematically it is expressed
as following.
CIR = Cu – Peff.
(iii) Net Irrigation Requirement (NIR): It takes into consideration the CIR as well
as leaching requirement (i.e. to reduce the salinity of soil in root zone). Mathematically,
it is expressed as follow.
NIR = CIR + LR
Where, LR = Leaching requirement of soil
(iv) Field Irrigation Requirement (FIR): It takes into consideration the surface runoff
losses occurring over the field and is expressed as following.
𝑁𝐼𝑅
𝐹𝐼𝑅  =  
𝜂

here, 𝜂 a = surface runoff losses.

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(v) Gross Irrigation Requirement (GIR): It takes into consideration the conveyance
and transmission losses occurring in a canal and is expressed as following.
𝐹𝐼𝑅
𝐺𝐼𝑅  =  
𝜂

2.9. SOIL MOISTURE AND IRRIGATION RELATIONSHIP

2.9.1. Field Capacity

The proportion of water apart from gravity water retains on the surfaces of soil grains by
molecular attraction and by loose chemical bonds (i.e. adsorption). This water cannot be
easily drained under the action of gravity and is known as field capacity.
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙
𝐹𝐶 = × 100
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑦𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙
𝛾
𝑑  =    ×  𝑑  ×  𝐹𝐶
𝛾

dwf = depth of water in the soil

d = depth of root zone
γd = Dry density of soil
γw = Dry unit weight of soil
2.9.2. Permanent Wilting Point
It is that water content is root zone below which plant can no longer extract sufficient
water for its growth and wilts up.
𝐴𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝐹𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 − 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡

2.9.3. Optimum Moisture Content

The optimum level up to which the soil moisture can be allowed to be depleted in the root
zone without fall in the crop yield represents the OMC.
2.10. Analysis of Frequency of Irrigation

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Maximum storage capacity or available moisture
𝛾 𝐹𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑚𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑊𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡
=  ⋅𝑑  − 
𝛾 100 100

3. SEDIMENT TRANSPORT AND DESIGN OF CANALS

3.1. BASIC TERMINOLOGIES

3.1.1. Gross Command Area (GCA)
It is the total area bounded within the irrigation boundary of a project, which can be
economically irrigated without considering the limitation of the quantity of available
water.
It includes the cultivable as well as the uncultivable area.
The uncultivable areas of GCA include ponds, residential areas, roads, reserved forests,
etc.
3.1.2. Culturable/ Cultivable Command Area (CCA)
Culturable area is the cultivable part of the gross command area and includes all land of
GCA on which cultivation is possible.
In the absence of detailed data, CCA may be assumed to be equal to 80% of GCA.
3.1.3. Intensity of Irrigation (IOI)
This percentage of CCA proposed to be irrigated in a given season is called the intensity
of irrigation of that season or seasonal intensity of irrigation.
3.1.4. Area to be irrigated
The area proposed to be irrigated in any one crop season or over any given year is called
the area to be irrigated in that season or the year

Area to be irrigated  Cultivable Command Area  intensity of irrigation

3.1.5. Capacity Factor
The capacity factor of a canal is the ratio of the mean supply discharge in a canal during
a period to its designed full capacity.
3.2. SEDIMENT TRANSPORT
Average tractive force per unit of wetted area = unit tractive force
γw ALS
= wettedarea
γw ALS
= wettedperimeterxlength

γw ALS

PL γwRS
3.3. CALCULATION OF DESIGN CAPACITY OF A CANAL

QK = Discharge required for Kharif season

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QR = Discharge required for Rabi season
QZ = Discharge required for zaid season
QS = Discharge required for sugarcane

QK  QS

QR  QS

Design discharge = Qd = Maximum of QZ  QS

3.4. DESIGN OF ALLUVIAL CANAL

(i) Scouring

(ii) Silting

(iii) Regime/Stable

3.4.1. Kennedy Theory

3.4.1.1. Design Steps
Step 1: For a given discharge assume a trial depth and find the critical velocity as per
following expression.
v0 = nC1yC2
The first depth can be assumed as per the given discharge value and as suggested by
Kennedy.
Step 2: for the given discharge and a above calculated v0, calculate the area required as
following.

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Discharge Q
A  Area required  
Velocity V0

Step 3: Find the dimensions of the channel by assuming it to be a trapezoidal channel

1
H:1 V
with the side slope of 2 .

Step 4: Calculate the hydraulic radius as following

Area A
R  
Hydraulic radius Parameter P

Step 5: Using the above value of R, calculate the actual mean velocity of flow by either
using chezy’s equation or manning’s equation as following

V  C R.S (Chezy’s formula)

Here, C = Chezy’s constant

R = hydraulic radius
S = slope of the canal.

1 2/3 1/2
V R S
n (Manning’s formula)

1 0.00155
 23 
C n 5
n
1  23  0.00155 
R (Kutter’s formula)

n = Kutter’s Rugosity coefficient.

If the value of actual mean velocity calculated as above is equal to the critical velocity of
step 1, the design is okay, else repeat the above steps for the suitable trial depth.
Following is the table to assume first trial depth depending upon the given discharge
value.
Q(m3/sec) Y(m)

0 – 20 1.0

20 – 40 2.0

40 – 80 2.5

80 – 100 3.0

> 100 3.5

If the value of channel’s bed slope is not given them it can be taken as s = 1 in 3500 to
1 in 5000.
If the value of manning’s coefficient is not given then it can be assumed as per following
range.

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n : manning’s constant Material

0.022 – 0.025 Good Earthen channel

0.025 – 0.030 Poor Earthen channel

0.015 – 0.018 Concrete lined channel

3.4.2. Lacey’s Theory

3.4.2.1. Design procedure
Step 1:
The velocity of flow is calculated as following.
1/6
 Qf 2 
v   
 140  m/s

Here, f = silt factor

f  1.76 d
d = average size (diameter) of silt particles in mm.
Step 2:
Find the hydraulic radius as for following

5 v2
R 
2 f

Step 3:
For the given discharge, calculate the area required as following

Q
Areq 
v0

Step 4:

1
For an assumed cross section of trapezium of side slope K :1V, express the value of
2
area required in forms of B and y.

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Step 5:
Calculating the wetted perimeter for the known discharge as following:

P  4.75 Q

Now, express the known value of P in terms of B and y.

Step 6:
Calculate the value of bed slope for known value if discharge as per following.
As per the Lacey’s theory the scour depth can be calculated for following cases.
Case 1: Far Wide channel (Regime channel, P ≃ B).
Rr : Normal regime scour depth
1/3
Q
Rr  0.473  
f 
Here, Q = Flood discharge.
Case 2: Far normal channel (R′r: Normal scour depth)
2 /3
 q2 
Pr  1.35   ,m
 f 

q = discharge/unit width.
3.5. DESIGN OF LINED CANAL
3.5.1. Triangular section with round bottom
This type of cross section is to be used when discharge through lined canal is in the range of, Q ≤

55 m3/sec.

 0.75 m for main canal

FB : Free board 
 0.60 m for branck canal FSL : Full supply level

⇒ Af = y2(θ + cotθ)

 P  2y(  cot )

A y
 R  R 
P 2

Trapezoidal section with round corner

It is suitable for the canal having the discharge, Q > 55 m3/sec

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Area of flow = Af = By + y2(θ +cotθ)

P = B + 2y (θ +cotθ)
Lining Material Permissible vf

Cement concrete 2.5 m/s

Tile (Burn clay) 1.8 m/s

Stone (Boulder) 1.5 m/s

4. SEEPAGE THEORY

4.1. BLIGH’S CREEP THEORY FOR SEEPAGE FLOW

● According to Bligh’s theory, the percolating water flow the outline of the base of the
foundation of the hydraulic structure.
● The length of the path thus traversed by water is called the length of the creep.
● It is assumed that the loss of head is proportional to the length of the creep.
● If H2 is the total head loss between the upstream and downstream and L is the length
of creep, then the head per unit of creep length is called the hydraulic gradient.
● Now, for any point P an impervious floor
L = total length of creep.
L = 2d1 + b1 + 2d2 + b2 + 2d3
Let length of creep = Lp
H
P  H2p   Lp
Head loss till L .

H
P  HR  H     Lp  h
Residual seepage head @ L 

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(i) Safety against piping or undermining
According to Bligh’s theory, for safety against piping or undermining following condition
should be satisfied.
H 1

L C

 L  CH

Here, C = Bligh’s creep co-efficient.

Type of soils Value of C

Fine micaceous sand 15

Coarse grained sand 12

Sand mixed with boulder and gravel 5 to 9

Light sound and mud 8

(ii) Safety against uplift pressure

At any point P →

h 4 h 
tmin  and tdesign  
G 1 3  G  1 

Here, γω = unit weight of water.

G = specific gravity of the floor material.
By the above expression, thickness of the floor can be determined. This is generally
increased by 33%, so as to allow a suitable factor of safety.
4.2. LANE’S WEIGHTED CREEP THEORY
According to Lane’s weighted creep theory, the weighted creep length is given as per
following expression.

N
L  v
3

Where, N = sum of horizontal creep length as per Bligh

V = sum of vertical creep length as per Bligh.
(i) Safety against piping failure
Following condition is to be satisfied to avoid piping failure.

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L 1

L  C1

⇒ Lω ≥ C 1 H

Here, C1 = weighted creep coefficient for any soil.

Types of soil Value of G

Very fine sand or silt 8.5

Fine sand 7.5

Coarse sand 5.0

Gravel and sand 3.5 to 3.0

Boulder, gravels and sand 2.5 to 3.0

Clayey soils 3.0 to 1.6

(ii) Safety against the uplift pressure

h 4 h
tmin  and tde si gn   
G 1 3 G 1

H
h  H   L p
Where L

4.3. KHOSLA’S THEORY

Residual seepage head as per Khosla’s theory is given by following potential functions

P  h   H

, ϕ = residual seepage head potential function

H = total seepage head.
Where

1  2x 
 cos1  
  b 

H  2x 
P h cos1  
  b 

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5. CRITICAL HYDRAULIC GRADIENT

As per the observations of Khosla’s theory, exit gradient at the downstream end of the floor is
given by following expression.

H 1
GE  
d  

There, H = total seepage head

d = depth of pile at downstream end of impervious floor.

1  1  2

2

b

Where, d

b = total horizontal length of floor.

Critical hydraulic gradient CHG|For soil = (1 – η) (G – 1)
Here η = porosity
G = Specific gravity.
For no piping failure,

GE  CH  G

6. GRAVITY DAM

6.1. FORCES ACTING ON GRAVITY DAM

6.1.1. Self-weight
The self-weight of the dam is the major retarding force acts on the dam. It acts through
the center of gravity of dam.

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⟹ Total weight = γc (A1 + A2)

⟹ 𝑤  = 𝛾 ∑ 𝐴
Where,
γc = specific unit weight of concrete
6.1.2. Force due to Water Pressure

(a) Pressure at upstream

𝛾 𝐻
⇒ 𝑃  =   
2
Which is acting at a distance of H/3 from base of the dam.

(b) Pressure at downstream

𝛾 ℎ
𝑃  =   
2
Acting at a distance of h/3 from base of the dam.
6.1.3. Uplift pressure

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6.1.4. Earthquake force

Earthquake wave may move in any direction and for design purposes, it has to be released
in vertical and horizontal components. Hence, two acceleration i.e. one horizontal
acceleration (𝛼 h) and one vertical acceleration (𝛼 v) are induced by an earthquake. Value
of basic seismic coefficient (𝛼 o) according to zone is given below.

Seismic zones Value of 𝛼 o

Zone I 0.01

Zone II 0.02

Zone III 0.04

Zone IV 0.05

Zone V 0.08

The seismic force can be analyzed as shown below:

C: Centre of Earth
F: Focus/Hypo centre of Earthquake
E: Epi-centre

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Generally, the value of vertical acceleration is 75% of horizontal acceleration.

v  75% of h

where, h  k.g

k: seismic co-efficient, which is equal to

k = 𝛽 I 𝛼o
where,
𝛽: soil foundation system factor (1 for gravity dams)
I: importance factor (3 for gravity dams)
(i) Effect of 𝛼 v (Vertical acceleration)

𝛼 v can act in upward direction also but we are taking for worst condition.
𝑤 = 𝑤 − 𝐹 (↑)

⇒ 𝑤′= w – M.𝛼 v
𝑤
⇒ 𝑤′   =  𝑤 − 𝛼𝑣
𝑔
𝛼𝑣
⇒ 𝑤′   =  𝑤 1  −  
𝑔

(ii) Effect of 𝛼 h (horizontal acceleration)

(a) Development of 𝐹 :

𝑤
𝐹  =  × 𝑘. 𝑔
𝑔

⟹ F = kw (→)

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(b) Development of hydrodynamic force:

𝑃   =  0.555 𝑘 𝛾 𝐻  @   (≃  0.424 𝐻) from base.

6.1.5. Wave pressure

Waves are generated on the surface of the reservoir by the blowing winds, which causes
a pressure toward the downstream side.
Wave pressure depends upon the wave height. Wave height may be given by the
equation.

hw  0.032 V.F  0.763  0.271(F)3/4 for F < 32 km.

hw  0.032 V.F for F > 32 km

Where,
hw = height of water from top of crest to bottom of trough in meters.
V = wind velocity in km/hr
F = fetch or straight length of water expanse in km.

The maximum pressure intensity due to wave action may be given by

hw
pw = 2.4 rm hw and acts at 2 meters above the still water surface.

SWL = Still water level.

hw = height of wave.

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𝐹𝑤 = 2 𝛾 ℎ @ 3 hw/s above SWL.

6.1.6. Silt Pressure

ps = maximum active silt pressure

𝜃
ka = active silt pressure coefficient =   = ( 45 − 𝜙/2)
𝜃

𝜙 = angle of internal friction of soil.

γs = submerged unit weight of silt = γsat – γw
hs = height of silt load
   
∴ 𝐹  =   𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 @  from base.

In any absence of any data silt pressure can be taken as

1
Fs  360 h2s
2 in kg.f

6.1.7. Ice pressure

The ice which may be formed on the water surface of the reservoir in cold countries, may
sometimes melt and expand.
The dam face then to resist the thrust exerted by the expanding ice. The magnitude of
this force varies from 250 to 1500 kN/m2 depending upon temperature variation. On an
average, a value of 500 kN/m2 may be allowed under ordinary condition.
6.1.8. Wind pressure
Its value is taken as 1 – 1.5 kN/m2 of exposed area

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 dc 
H  
Fwind = 1.5 × dc × 1 kN @  2  from base.

6.2. MODES OF FAILURE FOR A GRAVITY DAM

(i) Over turning:
If the resultant of all the forces acting on a dam any of it’s sections, passes outside the toe,
the dam shall rotate and overturn about the toe.
The ratio of the righting moments about toe to the overturning moments about toe is called
the factor of safety against overturning.

For no overturning about the toe, MR  Mo

MR
 1
Mo

𝛴𝑀
𝐹𝑂𝑆  =     ≥  1
𝛴𝑀

For design condition,

𝛴𝑀
𝐹𝑂𝑆 =     ≃  1.5
𝛴𝑀

(ii) Sliding:
Sliding (or shear failure) will occur when the net horizontal force above any plane in the dam
or at the base of the dam exceeds the frictional resistance developed at that level.

For no sliding failure, resisting force ≥ sliding force

𝜇 𝛴V ≥ 𝛴H

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𝜇𝛴𝑉
𝐹𝑂𝑆  =    ≥  1
𝛴𝐻
One more factor shear friction factor is also used to check stability of a dam against sliding
when the bond strength of concrete is also considered. It is given by
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝜇𝛴𝑉 + 𝑞 × 𝐵 × 1
𝑆𝐹𝐹  =    = 
𝑆𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝛴𝐻

q = bond strength of concrete (kN/m3)

For same FOS against sliding mode of failure, the weight of concrete used in second case will
be less as compared to first case and therefore the second case gives us economical design.
(iii) Crushing/compression mode of failure
A dam may fail by the failure of its materials, i.e. the compressive stresses produced may
exceed the allowable stresses, and the dam material may get crushed.

Considering base area for 1 m length of dam (B x 1)

𝛴𝑉 6𝑒
𝜎 = 1+
𝐵 𝐵
And, minimum compressive stress will be at the heel of the section i.e. x = -B/2
𝛴𝑉 6𝑒
𝜎  =    1  −  
𝐵 𝐵
Now, the resultant stress on base width will have the following distribution depending upon the
value of e.

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e = eccentricity of the resultant force from the centre of the base.

𝛴V = total vertical force
B = base width.
Now, analyzing a stress element @ Toe

Taking a small triangular section at the toe, the free body diagram of the stresses will be

For no crusting,
 y 
1  f   
 Fos 
f = failure strength of concrete.
⟹ 𝜏 = (𝜎v – 𝜎2) tan 𝛼 .
(iv) Tension/tensile mode of failure
𝛴𝑉 6𝑒
𝜎 = 1  −  
𝐵 𝐵

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Case1: When reservoir is full

Case 2: When reservoir is empty

From above diagram, it can be concluded that no tension failure resultant force must always
pass through middle third strip of the base width.

6.3. ELEMENTARY PROFILE OF GRAVITY DAM

The elementary profile of a dam, subjected only to the external water pressure on the upstream
side, will be a right angled triangle, having zero width at the water level and a base width (B)
at bottom i.e. the point where maximum hydrostatic water pressure acts.

Here,
C = U/L uplift pressure coefficient
C = 1, if uplift pressure is considered
C = 0, if uplift pressure is absent
Case 1: When the reservoir is empty
The eccentricity in this profile = − =

In this case, there will be

a) No overturning failure

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b) No sliding failure
c) No tension failure
Only mode of failure in reservoir empty case is crushing.
For no crushing mode of failure,
𝛴𝑉 6𝑒
𝜎 = 1  +
𝐵 𝐵
𝑊 2𝑊
=   (1  +  1)   =     ≤  𝑓
𝐵 𝐵

Case 2: When Reservoir is full

(a) For no tension failure:
For no tension failure:
e ≤ B/6

H
B
Sc  C

H
 Bmin 
Sc  C

The critical width will be corresponding to the case when uplift pressure intensity is zero.
H
BCritical 
Sc

Where,
Sc = specific gravity of concrete
C = uplift pressure intensity factor
H = height of the dam.
(b) For no overturning failure:
∵ Mr ≥ Mo

H
B
2(Sc  C)

H
 Bmin 
2(Sc  C)

And,

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H
BCritical 
2 Sc

(c) For no sliding failure:

For no sliding failure,
Resultant force ≥ shear force

H
B
 (Sc  C)

H
 Bmin 
 (Sc  C)

When there is no upward force,

H
BCritical 
 Sc

(d) For no crushing failure:

For no crushing failure
𝑓
⇒  𝐻  ≤  
𝛾  (𝑆 − 𝐶 + 1)
𝑓
⇒ 𝐻 =
𝛾  (𝑆 − 𝐶 + 1)

And, critical height for the dam is

𝑓
⇒ 𝐻  = 
𝛾  (𝑆   +  1)

7. CANAL HEADWORKS, RIVER TRAINING WORKS AND CROSS DRAINAGE WORKS

7.1. REGULATING STRUCTURES FOR CANALS
i. Canal Falls - to lower the water level of the canal by controlling the bed grade (control
of bed grade)
ii. Cross & Head Regulators - to head up water in the parent channel & to divert some
of it through an off take channel (control of FSL)
iii. Canal escapes- to allow release of excess water from the canal system (control of
discharge)

7.2. Criteria for Judging the Performance of Modules

i. . Flexibility - It is the ratio of rate of change of discharge of the outlet to the rate of
discharge of the distributary channel.

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dq / q
F
dQ / Q

F= m.y/ (n.h)
q → discharge through the outlet

Q → discharge through the minor distributary (channel).

q = Chm, where h – head over outlet

C – Constant
m – Outlet index
Q = Kyn, Where y – head over distributary
K – Constant
N – Channel index.
For hyper proportional outlet, F > 1
For sub proportional outlet, F < 1
ii. Setting- The ratio of head on the outlet (h) to the full supply depth of distributary (y)
is known as Setting.
Setting, S = h/y
Note: For proportional outlet,

h m
S 
y n

Note:
For a wide trapezoidal channel, channel index, n = 5/3
For an orifice type outlet, m = 0.5
For a weir type outlet, m = 1.5
iii. Sensitivity - It is defined as the ratio of rate of change of discharge through an outlet
to the rate of change of water level of the distributary is called as Sensitivity.

dq q
S 
dy y

For rigid/non-flexible modules, the discharge is fixed and thus flexibility & sensitivity is
zero.
Further,

S  nF

Note: For a wide trapezoidal channel:

n = 5/3
7.3. RIVER TRAINING & PROTECTION WORKS
River training implies certain measures to be adopted on a river to stabilize the river
channel along a certain alignment with a certain cross section.
7.3.1. MORPHOLOGY OF A RIVER

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River/Stream morphology describes the shape of river channels and how they change in
shape with direction with respect to time.
THALWEG of a river – a thalweg or talweg is the line of lowest elevation within a Valley
or watercourse.
7.4. GROYNES/SPURS
Groynes are structures constructed transverse to the river flow and extend from the bank
into river up-to a limit.
7.4.1. TYPES OF GROYNES
Groynes are classified on the basis of function
a. Repelling/Reflecting Spur,
b. Deflecting Spur,
c. Attracting Spur
d. T-Shaped (Denehey), Hockey (Or Burma) Type, Kinked Type, Etc.
7.5. MEANDERING OF RIVERS
A meandering type of river flows in consecutive curves of reverse order connected with
short strait called as crossing.

MB = 153.42 √Q

ML = 53.61√Q

M = 8.84 √Q

Where Q is in m3/s;
MB, ML, W in meter.
7.5.1. Sinuosity or Tortuosity

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It is the ratio of the Actual length (along the curve) to the Meander Length (along straight
line) between the end points of the curve of a meandering river.
7.5.2. Effect of Meandering
The meandering action increases the length of the stream or river and tends to reduce
the slope.

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IMPORTANT FORMULAS ON HYDROLOGY ENGINEERING

1. PRECIPITATION & EVAPORATION

i. INDEX OF WETNESS
𝑅𝑎 𝑖𝑛𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑓 𝑎 𝑙𝑙 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟
𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑒𝑡𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 = × 100
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑎 𝑖𝑛𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑓 𝑎 𝑙𝑙

If index of wetness is 100%, it indicates a normal year. If it is greater than 100%, it is called
as good year and if it is less than 100%, it is called bad year.
ii. Aridity index
Aridity index = × 100

Here, PET = potential evapotranspiration.

AET = actual evapotranspiration.
Aridity index %) Condition

0 – 25 Mild

25 – 50 Moderate

>50 Severe

iii. Optimum number of rain gauge

𝐶
𝑁=
∈
Cv = coefficient of variation.
∈ = allowable percentage error.
For given number of rain gauge standard error ∈

𝐶
∈=
√𝑛
iv. ESTIMATION OF MISSION RAINFALL DATA
Let N1, N2, N3, … and Nx be the normal precipitation values for station ‘1 to m’ and ‘x’ Normal
precipitation is average value of rainfall for a day.
Let P1, P2, P3, … and Px be the rainfall for station ‘1 to m’ and ‘PX’ is the rainfall of station x.
Case 1: when N1, N2, … Nm differs from Nx by less than 10% the value of Px is given as
follows
𝑃 + 𝑃 + 𝑃 + 𝑃 +. . . +𝑃
𝑃 =
𝑚
Case 2: when one or more of N1, N2,…Nm, differs from Nx by 10% or more, the value of Px is
calculated by:

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𝑁 𝑃 𝑃 𝑃
𝑃 = + +. . . . . . . +
𝑚 𝑁 𝑁 𝑁

v. AVERAGE PRECIPITATION/RAINFALL
a. Arithmetical Mean/Average Method
This method is suitable if rainfall is uniformly distributed and area is not very large.
𝑃 + 𝑃 + 𝑃 +. . . . . +𝑃
𝑃 =
𝑛
This method does not give very good result and hence is not used very frequently. Any
station outside the area of consideration is not taken into account in this method.
b. Thiessen polygon/mean Method
In this method the rainfall recorded at each station is given a weightage on the basis of an area
closest to the station, that is why this method is also known as weightage area method.
𝑃 𝐴 + 𝑃 𝐴 +. . . +𝑃 𝐴
𝑃 =
𝐴 + 𝐴 +. . . +𝐴
∑
⇒𝑃 =

The ratio Ai/A is called the weightage factor for each station.
This method of finding average rain fall is suitable when area is large and rainfall is non-
uniformly distributed. This method is superior to arithmetical mean method.
c. Isohyetal Method
An isohyet is a line joining all the points having same value of rainfall and isohyetal maps are
the one which shows contours of equal rainfall magnitude.
In isohyetal method, it is assumed that the precipitation in areas between isohyetal lines is
equal to the mean of the precipitation of at isohyetal lines.
Mathematically, various following cases are possible.
Case 1:

𝑃 +𝑃 𝑃 +𝑃 𝑃 +𝑃
𝐴 + 𝐴 +. . . + 𝐴
𝑃 = 2 2 2
𝐴 + 𝐴 + 𝐴 +. . . +𝐴

Case 2: If isohyets outside the considered area is given.

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𝑃 +𝑃 𝑃 +𝑃 𝑃 +𝑃 𝑃 +𝑃 𝑃 +𝑃
𝐴 + 𝐴 + 𝐴 + 𝐴 + 𝐴
𝑃 = 2 2 2 2 2
𝐴 + 𝐴 + 𝐴 . . . . . +𝐴 +𝐴

Case 3:

𝑃 +𝑃 𝑃 +𝑃 𝑃 +𝑃
𝐴 + 𝐴 +. . . + 𝐴 +𝑃 𝐴
𝑃 = 2 2 2
𝐴 + 𝐴 + 𝐴 +. . . +𝐴 +𝐴

vi. Measurement of evaporation

a. Experimental method
𝐿𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝐸𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛  = 𝐶 × 𝑃𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

S.No. Type of Pan 𝐶

1. Class A 0.7

2. Indian standard 0.8

3. Colorado 0.78

b. Empirical Method

 V 
E  k  m  (e w ea )  1  a 
 16 
E = Rate of evaporation per day.
Km = constant which depends on size of water body.
ew = Saturated vapour pressure in mm of mercury.
ea = vapour pressure of air (ea) in mm of mercury.
Va = Mean monthly wind velocity in km/hr at a height of about 9m from the ground surface.

2. INFILTRATION

i. INFILTRATION CAPACITY

Ft  Ff  ( Fi  Ff )e(  kt )

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Ft = Infiltration rate or capacity at time ‘t’.
Ff = Final infiltration rate or capacity.
Fi = Initial infiltration rate or capacity.
K = Decay constant (T –1
or /s or / hr)
ii. INFILTRATION INDICES
a. 𝜙  - index
The 𝜙  - index is the average rainfall above which the rainfall volume is equal to run off volume.
The 𝜙 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 is derived from the rainfall hyetograph with the knowledge of resulting run off
volume. The initial losses are also considered as infiltration

b. W-index
This is the average infiltration rate during the entire duration of rainfall. In the calculation of
w-index, the initial losses are separated from total abstractions to refine the 𝜙 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥.
Mathematically it is defined as

P  R  ta
W
Tc

Here, P = total storm precipitation (cm)

R = total run off (cm)
ta = minor loss in total duration
Tc = duration of the rainfall excess i.e. total.
W = defined average rate of infiltration (cm)

3. STREAM FLOW MEASUREMENT & PROBABILITY

i. MEASUREMENT OF VELOCITY
a. Float
In this method, a very simple float device is used which flows along the river surface.

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L
Mathematically, V 
t1

b. Current meter

V  aNs  b

Ns = Number of revolution per sec.

Here, a and b are called characteristic constants.

Note:
Caliberation of current meter is done by using a ‘Towing tank’.
Sounding weight: It is a standard weight attached to a current meter in order to keep it at
fixed location.

In order to reduce the drag force these are stream lined in shape. Value of this sounding weight
is given as

W  50 v y

Here, w = weight in ‘N’

v = Average velocity in ‘m/s’

Y = depth in ‘cm’.
Average velocity can be obtained as follows
Case 1: For deep water bodies k/a two point formula.

V0.2y  V0.8y
Vavg 
2

Case 2: For shallow k/a one point formula

Vavg  V0.6y

Case 3: For flashly river and flood like situation.

Vavg  kvs

Here, k = 0.85 – 0.95

Vs = Surface velocity
ii. MEASUREMENT OF DISCHARGE
a. Area velocity method

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n
Q  Qi
i1

Q1  A1V1

Q2  A2 V2

Qn  An Vn

Here, A1  w1y1

A2  w2y2

An  wny2

Here,
2
 w2 
 w1  2 
w1   
2w1

w3  w4
w3 
2
2
 wn1 
 wn  2 
Similarly, wn1   
2wn

b. Dilution method:

Here C = background concentration.

Mathematically,

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CQ  c ' Q '  C "(Q  Q ')

c. Ultrasonic Method:

l  1 1
v   
2 cos   t1 t 

Q  AV
d. Moving Boat Method:

  0  y1   y1
Q1  A1 Vf   Vb t1    v f  vb0 v f t1
  2   2

y1
 Vr2 sin  cos t1
2
Similarly,

 y  y2 
Q2  Vr2 sin  t2  1 
 2 

 y  y3 
Q3  Vr2 sin  t3  2 
 2 
e. Slope Area Method :

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 V2  V22 
hf  (h1  h2 )   1   he
 2g 

hf  frictional
 
hc  eddies 
Through experiments, it has been found that eddy head loss

V12  V22
he  K e
2g

Where, Ke = eddy head loos coefficient.

hf
Qk
- L

K  K1  K2  K3  K 4  K5......  Kn 
1/n

iii. RISK AND RELIABILITY

The probability of a particular event happen exactly 'r' times out of 'n' trials is given as

n
crpr (1  p)nr

p = probability of exceedance.
a. Reliability
This is the probability that a particular flood or rainfall is never equalled or exceeded (r = 0) in
a time span of 'n' years, Mathematically
n 0 n0
⇒ Reliability = c0p (1  p)

Re liability  (1  p)n
⇒

b. Risk
This is a probability that a particular flood or rainfall is equaled or exceeded at least once in a
time span of 'n' years.
P (at least once) = 1 – p(never happen)= 1- Reliability

4. RUNOFF

Shape of Catchment Hydrograph

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i. DETERMINATION OF DIRECT RUNOFF HYDROGRAPH (DRH)

Hydrograph having base flow is known as flood hydrograph or storm hydrograph.

Flood

hydrograph Direct runoff hydrograph

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Direct runoff = depth

n =(Direct runoff volume)/(catchment area)
So, Mathematically it can expressed as

Here, n is in cm
A is in km2
t is in hr
O is in m3/sec
ii. SYNTHETIC UNIT HYDROGRAPH
Snyder selected three parameters for development of SUH. Theses parameters relate the
catchment characteristics
(i) Basin time width T
(ii) Peak discharge QP
(iii) Lag time i.e. basin lag time tp. (Snyder defined lag time as time interval from mid pt. of
rainfall to peak of UH (instead of centroid).

He proposed the following three equations for these three parameters

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Lag time, tp = Ct(LLca)0.3
Basin time width T = (72 + 3tp)

2.78Cp A

Peak discharge QP tp

Where tp is in hr
Ct is a coefficient reflecting slope, land use, and associated storage characteristics of basin. Its
value varies between 1.35 to 1.65, average being 1.5
L = basin length measured along the water course from the basin divide to the gauging station
in km.
Lca = Distance of centroid of catchment from the gauging point (in km)
T is in hr
QP is in m3/s
A = Catchment area in km2

CP = a regional constant having value between 0.56 to 0.69

Synder used the standard duration tr (or D-hr) in hr for unit hydrograph

tp
tr  Dhr 
5.5

If a synthetic unit hydrograph of other duration then D’hr is required, then lag time , tpr’ is given
by
D ' tr
tpr  tp 
4

To plot the smooth synthetic unit hydrograph, US army crops of engineering gave the width of
SUH as

5.87
W50  1.08
 Qp 
 
 A 

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3.35 W50
W75  
 Qp 
1.08
1.75
 
 A 

Where W50 and W75 are the width of synthetic unit hydrograph in hr at 50% and 75% of QP
respectively, where QP is in m3/s and A is area of catchment in km2.

5. GROUND WATER HYDROLOGY

i. STEADY CONFINED FLOW (FULLY PENETRATING WELL)

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A. Theims Theory

2KB h2  h1 
Q
r2
ln
r1

h1  s1  h2  s2

Q= Rate of flow
h1 =height of water table in 1st well
h2 =height of water table in 2nd well
S1 = drawdown in 1st well
S2 = drawdown in 2nd well
r2, r1 = radius
B. Dupit theory
Further, at the edge of the zone of influence, s =0, r2 = R and h2= H;at the well wall r1 = rw,
h1 = hw and s1 = sw. Hence

2KBSw
Q
R
ln
rw

This is called dupits formula.

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ii. STEADY UNCONFINED FLOW

A. Themis Theory

Q

k h22  h12 
r 
ln  2 
 r1 

B. Dupit theory

Q

 k H2  h2w 
R
ln
rw

R  3000  S  K

hw = depth of water in the pumping well of radius rw.

6. RESERVOIR CAPACITY & FLOOD ROUTING

i. RATIONAL METHOD
This method is suitable for small size catchments whose area is less than 50 km2.
Mathematically it is expressed as

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1
QP  kpc A
36

Here, pc = critical rainfall intensity in 'cm/hr'

k = runoff coefficient
A = Area in hectares
It is applicable only if rainfall duration is greater than or equal to time of concentration.
ii. EMPIRICAL FORMULAE
The empirical formulae used for the estimation of the flood peak are essentially regional
formulae based on statistical correlation of the observed peak and important catchment
properties. These equations are given as follows.
(a) Dicken’s Equation
This equation is applicable for North and central India. Mathematically, it is given as

QP  CD A3/4

Here,
QP = m3/s
A = Area in km2
CD =dicken's constant (6 to 30)
(b) Ryve's Equation
This equation is applicable for southern parts of India. Mathematically it is given as

QP  CR A2/3

Here, CR =ryve's constant.

(c) Ingli's Equation
This equation is applicable for WesternGhats and Maharashtra region. Mathematically it is given
as,

124A
QP   123 A
A  10.4

iii. STATICAL PROBABILITY METHOD

This method is suitable if large number of data is given and it is required to find peak value of
discharge for any given period or return period.
a. Return Period
The return period is calculated for each event using Weibull’s formula.

n1
Tv 
m

Tr = return period in yr.

m = order no.
n = no. for yr of records

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return period represents the average no. of years within which a given event will be equalled
or exceeded.

1
P
T
Probability of exceedance = r

The most commonly used distributions are :

(a) Gumble’s distribution
(b) Log Pearson Type III distribution.
b. Gumble’s Method:
As per Gumble’s method

XT  X  K. n 1

where XT = Value of variate (i.e. flood) with a return period of T

X
X
X = Mean value for variate n (from annual series)

n = no. of yrs of record

σn-1 = Standard deviation of the sample of size n

 X  X
2

n1 
n1
K = Frequency factor
y T  yn
K
Sn

yT = reduced variate
1  T 
 () ln ln T  1 
t  

yn = Mean of reduced variate

Sn = Standard deviation of reduced variate.

yn and Sn function of n (no. of yr. of record). Table is available for yn and Sn againstn. Hence

Sn and yu will be obtained from table.

However if, n is large (generally >200)

yn→ 0.577

Sn→ 1.2825

[Normal for n> 50 also some time we use yn = 0.577. Sn= 1.2825 without much error]
iv. CONFIDENCE LIMIT
Confidence interval indicates the limits about the calculated value between which the true value
can be said to lie with a specific probability based on sampling errors only.

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For confidence probability ‘α’, the confidence interval of variate XT is bounded by value X1 and
X2 given by

X1 2  X T  f    .Sc

where f(α) = function of confidence probability ‘α’. It can be found using the following table
Α is percent 50 68 80 90 95 99

f(α) 0.674 1.0 1.282 1.645 1.96 2.58

N 1
b
Sc = Probable error = n

b  1  1.3K  1.1 K2

y T  yn
K
Sn

T
y T   ln ln
T 1
n = Sample size
T = Return period
σn–1 = Standard deviation of sample
v. Rainfall run off correlation

R  ap  b

Here,
n PR   P R
a
n P 2
 ( P) 2

b
 R  a P
n
vi. Flood Routing

This reduction in peak is called attenuation.

The time difference between the two peaks is called lag.
a. Prism storage
It is the volume that whould exist if the uniform flow occurred at down stream flow
b. Wedge storage

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It is the wedge like volume formed between the actual surface profile and top surface of prism
storage.
c. Muskingum method

S  (I  Q)t

S = Change in storage in time t

I= Avg. inflow rate over the time period t

Q= Avg outflow rate over the time period t

 I  I1   Q2  Q1 
S   2  t    t
 2   2 

S1  K  XI1  1 – x  Q1 

S2  K XI2  1 – x  Q2 

S2 – S1 = K [x (I2 – I1) + (1 – x) (Q2 – Q1)]

Q1 =I1
Q2 = C0I2 + C1I1 + C2Q1
Qn = C0In + C1In-1 + C2Qn-1

Kx  0.5t
C0 
K  Kx  0.5t

Kx  0.5t
C1 
K  Kx  0.5t
K  Kx  0.5t
C2 
K  Kx  0.5t
C0 + C1 + C2 = 1.0
For the results routing interval Δt should be so chosen that K >Δt> 2Kx
Following steps are used for channel routing using Muskingum method.
(i) Knowing K and x, select an appropriate value of Δt [K >Δt> 2Kx]
(ii) Calculate C0, C1 and C2
(iii) Starting from the initial conditions I1. Q1 and known I2 at the end of the first time step Δt,
calculate Q2 by eq. (C)
(iv) The outflow calculated in step (iii) becomes the known initial outflow for the next time
step. Repeat the calculations for the entire-inflow hydrograph.

****

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