Unit 1: Stochiometric Relationships

Atom economy: A concept used for assessing the efficiency of a reaction in making a
particular product.
mass of the desired product
- % atom economy= x 100
total mass of the products

Mixtures:
- Mixture meaning that a mixture composed of two or more substances in which no
chemical combination has occurred.
- Homogenous mixtures meaning that it has uniform composition and properties
throughout.
- Heterogenous mixtures meaning that non-uniform composition and not the same
properties throughout.
How to separate some mixtures:
Matters at different states:

- Kinetic theory: Average kinetic energy of particles is directly related to the

temperature of the system
- The state of matter at any given temperature and pressure is determined by the forces
existing between particles which are named the inter-particle forces.
- Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles of a substance.

Matters change states reversibly:

Chemical Reactions
- Bonds within reactants are broken, then the rearrangement of bonds occurs.
In chemical reactions:
1. Mass is conserved.
2. Number of atoms is conserved.
3. Kinds of atoms are conserved.

Types of Chemical Reactions

1. Single Replacement Reaction: ab + c  ac + b
2. Double Replacement Reaction: ab + cd  ac + bd
a. Precipitation reactions: A solid precipitate is formed in water with two
spectator ions. Example

b. Neutralization reactions.
Example:

c. Gas Formation reactions: Example:

3. Decomposition (Analysis) Reaction: ab  a + b; uses energy in the form of heat or

electricity to decompose a compound. Examples:

,
4. Combination (Synthesis) Reaction: a + b  ab; Example:

5. Combustion Reaction: Burning organic compounds (hydrocarbons) with O, the

products are always C O2∧H 2 O.

Types of Chemical Reactions In Terms of Energy

1. Exothermic Reaction: Energy released when a chemical bond is formed.

2. Endothermic Reaction: Energy required when a chemical bond is broken down..

Balancing Chemical Equations

 turns to
Mole Concept:
- Avogadro Number: 6.022 ×1023 items/mol
- Mole: “n”  number of moles
- Molar Mass (Mm) : Mas of a substance that contain 1 mole of particles; unit: g/mol
o Atomic Mass: 1 mole of C is 12.01 g
o Molecular Mass: 1 mole of C O2 is ( 12.01× 1+16.00× 2 )=44.01 g

- Molar Volume: At STP (Standart Temperature and Pressure) 1 mole of any gas is
22.7 L
o STP: 0 ° C∧1 atm

Empirical and Molecular Formula:

- Empirical Formula: Simplest formula of a compound: Example:
o (C ¿ ¿ 1 H 2 O1 I )n ¿
- Molecular Formula: Actual formula of a compound: Example:
o C 6 H 12 O6

Molar mass:
- Relative formula mass, Mr, is the sum of the weighted average of the masses of the
atoms in a formula unit relative to one-twelfth of an atom of carbon – 12.
weighted avarage of one atom of the element
Relative atomicmass A r=
o 1
mass of one atom of carbon−12
12
- The molar mass of a substance, M, is its relative atomic mass, A r, of its relative
formula mass, Mr, expressed in grams. It has the units g/mol.
- One mole is the mass of substance that contains as m any particles as there are atoms
in 12 g of carbon-12.
The theoretical yield is determined by the limiting reactant:
- The reactant determining the quantity of the product is known as limiting reactant.
- The theoretical yield refers to the maximum amount of product obtainable, assuming
100% of the limiting reactant is converted to product.

The percentage yield can be calculated from the experimental and theoretical yields:
experimental yield
- percentage yield= x 100
theoritical yield

Avogadro’s law directly relates gas volumes to moles:

- Equal volumes of all gases, when measured at the same temperature and pressure,
contain an equal number of particles.
o Alternatively: Equal numbers of particles of all gases, when measured at the
same temperature and pressure, occupy equal volumes.

All gasses under the same conditions have the same molar volume:
volume
- number of moles of gas ( n )=
molar volume
Molar volume: The volume occupied by one mole of any gas is known as molar volume. This
volume must be the same for all gases when measured under STP – this volume is 2.27 L/mol
- STP is 273 K and 100 kPa.

The gas laws describe pressure, volume, and temperature relationships for all gases.
- Ideal gas model: Useful in predicting and interpreting the physical properties of gases
under typical conditions of temperature and pressure.

Gas laws:
- Relationship between volume and pressure:
o Increasing the pressure on a fixed mass of gas decreases its volume.
o The pressure of a gas is inversely proportional to its volume, and the product of
pressure and volume is a constant.
o This is known as Boyle’s law.
- Relationship between volume and temperature:
o Increasing the temperature means increasing the average kinetic energy of
particles.
o When pressure is constant, increasing the temperature increases its volume.
o Volume of a gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature, and
volume divided by absolute temperature is a constant.
o This is known as Charles’ law.
- Relationship between pressure and temperature:
o When volume is held constant, increasing the temperature of a fixed mass of
gas proportionally increases its pressure.
 o The pressure of a gas is directly proportional to the absolute temperature, and
pressure divided by temperature is a constant.
P 1 ×V 1 P2 × V 2
At the end: = this is the equation we use to calculate gas volume, pressure,
T1 T2
and temperature

The ideal gas equation is derived from the combined gas equation and Avogadro’s law:
- R is the universal gas constant which has the value 8.31 N m/K mol or 8.31 J / K mol
- PV = nRT
o P is the pressure, and it must be in Pa
o V is the volume, and it must be in m3.
o “n” is the number of moles.
o T is the temperature, and it must be in Kelvin; to turn Celsius to Kelvin, add
273.15.

Real gases show deviation from ideal behavior: If it is though

that every gas is ideal, then the relationship of PV/RT should be
equal to 1. So a graph of PV/RT against P for one mole of an ideal
gas is basically a horizontal line of intercept 1.

Yet, as not all gases are ideal and really, they are “real gases”, they
deviate from the ideal behavior.

The gas behaves most like an ideal gas at a

low pressure and shows the greatest
deviation at high pressure.

The gas behaves most like and ideal gas at

high temperature and shows the greatest
deviation at low temperature.

The concentration of a solution depends on moles of solute and volume of solution:

- The concentration of a solution refers to the amount of solute per volume of solution.
It has units mol per liter or grams per liter.
-
- Standard solution: One of accurately known concentration.
mass of component
- Parts per million ( ppm ) = x 106
total mass of solution
Dilutions of solutions reduce the concentration:
- Dilution is making a solution less concentrated and doing this from a more
concentrated solution named stock solution.
- c 1 x V 1=c 2 x V 2 ; c is the concentration and V is the volume.
The concentration of a solution can be determined by volumetric analysis:
- The process is named volumetric analysis.
- Titration technique is used to determine the reacting volumes precisely.
- Pipette is used to measure a known volume of one solution into the conical flask.
- The other solution is put into the burette.
- The liquid is poured from burette to conical flask for color change in the solution’s
end point, and the point where two solutions react completely is named equivalence
point and is determined by an indicator placed in the solution present in the burette.

Back titration:
Unit 2: Atomic Structure

STM (Scanning Tunnel Microscope): Scans three-dimensional surfaces, individual atoms

can be observed.

A little history…
Antonio Lavosier Showed mass conversion.
Named “O” gas.
Dalton, His Atomic Model Elements  indivisible particles called “atoms”.
Elements  different ones have different atoms.
Atoms  neither destroyed nor divided.
Atom model: A billard ball
Thompson, His Atomic Theory Discovered:
- Electron with cathode ray experiment.
- Atoms overall having “0” charge.
- Protons and electrons, plum puding.
- Electron’s mass, very little.
- Mass/charge ratio.
Robert Milikan Oil Drop Experiment
- “+” charge attracts “-” charge
- Electron’s charge calculation.
Goldstein Found proton.
Rutherford Gold Foil Experiment
- Alpha (+) rays shooted on a gold foil, 98%
passed through, 2% deflected.
Finalization:
- Most of the atom: empty.
- Less percent deflected, so small nucleus.
- Nuclear charge = proton number
- Electron: turns around the nucleus
- In an atom: electron = proton
James Chadwick Discovery of neutron.
Bohr - Heat atom to make electron excited for it
to move
- Electrons move in circular orbits with
specific energy levels.
- Each orbit (or shell or energy level) has a
different energy and a different distance
from the nucleus.

X  Z = atomic mass = proton number = neutral electron number

Z
X  A = mass number = proton number + neutron number = nucleon
A

Isotopes: Same proton and electron number, different neutron number. Same chemmical,
different physical properties.

Ex:
35
Cl(77.5%), 37Cl(22.5%)  avarage relative mass calculation:
- (77.5/100 *35) + (22.5/100 * 37) = 35.45
Isoelcetronic species: Same number of electron.

Radioisotopes: Radioactive isotopes found in nature, having unstable nuclei and radiate
subatomic particles.
Ex:
- C-14  carbon dating
- Iodine radioisotopes  medical tracers
- Co-60  radiotheraphy
The Mass Spectrometer:
- Gives information about the isotopic composition of different elements and the
structure of molecules.
- Can only be used with ionized elements..
- The masses of different isotopes, their relative abundance can be measured and
avarage atomic mass can be estimated from mass spectra.
Note: In deflection, the smaller mass and higher charge ions deflect more, the opposites of
these deflect less.
Example:

3 Types of Spectrums:
1- Continuous spectrum: Sunlight passes through prism, all colors are visible.
2- Absorbtion spectrum: Heat absorbed excites electrons makes colors “seperately”
visible as black lines. The energy corresponding to the black lines are absorbed by the
electron as it moves through low energy level to high energy level.
 3- Line emmision spectrum: Bohr’s observation, emmision spectrum.
a. Book page 71:

 Continuous Spectrum

 Absorbtion Spectrum

Line Emmision
Spectrum

Equations:
- c (speed of light) = v (frequency  number of picks)  (wavelength of light 
distance between picks); c = v
- EP difference (energy difference) = h (constant) v (frequency) = (h x c) / 

Electromagnetic Spectrum

- Making electrons from ion to cation is done with waves  ionization energy
Long Wavelength = Low Frequency = Low Energy
 Short Wavelength = High Frequency = High Energy
Absorption: Lower to higher, an absorption spectrum shows the radiation absorbed as atoms
move from a lower to a higher energy level.
Emission: Higher to lower, any electron turning from higher energy level to lower energy
level incurs colored lights. Bohr talked about this by using the idea of Einstein

- Electron can not be between energy levels because they only emit certain energies
with lines of certain frequencies, like a staircase. Thus, we can say that energy is
quantized. The line spectrum is a proof.
Series:
Lymen series: Electrons coming to 1st
energy level.
Balmer series: Electrons coming to
2nd energy level. The only visible
spectrum.
Paschen series: Electrons coming to
3rd energy level.
- As the energy levels increase,
they converge, become closer.
- When an electron reaches to the
infinite energy levels , it means
that electron is lost, ionized.
- Thus, ionization energy: the
energy needed to remove an
electron from the ground state
of an atom in a mole of of
gaseous atoms, ions or
molecules.

Modern Atomic Theory: Tries to explain electron’s behavior and wave feature.
- Bohr failed to predict the spectral lines of atoms with more than one electron.
- Schrödinger proposed wave equation which could be used to describe electron’s and
light’s behavior. Electrons move in orbitals is said after Schrödinger.
- Heisenberg has uncertainty principle, and it says, “we can either know the
momentum or the position of an electron”.

Atomic Orbitals:
“s” orbital: in n=1 and so on energy levels, sphreical, max 2 electrons
“p” orbital: in n=2 and so on energy levels, dumbbell shape, max 6 electrons
“d” orbital : in n=3 and so on energy levels, max 10 electrons
“f” orbtial: in n=4 and so on energy levels, max 14 electrons
Pauli Exclusion Principle: Every single orbital can have maximum 2 electrons in opposite
spin.
The Aufbau Principle: The lowest energy orbitals are filled first.

Hund’s third rule:

Placing the two electrons in seperate orbitals
like in “2p-carbon at the left” because this
configuration minimizes the mutual
repulsion between them. Thus the orbitals
having parallel maximum spin, it leads to
lower energy.

Order:
1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 4s2, 3d10, 4p6, 5s2, 4d10, 5p6, 6s2, 4f14, 5d10,
6p6 …
First 30 elements, their electron configurations:

* If the electron configuration of an element ends with either ns2(n-1)d4 or ns2(n-1)d9, the
electron configuration is changed to ns1d5 or ns1d10 respectively. This change occurs because
the existence of completely half-filled (d5) or completely filled (d10) d orbitals in an atom
gives greater stability to the atom.
Periodic Table and Electron Configuration

Ionization Energy: Minimum energy needed to pick / remove electron from the valance
electrons of a gaseous atom.

Ionization energy:
- Directly proportional with size, or directly proportional with proton number.
- A process called “endothermic”, takes the energy in.

For Al:

Note: Per electron, proton’s attraction increase as electrons are picked, so as electrons are
picked the remaining electrons’ proton atttraction would increase, so atom shrinks.
Ionization Energy in Periods and Groups
In the same period, as size decrease due to increasing protons, so proton-electron attraction
increase, the ionization energy increases, too.
In the same group, as period increases size increases, too, and so ionization energy
decreases because the proton-electron attraction’s intensity decreases, so it becomes much
harder to pick an electron from valance energy level, so it need more energy.

Ionization Energy Exceptions

n=1  H, He
n=2  Li, B, Be, C, O, N, F, Ne
n=3  Na, Al, Mg, Si, S, P, Cl, Ar
- These irregularities occur because of the electron configuration, so spherical symettry.
o Spherical symettry: Group 2 and 15 have spherical symmetry causing a
change in the order of ionization energy. In other words, elements in these
groups have completely half filled or completely full filled orbitals on their
valence shell which gives extra stability to the atom.

Al and Mg reason example:

Al is 3p1 and Mg is 3s2 so the all orbitals in the Mg are paired, yet in Al, the 3p orbital is
alone and further from the nucleus, so it tends to give electron more easily. Thus, Mg is more
stable because of its 3s orbital being full, and so Mg’s its ionization energy is higher.
S and P example and reason:

Example of spherical symmetry.

Unit 3: Periodic Table

Columns of the table: groups; rows of the table: periods

S, p, d, and f blocks:

Metals: Left-hand side of the table, s block, central d block, f block.

Alkali metals: Reactive metals in group 1 of the s block.
Lanthanoides: Metals, first row of the f block, 3’rd group.
Actinoides: Metals, second row of the f block, 8’th group.
Non-metals: P block, red part.
Halogens: Reactive group, group 17.
Noble gases: Unreactive family of non-metals, group 18.
Metalloids: Have both metal and non-metal characteristics, physical properties and
appearance resemble metals, chemically have more common with non-metals.

Periodic Trends
Effective nuclear charge:
- Nuclear charge is given to atom by its atomic number.
- Physical change in atom can cause changes.
- The effective nuclear charge is the attraction of the protons to val. electrons.
- The net attraction of the protons to valance electrons is less because of the inner
electron’s shielding effect, the inner electrons repel the valance ones, as the inner
electron number increase (it can only increase if a new energy level is added),
shielding increase, and effective nuclear charge decrease.
- The effective nuclear charge remains nearly the same down a group.
Atomic Radius
The atomic radius:
- decrease in period, from left to right, because the
attraction between electrons and protons increase as
proton number increase and so the nuclear charge
increase. Thus, because the attraction becomes higher as
it is moved left to right, the radius of the atom decrease.
- increase in group, from up to down, because as moved
down in periods, in each period movement, one energy
level is added, and it increases the atomic radius.

Ionic Radius
- Cations are smaller than their parent atoms because as the electron number
decrease with the same proton number, the proton-electron attraction increases.
- Anions are bigger than their parent atoms because as the electron number increase
with the same proton number, the proton-electron attraction decreases.
- Ionic radius increase down the periods because in each period addition, energy level
number is increased.
- Ionic radius decrease from 1st to 14th group for cations. As moved in group, from left
to right, for the atoms to become ions, they need to give more electrons. An atom in
3rd group needs to give 3 electrons, yet an atom in 1st group needs to give 1. Both of
these atoms become to have the same electron number with different proton numbers.
The one with higher proton number will have the smaller radius because of the proton-
electron attraction; there will be more protons attracted to electrons.
- Ionic radius decrease from 14th to 17th group for negative ions. As moved in group,
from left to right, for the atoms to become ions, they need to take less electrons. An
atom in 14th group needs to take 4 electrons, yet an atom in 17th group needs to take
1. Both of these atoms become to have the same electron number with different proton
numbers. The one with the lower proton number will have the bigger radius because of
the proton-electron attraction; there will be less protons attracted to electrons.
Ionization Energies
First ionization energy: Measure of attraction between the nucleus and the outer electrons.
General trend:
- Ionization energy increase across, left to right, a period because as the electrons
and proton numbers increase, both the proton-electron attraction increase and as the
electrons are added, the atoms becomes less tended to give electrons to be cations
because their stability in their valance shell increase.
- Ionization energy decrease, up to down, a group because as the energy levels
increase, the protons’ attraction to the valance shell’s electrons decrease because of the
distance increase. Thus, it becomes easier to pick up the valance electron from the
atoms which are bigger in atomic radius, down the group.

Electron Affinity
Definition: Energy change when one mole of electrons is added to one mole of gaseous
atoms to form one mole of gaseous ions.
Examples:

or
The minimum value for electron affinities occur in the group 17 elements because as they
obtain one more electron, they become stable as the noble gases.

The least electron affinity values

occur when the atom has one
electron left to obtain to obey the
octet rule. For example, Cl has 17
electrons, and it’s electron affinity
value is -350 kJ/mol. This value is
negative because the Cl wants to
be stable so much that it gives the
energy off to take an electron and
become stable.

Electronegativity
Definition: Measure of the ability of the element to attract electrons in a covalent bond.
Another definition: Tendency of an atom to attract bonding electrons.
General trend:
- Electronegativity increase from left to right across a period because as the proton
number increase, there will be an increased attraction between nucleus and the bond
electrons.
- Electronegativity decreases down a group, the bonding electrons are further from
the nucleus, so there is a reduced attraction.
- The highest value of electronegativity is 4.0, the lowest is 0.7; 4.0 is the value of F.

Melting Point
Chemical Properties

Group 18: Noble Gases

- Colorless gases.
- Monoatomic, exist as single atoms.
- Very unreactive.
- Do not generally form positive or negative ions.
- All have 8 (octet) electrons in their valance shell except helium; helium has 2 (dublet).
- Group 1, 2 and 13 give off electrons; group 15, 16, and 17 gain electrons to be stable.

Group 1: Alkali Metals

- Too reactive to be found in nature in pure form.
- Stored in oil to prevent their contact with air.

- Lithium: Soft, reactive, has metallic lustre, rapidly reacts with oxygen.
- Sodium: Softer than lithium, more reactive than lithium.
- Potassium: Softer and more reactive than sodium.
- The reactivity of these metals increase down in group because the elements with
higher atomic number has lowest ionization energies. The attraction between the
proton and electron decrease as the inner energy levels increase down group. Thus, it
becomes easier to pick up the valance electron when the inner energy levels are high
in amount.
Reaction with water: Metal + water  hydrogen + metal hydroxide
Specific examples:
Group 17: Halogens
- Diatomic molecules.

- The reactivity trend: Readiness to accept electrons; as the electron is accepted, the
valance shell completes itself to an octet and becomes stable. For this desire to be
stable, the protons exert a strong pull on any electron from other atoms to be stable.
- The reactivity is the highest in fluorine because it is the smallest atom, so the protons
exert strong pull force in the highest amount possible to the other electrons.
- The reactivity decreases down the group because the distance between the protons and
possibly desired electrons increase, so the strong pulling force becomes insufficient.
Reaction with group 1 metals:

The most vigorous reaction: Most reactive alkali metal francium and the most reactive
halogen fluorine.
Displacement reactions:

Halides:
- Halogens + silver  insoluble salt named “halide”.
- Precipitate is produced, useful to identify the halide ion.
Bonding of period 3 oxides
- Ionic compounds: Between metal and non-metal; oxides of Na and Al have giant
ionic structures; giant ionic structure is associated with high melting point.
- Covalent compounds: Between non-metals; oxides of P, S and Cl are molecular
covalent; molecular covalent structure is linked with low melting point.
- Oxide of silicon, a metalloid, has giant covalent structure; giant covalent structure is
linked with high melting point.
Ionic character:

- Oxide becomes more ionic down the group as the electronegativity decreases.

The first three groups conduct electricity only in the liquid, in molten form because only in
that form there are delocalized electrons, free ions to move.
Acid-base character of the period 3 oxides:
Note: The aluminium oxide can be considered as ionic oxide with some covalent character, so
amphoteric, react both with acids and bases.

Basic oxides:
Basic oxides:

Acidic oxides:
Amphoteric oxides:

Transition elements, electron configurations:

Atomic radii are similar because the d-block elements in the same period undergo the same
process: the atomic radii is affected by shielding effect; the shielding effect is increased as
electrons are added to the inner energy levels (in d-block element’s case, the electrons added
to the d orbitals are added into the inner energy levels) causing repulsion between valance
electrons causing radii to enlarge; as electrons are added, the protons are added, too, these
protons will tend to attract the valance electrons, yet because the shielding effect increases
with the tendency of protons attracting valance electrons, the atomic radii mostly stays
similar.

Transition elements, physical properties:

- High electrical and thermal conductivity.
- High melting point.
- Malleable (easily given shape).
- High tensile strength (hold large loads without breaking).
- Ductile (can be easily drawn into wires).
- Iron, cobalt, and nickel are ferromagnetic.
All of these can be explaind with strong mettalic bond in the eelements; the delocalized
sea of electrons holding the metal lattice structure together.
Also, the delocalized sea of electrons account fort he strength of the metallic bond and the
high electrical conductivity.
Transition elements, chemical properties:
- Form compounds with more than one oxidation numbeer.
- Form a variety of complex ions.
- Form coloured compounds.
- Act as catalysts when either element or compounds.

Transition elements, Zinc (Zn) is not one of them!

- It cannot form coloured ions.
- It doesn’t show transition metal characteristics; it only has 2+ oxidation number.
- The d-sublevel is full.

Transition elements with variable oxidation elements:

 - All transition metals have 2+ and 3 + oxidation states. The 3+ state is mmore stable
for transition metals, yet as moved in period left to right, as the effective nuclear
charge increases, it is harder to be 3+, so mostly the 3+ will ve 2+.
- Oxidation state > 3+; is covalent character; ions of higher charge have such large
charge density that they polarize negative ions and incrase the covalent charater of the
compound.
- Higher oxidation state ions are mostly oxidizing agents like potassium dichromate
(IV) being used in oxidation of alcohol.

Complex ions:
Complex formed when a central transition metal ion is surrounded by molecules or ions
which posses a lone pair of electrons. The surrounded species are named ligands. These
ligands’ lone pairs attach to the central ion via a coordinate bonds. The number of coordinate
bond is named coordination number.
Polydendate ligands acting as chelating agents:
Some species have morer than one lone pair of electrons to form coordinate covalent bond
with the central transition ion. For example: EDTA4-

6 monodendate ligands are equal to one

hexadendate ligand, for instance an EDTA4-.
These 6 lone pairs of electrons grip the central
ion and surround it as a chelate.
Chelates are important in food and biological
systems because they remove metal ions from
many food, precent the food poisioning from
metal.

Transition metals and their use as a catalyst:

Catalysts alter the rate of reaction by providing
an alternate reaction pathway with lowering activation energy.

Heterogenous catalysis:
Ability of transition metal to use their 3d and 4d electrons to form weak bonds to reactant
molecules makes them effective heterogenous catalysts; they provide surface area to the
reactanct molecules for reactions.
Examples of heterogenous catalysts:

Ions of transition metals as homogenous catalysts:

Homogenous catalysts are in the same state of matter as the reactants.
Their ability to show different oxidation states allow them to be particularly effective
homogenous catalysts in redox reactions.
Many enzyme-catalyzed cell reactions in body involve transition metals as homogenous
catalysis.

Example of ions of transition metals as homogenous catalysts:

Fe2+ in heme, oxygen is transported through the bloodstream by forming a weak bond with the
heme group of hemoglobin. The Fe2+ cetnral ion is surrounded by 4 N atoms; the oxygen-iron
bond is easily broken when oxygen needs to go.

The magnetic properties of the transition metals and their comounds:

Diamagnetism: All materials produces a very weak opposition to an applied magnetic field.
Paramagnetism: With substances having unpaired electrons, magnetization is proportional to
the applied field in the same direction; stronger than diamagnetism
Ferromagnetism: Largest; magnetization magnitude greater than applied field.
Iron, cobalt, and nickel are ferromagnetic:
The unpaired d electrons in large numbers line up in parallel spins, the regions are called
domains. These domains can be randomly ordered, or they can be more ordered when
exposed to external magnetic field.
Transition metals and their complexes show paramagnetic properties:
- Unpaired transition metal complexes show paramagnetic properties as they are pulled
into the magnetic fields.
- Paramagnetism increases with the number of unpaired electrons; so generally increase
from left to right; it has its maxiumum at Cr, then it decreases till Zn; Zn has no
unpaired electrons, so it is diamagnetic.

The colour of transition metal ions are based on the level of half-filled d orbitals.
Sc3+ is colourless because it has no d orbital electron. Zn2+ is also not coloured because its all
d orbitals are full.

Visible spectrum and colour wheel:

The visible spectrum

ranges from 400 nm to
700 nm; the colour
seen depends on the
wavelength.
The colour of a substance depends on which colour(s) it absorbs and which colour(s) does it
transmit or reflcets (complementary colours). For example:
- Copper sulfate appears turquoise because it absorbs light in orange.

Transition metals appear coloured because they absorb visible light:

Here, the iron complex absorbed blue light; thus, the compound appear yellow because blue’s
complementary colour is blue on the color wheel.

Transition metals absorb light because the d orbitals split into two sub levels:
1. All d-orbitals have 2. As the ligand 3. From the electric 4. As the light passes
degenerate energy approaches to the field produced, the through the solution
(same). transition metal, it d-orbitals split into of transition metal,
produces an electric two. splitting occurs.
field.
5. The splitting 6. The absorbed
causes an energy energy difference
difference in represents the color
orbitals. in spectrum.
Green light of energy hv excites an electron from lower energy d orbital to the upper energy d
orbital.

The energy difference/seperation of orbitals, so the colour of the complex depends on:

- Nuclear charge and identity of the central metal ion.

The strength of the coordinate bond between the ligand and central metal ion depends on
electrostatic attraction between lone pair of electrons and the nuclear charge of the central ion.
Ligands interact much better to the higher nuclear charged central metal ions. For example:
and both have the same electron

configuration, yet the iron has higher nuclear charge causing a stronger attraction; thus, the
iron commpound, as ligands approach, absorb higher energy comparde to manganese.

- Charge density of the ligand.

The 4 ammonia coordinately bonded
instead of 4 out of 6 water as ligands
to copper has a higher charge
density. Thus, copper with ammonia
and water has a larger energy
absorbtion, so larger split in d
orbitals, so shorter wavelengths.

The maximum absorbance occurs in

the highest wavelength of
absorbance. Shortest wavelength has
strongest field, so the largest split.
Lowest charge density Highest charge density

o Higher charge density of ligands causes the upmost repulsion of d electrons,

and so the highest splitting.
o Lowest charge density of ligands causes the lowest repulsion d electrons, and
so the lowest splitting.

- Geomtery of the complex ion (electric field created by the ligand’s lone pair of
electrons depend on the complex ion’s geometry)
The change of the colour in the complex is based on the coordination number and geometry.
The splitting in energy of the d orbitals depends on the relative orientation of the ligand and d
orbitals

- The number of d electrons present and hence the oxidation number of central
ion.
The interaction strength of ligand and central metal ion and the amount of electron repulsion
between the ligand and d electrons depend on the number of d electrons, hence the oxidation
state of the metal. For example the [Fe(H2O)6]2+ absorbs higher energy, shorter wavelength
compared to [Fe(H2O)]3+
Unit 4: Chemical Bonding
Unit 5: Thermochemistry

Introduction:

Exothermic event: Heat is released. Example is bond making. The kJ/mol value is < 0
Endothermic event: Heat is absorbed. Example is bond breaking. The kJ/mol value is > 0

Water breaking down the NaCl is an endothermic process. This means the endothermic events
are happening more compared to the exothermic events.

An example:
H – H bond is broken by endothermic event and + 436 kJ/mol is used.
Cl – Cl bond is broken by endothermic event and + 242 kJ/mol is used.
Then,
H – Cl and H – Cl bond forming is an exothermic event, and -431 kJ/mole is used per bond
occurrence.
So,
436 + 242 – 431 – 431 = - 184 kJ/mol; this means that the whole process is exothermic as the
D(Delta)H is negative.

Temperature vs. Heat

Temperature:
- Can be measured by using a thermometer.
- Measure of an average kinetic energy of a substance.
- Measured in Celsius degrees.

Heat:
- Measure of the total amount of energy
- Even though the temperature is equal, the bigger particle amounted substance has
more heat compared to the other.
- Measured in Joules.

Exothermic and Endothermic Comparison

Exo means outside. Exothermic reactions increase in temperature. Outside, energy is released.
∆H is negative.

Endo means inside. Endothermic reactions decrease in temperature. Inside, energy is

absorbed. ∆H is positive.

Energy change when the temperature of a substance is changed:

- If the energy is wanted to be doubled, the given temperature would be doubled when
all other things are the same.
- Not only does the amount of energy affect the temperature rise also the amount of
what you are heating affects the temperature rise.
- Specific heat capacity (c) is important: If it is high, it would need more amount of
energy to make its temperature heightened. Therefore higher heat capacity means
lower heating up – all this is assuming the same mass and energy.
 - What is meant by water having 4 J/gK specific heat capacity: 4 joules of energy raises
one gram of water by one Kelvin.
o DH (energy change) = m (mass) c (specific heat capacity) DT (temperature dif)
- Combustion and neutralization reactions are exothermic and have DH that are
negative.

Suitable experimental procedures for measuring energy changes of reactions:

Calculate entalphy change for a reaction using experimental data.

- The negative sign is due to something getting heated – something getting hot. The
negative sign occurs when there is “combustion”.
- DH is the q – this is energy.
- The m is the mass of what is heated.
- The c is the specific heat capacity of what is heated.
- DT is the temperature change of what gets heated.
The solution to easy question:

The solution to a hard question:

Define and apply the terms standard state, standard enthalpy change of formation and
standard enthalpy change of combustion:

- Standard enthalpies change of formation (ΔHf): Energy change when 1 mole of

substance is made from its elements in their standard states.
o Standard state: Pure form of a substance at T = 298 K and P = 100 kPa
Classic IB example: Calculate the ΔHf of HNO3.

Except the standard enthalpy change of combustion, all the ΔHs make one mole.
change of combustion burns the one mole to find the ΔH.

Standard enthalpies change of combustion (ΔHc): Energy change when 1 mole of substance
is completely burnt at STP.
Find the wrong things in these reactions:

1- The MgCL2 should be solid.

2- The 2NO should be one mole, so NO, and so the reactants should be balanced, too.
3- The product’s water should be liquid as it is STP conditions.
4- In the combustion, the compound that is burnt, the fuel, should be one mole, and so the
equation should be balanced accordingly, too.

So:
- Everything both in the reactants and the products should be at their STP conditions.
- In anything other than combustion, the created products should be one mole.
- In combustion, the fuel put into the reaction from the reactant side should be one mole.

ΔHc and ΔHf calculations.

Q1

Oxygen has 0 kJ/mol ΔHf as it is the same (shown with the arrow on the question’s solution).

This is products’ ΔHf minus the reactants’ ΔHf .

The answer is -2875 kJ/mol.

Here, the answer is negative as this is a combustion reaction (it is burned with oxygen).
Hess’ Law, determine the enthalpy change of a reaction that is the sum of two or three
reactions with known enthalpy changes.

Q1

Finding the blue written equation’s enthalpy.

1- Flip the second equation and make the sign of its enthalpy reversed.
2- Add up the first and the second equations to get the blue written one – while doing that,
cancel out the same compounds that are present both in reactants and products part.
3- Add up the first and second equations’ latest enthalpies together to get the blue equation’s
enthalpy
Q2

Finding the enthalpy of the equation with a yellow question mark next to it.

1- Look at to the equation in which you want to calculate the DH. Look to its reactants and
products and find the compound present in the first equation.
2- Equalize their coefficients. When equalizing, do multiply the DH of those equations’, too.
3- Do the 2 and 3 for the other equations, too.
4- When everything is balanced, do any reverses if you need to do like the one in the prior
question and arrange the DH’s sign accordingly.
5- At the end, add up all the reactions to come up with the latest one.
6- After adding up the reactions, add up the reactions’ DH’s too. DH1 and DH2 = DH3. Pay
attention to the signs of the equations’ DHs.
Q3

Trying to find the DH of the lowest equation.

1- Start to look how to equate the rarest compounds within these reactions: the NO and NH3.
2- To do this, so some stuff to the equations:
a- Double the first equation to get 2NO and double its DH, too.
b- Double the second equation to get 2NH3 and flip it around to get the NH3s to the
reactants’ side.
c- Triple the last equation to get the other compounds in an equal manner.
3- Add all of them up, and before it, check if you did everything correct with flipping and
multiplications of the DHs.
4- As the last answer, you should get -452.6 kJ/mol

Enthalpy cycle:

Add the arrows in a clockwise direction and the DH you get is the overall.
Here, it is [10 + 20 – 30 = 0]
The arrows standing in the clockwise direction, when added up, are equal to the arrows in the
non-clockwise direction.

A question that is more expected to be seen:

The solution:

Add up the ones to clockwise and equalize them to the added up anti-clockwise arrows.
[-4163 + (-199)] = ?
? = -4362 kJ/mol

See the question and understand that !clockwise equals to the anti-clockwise!
Exothermic, endothermic, DH energy profiles.

As can be seen, the energy overall declined. This means, energy is given out from the system.
This means this reaction is exothermic reaction. So, it can be said that DH is negative, it
decreases in the case of exothermic reactions. Also, as energy is given out, this reaction is a
little sexy, a little hot.

The universal law: lower energy means more stability.

In the exothermic graph, as can be seen, products have lower energy and more stability.

As can be seen, the energy overall increased. This means, energy is taken in to the system.
This means this reaction is endothermic reaction. So it can be said that DH is positive, it
increases in the case of endothermic reactions. Also, as the energy is given out, this reaction is
a little shy and non-talkative, a little cold, like Cemre…

The universal law: lower energy means more stability.

In endothermic graph, as can be seen, reactants have lower energy and more stability.

A little note: Only DH can be measured, not H for the initial or final state of a system.
Introduction to energy diagrams:

If energy is smaller than the activation energy, then no reaction occurs.

If energy is bigger than the activation energy, than reaction occurs.
If the initially given energy is smaller than the given out, the reaction is endothermic,
and it feels cold.
If the initially given energy is bigger than the given out, the reaction is exothermic,
and it feels hot.

Average bond enthalpy.

Definition: Energy released or required to make or break the bonds measured over the range
of bond in the gaseous state.

- If more energy is involved to make bonds than breaking them = exothermic = DH is “-”.
- If less energy is involved to make bonds than breaking them = endothermic = DH is “+”.

An example:

1- First, draw the chemical structures of the compounds.

2- Get the data booklet’s table number 10. Find the average bond enthalpies.
3- In the case of hydrogeneration, first the reactants will be broken down, so energy will be
supplied, so endothermic. Thus, count the bonds of the reactants and find the enthalpies for
them to add up.
4- Then, in the case of products side, as the broken-down stuff will be build up, energy will be
given out, so exothermic. Again, count the bonds of the products and find the enthalpies for
them to add up. Make those negative as this is exothermic.
5- Add the products’ DH to reactants’ DH to get the DH of all reaction.
Ozone – O3

Ground level ozone – Not nice

Oxidant, lung irritating chemical.
Source: Photocopiers, car emissions are ozone, yet when they interact with the sun,
ground level ozone occurs.

Ozone layer – Nice

If this layer was absent, the UV lights of sun could have caused skin cancer, cataracts,
break the bonds in the DNA and cause mutations, interfere with photosynthesis.

Natural creation and destruction of ozone in the ozone layer:

- High energy light from the sun breaks the double bond within the oxygen and two free
oxygen radicals occur. Then, under high energy from the sun, these free radicals make
bonds with oxygens to create the ozone. This is a good thing since the ozone in layer
is good.
- The destruction of ozone happens with less energy than the creation of it as the bond
that is broken is not an oxygen – oxygen double bond, yet the bond present in the
resonance structure, a bond that is 1.5, not 2 like double bond. This resonance bond is
broken down by the UV light from the sun.

Lattice energy.

Definition: Enthalpy change when 1 mole of a crystal lattice is turned into its infinitely
separated gaseous ions, under standard conditions.

Example:

Conditions for lattice enthalpy:

- It increases as,
o ionic size decreases.
o ionic charge increases.
- Small, high charged ions have the
o highest lattice enthalpy.
o highest charge density.

The KF needs the least energy to break its bonds as it has

the lowest lattice energy. This is because, at the left, the K
ion has the biggest size among the group 1 ions. Thus, its
charge is spreaded out over a greater surface area
compared to the others, so the K ion is less attractive.
So, generally, from the formula: DH (lattice) = (q1 * q2) / r
It can be said that, as the charges increase, the DH increases.
As the distance between the nuclei of the atoms increase, the DH decreases.

Energy cycle.

Two ways to dissolve an ionic compound to water:

One way:
1- Break the lattice up into its constituent gaseous ions – DH lattice: energy change when 1
mole of an ionic compound is broken up into its constituent gaseous ions which are spaced
infinitely.

Example:

2- Throw the ions into an infinite amount of water, this is called DH hydration – energy
change of hydrations: when 1 mole of ions in their gaseous form dissolve in an infinite
amount of water – dissolving to give an infinitely dilute solution.

Example:

In this example, there are both DH of hydration for Na and Cl. So, two heats of hydration.

Second way:
1- Just throw it into the water and let it dissolve – named DH solution: energy change when 1
mole of an ionic compound is dissolved in an infinite amount of water to infinite dilution.

Example:

Everything summed up at a page. Remember the [clockwise sum = anti-clockwise sum].

Clock thing proof in this question: 426 + (-469) = -43

Some examples regarding the DH hydration, solution, and lattice:

Explain how the relative sizes / charges of ions affect lattice enthalpies.

Compounds Lattice Enthalpies

LiF 1040
NaF 930
KF 829
The higher lattice enthalpy means harder to melt the compound.
Again, lattice enthalpy means the energy needed to break apart a compound into its ionic
gaseous state.

So, the analysis of the table:

- According to the table, the KF is the easiest to break down as it has the lowest lattice
enthalpy.
- All group 1 ions have the same charge, yet these charges are distributed over different
volumes for different elements. For example, lithium’s +1 charge is distributed to a
smaller volume when compared to potassium’s +1 charge’s distribution.
o This means, lithium has a higher charge density, therefore more attractive and
has a higher lattice energy when compared to potassium.
So, the simple proof is that:
- Small ion and/or high charge = higher charge density
- Large ion and/or low charge = lower charge density

Another example: WC – in other words, tungsten carbide.

- W4+ and C4-
- With this high charge, carbon has a very low radii for its ion.
- Thus, this has very high melting point, it is very hard, and it is used in cutting
diamond.
Construct a Born-Haber cycle for group 1 and 2 oxides and chlorides.

ΔHf is the formation enthalpy.

This one is the one anti-clockwise arrow, and it is equal to all clockwise arrows’
addition.
The equation that this arrow originates from always needs to be creating one mole of
the desired substance. Therefore, it is important to make the coefficients of the
elements accordingly. Also, the states of the elements creating the desired compound
should be in their STP conditions, too.
ΔHa is the atomization enthalpy (this is the bond energy).
This means that the element that is atomized turns into “one” atom in gaseous state.
ΔH I.E is the ionization energy enthalpy. It is numbered accordingly.
This means that the element that wants to give off any electron turned into cation and
its electron is now free – basically it is ionized. It is very important to show the
electron as free in the reaction equation that results after this one’s arrow.
ΔH E.A is the electron affinity enthalpy. It is numbered accordingly.
This means that the element that is tended to take electron to be stable takes the given
off electron beforehand, and then both the cation and anion becomes present in the
equation in their gaseous forms.
ΔHLATTICE is the lattice enthalpy.
Energy needed to break apart a compound into its ionic gaseous state. Its reverse is the
energy needed to give off to form a compound.
Predict whether the entropy change (ΔS) for a given reaction or process is positive or
negative.

ΔS = Entropy change; the delta sign means STP; entropy means basically disorder.
If the ΔS is plus, then disorder/entropy increases.
If the ΔS is minus, then disorder/entropy decreases.

[Solid  Liquid  Gas] S < L < Aq < G

Here, from solid to gas, the entropy increases as the particles’ movement limitations decrease.
Mostly, it is said that solid and liquid has low entropy and gas has high entropy. The aqueous
mostly stands between the liquid and gas.

To see if ΔS high or low, or in other words, positive or negative, look for:

- Any gas in the products. If there is a gas in the products and all the other compounds
both in reactants and products are something different than gas, then the ΔS is going to
be positive as gas makes disorder.
- If everything is gas, the mole number. If the mole number is higher in the products
compared to the reactants, the entropy is increased as the number of gas amount and
disorder would increase. If the mole number decreases, the opposite happens.

Here are some tricky, evil examples to see.

Calculate the standard entropy change for a reaction using standard entropy values.

The products’ entropy minus the reactants’ entropy gives off the ΔS for the whole reaction.

An example question:
Sign of ΔG (Gibbs free energy).

If the ΔG is positive, then the reaction is spontaneous – examples are ignition, rusting,
explosions and such…

If the ΔG is negative, then there is nothing spontaneous, it is non-spontaneous – examples are

nothing happening.

Two ways to work out ΔG.

One Way’s Equation:

T is the temperature, and it is multiplied with the ΔS of the system.

Look for changing the ΔS value’s J by dividing it with a 1000 to get the kJ’s of the ΔH.
The data booklet gives ΔS in J and ΔH in kJ, so be careful.

The Other Way’s Equation:

The basic stuff again – products minus the reactants.

Explain how temperature changes ΔG.

AS T INCREASES, ΔG INCREASES. THE OPPOSITE IS TRUE, TOO.

Hot and messy reactions will always be spontaneous and ΔG will be negative.
Hot and messy always happens, ohhh….
Cold and tidy reactions will always be non-spontaneous and ΔG will be positive.
Cold and tidy never happens :(
If the reaction is hot-tidy or cold-messy, then the reactions are temperature dependent and can
happen or cannot happen, it depends…

The case of cold and messy, so high (positive) enthalpy – endothermic - with high entropy

As the temperature increases, the ΔG decreases, it becomes more negative, spontaneity

increases.
The case of hot and tidy, so low (negative) enthalpy – exothermic – with low entropy.

As the temperature is increased, ΔG becomes greater, spontaneity decreases.

ΔG = - RTlnK

Normally, when ΔG is 0, the reaction becomes at equilibrium, yet, here, as the ΔG is not
present, yet ΔG is present, which is something not zero, this equation can be solved.

The T is in K. ΔG is kJ/mol. R is J/Kmol

Position of equilibrium depends on minimizing ΔG and maximizing entropy.

Unit 6: Chemical Kinetics

Rate of reaction is defined as the rate of change in concentration.

Definition of Rate: The ________ per unit time – this empty place can be many things which
can be measured…

Rate of Reaction Usage: How quickly a reaction happens is represented by rate of reaction

Rate of reaction’s Unit: 1 / time = 1 / s = s-1

Some Important Graphs #1

________________________________________________________________

The rate of a
chemical
reaction is the
increase in
concentration of
products or the
decrease in
concentration of
reactants per
Rate of Reaction Equalities: unit time.
________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

Calculating Rate of Reaction:

- The gradient of concentration over time graphs represent rate.
- Mostly the graphs are curves, so the tangent line’s slope becomes the rate.
- The rate of reaction is not constant among time, yet it’s the greatest at the beginning of
the time (t = 0). Therefore, mostly the rate of reaction comparison values are done
with the initial reaction rate comparison.
 Measuring rates of reaction uses different techniques depending on the reaction.

Volume of gas - A gas syringe that is stuck in a plunger which closes a glass
produced barrel’s opening can be used as it collects the gas and as it is
calibrated to record the volume directly.
- Gas can be collected by using the displacement of the water with
an inverted burette. Yet, the gas should be low soluble in water.
- Data loggers are available, too, such as oxygen sensor.
Change in mass - If the reaction gives off gas, then its rate can be measured by the
change in mass.
- The change can be directly measured with a balance. Yet, the
gases such as hydrogen is bad for this kind of measuring as they
are too light to give off a measurement change.
Change in - Can only be used if the reactants/products are colorful in the
transmission of visible spectrum.
light - A colorimeter or a spectrophotometer can be used as they can
detect the color of the reaction that is put into them.
- The method takes continuous readings, to a graph can be plotted
Change in - Concentration can be measured sometimes with titration
concentration - This cannot be done continuously as the chemicals should be
measured using chemically arranged for titration.
titration - The chemical arrangement takes time, so the measurements can be
wrong as the time taken can cause the reactants to react more. To
overcome this, quenching can be used, where a substance is
introduced to reactants which makes the reactions to have a
stopped reactions after being withdrawn from the sample.
Change in - If ions are present, then it can be used.
concentration - Can be used with a conductivity meter which involves immersing
measured using electrodes to the solution.
conductivity
Non-continuous - Measuring the time in which a reaction reaches to a chosen fixed
methods of point.
detecting change - Limitation of this method is data obtained only gives an average
during a reaction: rate over the limited time interval.
“clock reactions”

Collision Theory

Kinetic Energy and Temperature:

- According to the kinetic molecular theory, particles moving in a substance move
because of the kinetic energy they possess.
- Temperature in Kelvin is proportional to the average kinetic energy of the particles in
a substance.
- Increasing the temperature means increasing the average kinetic energy of the particles
of a substance.
________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

The Maxwell – Boltzmann Distribution Curve:

- This curve shows the fact that particles in a gas at a particular temperature show a
range of values of kinetic energy which are expressed by the Maxwell – Boltzman
distribution curve.
- The are under the curve is the representation of the number of particles in the sample.

How Reactions Happen

- When the chemicals are put together, the kinetic energy of the particles cause the
particles to collide with each other. Some of these collisions result in the reactants’
bonds broking and new bonds forming between the different chemical particles. Thus,
the products occur and the reaction take place.
- The rate of reaction depends on the number of collision between the particles –
depends on the successful collisions.

How To Have A Successful Reaction

- The Energy of Collision
o The particles should have the certain minimum energy value for their kinetic
energy – this minimum energy is named as the activation energy.
o Activation energy overcomes repulsion between molecules, often breaking the
bonds.
o When the activation energy is supplied, the molecules come to a state named
transition state in which they can form products.
o Activation energy is like a threshold, the particles which can pass through it
can react and form the product.
o Rate of reaction depends on the proportion of particles that have values of
kinetic energy greater than the activation energy.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

o Mostly, reactions with high activation energy proceed slowly when compared
with the reactions having lower activation energies.
- Geometry of Collision
o For the collisions to occur, the correct geometry is needed and as the collisions
are random, not all of them result in the reaction taking place as not all of the
random collisions result in the correct geometry.
________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

Important Note: In order to react, particles must collide with kinetic energy greater than the
activation energy and have the correct collision geometry.
Factors affecting the rate of reaction

Temperature:
- As the temperature is increased, the rate of reaction increases because as the
temperature increase, the kinetic energy of the particles increases. When the kinetic
energy of particles increases, the particles become more moving, and this results in the
higher chance of collision and so higher frequency of collision. Thus, the successful
collisions increase, too.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

Concentration:
- Increasing the concentration of reactants increases the rate of reaction because as the
concentration increase, the frequency of collisions between the reactant particles
increases, and so the successful collision chance increase, too.

Particle Size:
- Decreasing the particle size increases the rate of reaction as there would be a greater
surface area for the reactants particles to be able to collide in/on. Thus, the chance of
the successful collisions increases, too.

Pressure:
- As the pressure is increased, as the volume is decreased and the particle movements
are naturally moved closer to each other, the chance of collision, and so the successful
collision rate increase increasing the rate of reactions.

Catalyst:
- Catalyst is a substance which increases the rate of the chemical reaction without itself
undergoing permanent chemical change. Catalysts provide an alternate route for the
reaction to take place with a lower activation energy.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

- There would be more particles with kinetic energies higher than the activation energy
without increasing the temperature of the reactants as the catalyst directly lower the
needed activation energy.
 -
________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

- Catalysts play an essential role in the efficiency of many industrial processes because
of their ability to decrease the activation energy.
- The catalysts, as they lower the activation energy, they speed up the reaction process
and this characteristic of them is what is mostly used and taken advantage of in the
industry.
- Catalysts and green Chemistry: This linkage tries to reduce he negative impact of the
chemical processes on the environment. As catalysts are very effective in very small
quantities and as they can be frequently used, they do not contribute to the waste, and
they increase the atom economy.

The rate law for a reaction is derived from experimental data.

- The rate constant k is a constant for a particular reaction at a specified temperature.
- The order of reaction with respect to a particular reactant is the power of which its
concentration is raised in the rate equation. The overall order for the reaction is the
sum of the individual orders for all reactants.
Unit of k vary depending on the overall order of the reaction.
Graphical representations of reaction kinetics.
________________________________________________________________

First-order reactions have a constant half-life:

- On the concentration – time graphs of first order reactions, the time it takes for a
concentration of reactant to decrease to half of its value is independent of its starting
concentration. This value is known as half-life for the reactant, and so it is a constant.
- If a reactant has a constant half-life, then the reaction must be first order with respect
to that reaction.
- The shorter the half-life of a reaction, the faster the reaction.
Determination of the order of a reaction

Initial rates method:

- Carrying out separate experiment with different starting concentrations of reactant A
and measuring the initial rate of each reaction. The other concentrations are kept
constant so that the effect of [A] on reaction rate can be seen. This process is repeated
for the reactant B.
o If changing the [A] didn’t make any difference, then A should be zero-order.
o If changing the [A] produced directly proportional changes in the rate, the
reaction should be first order.
 Doubling [A] would lead to doubled rate of reaction.
o If changing [A] produced a squared change in the rate of reaction, the reaction
should be second order.
 Doubling [A] would lead to squared rate of reaction.
________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

Reaction mechanism.

Most reactions involve a series of small steps…

- The sequence of the small steps of a reaction is named reaction mechanism.
- Each step individually is named as elementary steps – they cannot be observed directly
- Sometimes, the products of a single elementary step in the reaction mechanism can
only exist as intermediates, and not as final products.
o The intermediates cancel out each other from both sides.
o When all the reaction mechanism’s elementary step reactions are canceled
side-by-side, the main reaction is seen.
- Molecularity: Reference to an elementary step to indicate the number of reactant
species involved.
o Unimolecular means elementary step with single reactant particle.
o Bimolecular means elementary step with two reactant particles.
o Termolecular means elementary step with more than two reactant particles.
This is rare as it is very hard to have sufficient energy and correct geometry of
collision with three different particles.
The Rate Determining Step: Slow Step
- The overall reaction rate of the reaction is determined by the slowest step in the
reaction mechanism.
________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

The rate expression for an overall reaction is determined by the reaction mechanism.
________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

!ATTENTION!
Evaluation of a proposed mechanism for a reaction involves checking that it is consistent with
kinetic data and the overall stoichiometry of the reaction.

The rate constant k is temperature dependent.

- As changing temperature affects the rate of reaction and does not affect the
concentration of the reactants, it must affect something that is found in the rate of
reaction equation other than concentrations: the k constant.
- The temperature dependence of k depends on the value of activation energy.
o With a high activation energy, a temperature rise will only cause significant
increase in the number of particles that can react.
o With a low activation energy, a temperature rise will have a proportionately
smaller effect on the reaction rates.
The temperature dependence on the rate constant is expressed in the Arrhenius
equation.
Using the Arrhenius equation to calculate activation energy.
− Ea
The formula for the activation energy: k = A x e RT

- A: The Arrhenius constant as it represents the frequency factor: the representation of

correct geometry and successive energy in a successive collusion.
- Ea: Activation energy.
n
k T ; R T ; R=k [ A ] ; as P↑ ,[ ]↑; as V ↑ ,[ ]↑

How to find A:
− Ea
1. k = A x e RT
−Ea −Ea
2. ln k = + ln A ; y =mx+n → the slope m=
RT RT
3. ¿
Unit 7: Equilibrium

Physical systems

An example of a physical equilibrium case:

- Bromine is a volatile liquid with a boiling point close to room temperature.
- When bromine is put in a sealed container, some will evaporate by having enough
energy, and some will condense back by cannot escaping and colliding with the
surface of the available bromine liquid and losing energy.
- Eventually, the rate of evaporation becomes equal to rate of condensation. Then it can
be said that system is in the equilibrium.
___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

Chemical systems

An example of a chemical equilibrium case:

- Colorless gas HI is dissociating to colorless hydrogen gas and purple iodide gas.
- In a sealed container, at first there would be purple color occurrence and the forward
reaction would have the highest rate. Yet, as the forward reaction’s rate decrease after
its peak, then the reverse reaction’s rate increase for constructing the equilibrium.
- When both the reverse and forward reaction’s rate become same, then the equilibrium
becomes constructed.
- This type of equilibrium is named as dynamic as both the forward and reverse
reactions are still occurring.

Equilibrium mixture: The concentrations remaining constant over time in a mixture of

equilibrium is named as equilibrium mixture.
___________________________________________________________________________

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The equilibrium state has specific characteristics

The left is how every

equilibrium is presented
in the chemistry area!

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- Even though the concentrations of reactants and products are constant at equilibrium,
this in no way implies they are equal.
- In equilibrium, the rate of forward reaction is equal to the rate of the backward
reaction.
- The proportion of reactant and product in an equilibrium is named as equilibrium
position.
The equilibrium constant Kc can be predicted from a reaction’s stoichiometry.
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- The concentration of products is in the numerator and the concentration of the
reactants are in the denominator.
- The equilibrium constant is always calculated for a specific temperature.

The magnitude of Kc gives information on the extent of reaction.

What hints are given to us with the magnitude of equilibrium constant?

- When it has a high value, there will be more products compared to reactants.
o This reaction lies to the right and reaction almost goes to compilation.
- When it has a low value, there will be more reactants compared to products.
o This reaction lies to the left and reaction barely takes place.
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The reaction quotient, Q, enables us to predict the direction of reaction.

- If the concentrations of reactants and products are substituted in the equilibrium, a

value named reaction quotient, Q, is obtained.
- As time passes after the Q is measured, an equilibrium is reached.
- What makes Q special is it helps us to predict the direction in which the reaction will
proceed.
o If Q < Kc, then the Q must increase, and reaction must move forward.
o If Q > Kc, then the Q must decrease, and reaction must move reverse.
o If Q = Kc, then the reaction is at equilibrium; no net reaction occurs.
Relationships between Kc for different equations of a reaction.

When equilibrium is disrupted.

Le Chantelier’s principle:
- When the system is at equilibrium and is subjected to a change, it will respond in such
a way as to minimize the effect of the change.

Stresses Example Cases

Change in concentration a- Increasing Reactant Concentration
When the concentration of a reactant is increased, then the
equilibrium would be disrupted. There would be more reactant
compared to products. To re-establish the equilibrium, the
system turns this added reactant concentration to products in a
sufficient amount for equilibrium by favoring the reaction
forward.
b- Increasing Product Concentration
When the concentration of a product is increased, then the
equilibrium would be disrupted. There would be more product
compared to products. To re-establish the equilibrium, the
system turns this added product concentration to reactants in a
sufficient amount for equilibrium by favoring the reaction
reverse.

Notes:
- Additions of concentrations are shown as directly
vertical lines on the graphs, not as continuous increases
or decreases.
- Change in concentration does not affect the value of the
equilibrium constant.
Change in pressure a- Increasing The Pressure
When an equilibrium is subjected to pressure, it would favor the
side with smaller number of molecules.
b- Decreasing The Pressure
When an equilibrium is subjected to decreasing pressure, it
would favor the side with larger number of molecules.
 Notes:
- If the pressure is exerted on an equilibrium reaction with
both sides having same molecule numbers, then the
equilibrium or the value of equilibrium constant
wouldn’t change, yet the rates would.
Change in temperature - Changing the temperature will change Kc as Kc is only
temperature dependent.
Exothermic reaction releases energy – enthalpy is negative.
Endothermic reaction absorbs energy – entlalpy is positive.
- In equilibrium, the enthalpy changes of forward and
backward reactions are equal and opposite to each other.
- The given enthalpy will be for forward reaction.

Examples are at the next page 

Change in temperature a- Decreasing Temperature With Exothermic Forward R.
continued… The system will respond to decreasing temperature by trying to
increase it. This will be achieved favoring the exothermic
reaction – the forward reaction. Also, the new Kc will be
increased. Thus, reaction would give a higher yield of products
in lower temperatures.
b- Increasing Temperature With Exothermic Forward R.
The system will respond to increasing temperature by trying to
decrease it. This will be achieved favoring the endothermic
reaction – the reaction backwards. Also, the new Kc will be
decreased. Thus, reaction would give lower yield of products in
higher temperatures.
c- Decreasing Temperature With Endothermic Forward R.
The system will respond to decreasing temperature by trying to
increase it. This will be achieved favoring the exothermic
reaction – the backwards reaction. Also, the new Kc will be
increased. Thus, reaction would give a higher yield of products
in lower temperatures.
d- Increasing Temperature With Endothermic Forward R.
The system will respond to increasing temperature by trying to
decrease it. This will be achieved favoring the endothermic
reaction – the forwards reaction. Also, the new Kc will be
decreased. Thus, reaction would give a lower yield of products
in higher temperatures.
Addition of a catalyst As both the forward and backward reactions pass through the
same transition state, the catalyst lowering the activation energy
would have the same effect on both reactants and products.
Both would have an increase. Therefore, the catalyst does not
have an effect on the equilibrium position.
Summary Table:
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Equilibrium theory is applied in many industrial processes:

The Haber Process: The Production of Ammonia – NH3

-
- Change is present in the number of gas molecules as the reaction proceeds.
- The forward reaction is exothermic and so releases heat. The reverse is the opposite.
Concentratio Nitrogen and hydrogen are supplied in molar ratio 1 : 3. The product
n ammonia is removed as it is formed, helping to pull the equilibrium to right
and increasing the yield.
Temperature The forward reaction is exothermic, and so it will be favored with a lower
temperature. Yet, too low temperature cause uneconomically slow reaction.
Therefore, a moderate temperature about 450 degrees Celsius is used.
Catalyst It speeds up the reaction, and so one such as a finely divided iron with
small amounts of aluminum and magnesium can be used. Ruthenium can
be used, too.

The Contact Process: The Production of Sulfuric Acid – H2SO4

Three simple series of reactions:
1- Combustion of sulfur to form sulfur dioxide.
2- Oxidation of sulfur dioxide to sulfur trioxide
a.
3- Combination of sulfur trioxide with water to produce sulfuric acid.
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The Production of Methanol
-
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Calculating the equilibrium constant from initial and equilibrium concentrations.

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Told through the example question below:

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Calculating equilibrium concentrations from the equilibrium constant.

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Calculating equilibrium concentrations when the equilibrium constant is very small:
- When the equilibrium constant is very small, it means the concentrations are
approximately the same between the initial and equilibrium cases.

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Free energy and equilibrium

Important Fact:
Equilibrium occurs when a reaction mixture is at the minimum value of Gibbs free energy.

What was Gibbs free energy?

- It is the measure of the work that is available from a system. Its sign predicts the
spontaneity of a reaction
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How to calculate Gibbs free energy and what it is in the equilibrium?

Normally: - In equilibrium:

What happens to the total free energy during the reaction?

1- The total free energy of reactants is greater than the products, so a lot of work is
available. Gibbs free energy is negative, and the reaction proceeds forward.
2- As the total free energy is passed on from the reactants to products and the reaction is
converting reactants to products, the Gibbs free energy becomes less negative, and less
work becomes available.
 3- The system reaches equilibrium when the total free energies of the reactants and
products are equal, and no work can be extracted from the system.

As the Gibbs free energy for the reaction is negative, As the Gibbs free energy for the reaction is positive,
the reaction progresses forward. The equilibrium the reaction progresses reverse. The equilibrium
mixture consists largely of the products. mixture consists largely of the reactants.

- A reaction with a large and negative value of Gibbs free energy would be spontaneous
and would have an equilibrium mixture with a high proportion of products.
- A reaction with a large and positive Gibbs free energy would be non-spontaneous and
would have an equilibrium mixture that is predominantly reactants.
Equilibrium constant can be calculated from thermodynamic data:
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Kinetics and Equilibrium
- The magnitude of the equilibrium constant gives no information on the rate of
reaction.

Let’s assume a reaction:

In this reaction, we can calculate the forward and the reverse rates:

Also, we can calculate the equilibrium constant:

At equilibrium, the rate of forward reaction is equal to the rate of reverse reaction:

With correct arrangement:

So, it can be said that the equilibrium constant is the ratio of the rate constants of the forward
and reverse reactions. The ratio is reverse reaction rate is divided by forward reaction rate.

Another interpretation can be done, too:

Concentration a- Increasing concentration of reactants increases the rate of forward

reaction, so equilibrium shifts to the right.
b- Increasing concentration of products increases the rate of reverse
reaction, so equilibrium shifts to the left.
Catalyst Adding catalyst would affect both sides’ k values the same, so
equilibrium constant can stay unaffected.
Temperature - From Arrhenius equation, it is known that rate constant increase
dependence of with increasing temperature. Yet, as the forward and reverse have
equilibrium different activation energies, their constants k and k’ get affected
constant differently by the same temperature. Therefore, the k/k’ ratio is
temperature dependent.
- For an endothermic reaction in which activation energy of forward
reaction is bigger than the activation energy of the backward
reaction, the increase on the temperature has a greater effect on
increasing k than k’, so equilibrium constant increases as
temperature increases.
Unit 8: Acids and Bases

8.1 – What are Bronsted – Lowry acids and bases?

Traditional Way: Arrhenius Acids and Bases

- H+(aq) producing compounds are acids.
- OH-(aq) producing compounds are bases.
- If acid and base reacts, water is formed.

Bronsted – Lowry Acid Base Theory:

- A Bronsted – Lowry acid is a proton (H+) donor.
- A Bronsted – Lowry base is a proton (H+) receiver.
- No water or OH- are in this theory.
Examples:

As HCl gives its H as a proton, it is a BL acid, and as water takes the proton, it is the BL base.

As HNO3 gives its H as a proton, it is a BL acid, and as H2SO4 takes the proton, it is the BL
base. Normally, sulfuric acid is an acid, yet here it acts as a base.

What IB likes to ask:

Three dissociations of phosphoric acid:

As the phosphoric acid continually loses protons, it is the BL acid, and as the water gains
them, it is the BL base. As all off these are in equilibrium, they all can be examined from the
reverse: in the reverse, as the hydronium ion loses a proton, it is the BL acid, and the
phosphoric acid ion becomes the BL base.
8.1.3 – Deduce the formula of the conjugate acid or base of any Bronsted – Lowry acid
or base.

The important sentence: A conjugate acid is made by ADDING a proton.

A conjugate base is made by REMOVING a proton.

Conjugate acid and conjugate base are always in the product side.

Example

As the CH3CO2H lost a proton and turned into CH3CO2Na, it created the conjugate base. As
the OH- gained a proton and turned into H2O, H2O is a conjugate acid.

Conjugate acid-base pairs:

All of the pairs are correct except the one that is highlighted.
The highlighted example is wrong because the 2 H+ proton is given off, not 1.

8.1 – What is the difference between amphiprotic and amphoteric?

Amphiprotic substance: A substance that can be a proton donor OR receiver. Basically the
Bronsted – Lowry theory.

Amphoteric substance: A substance that can behave as either an acid OR a base. Basically
related to Bronsted – Lowry theory, Lewis theory and traditional theory.

- Anything that is amphiprotic is amphoteric!

- Amphiprotic is mostly related to BL acids and bases. Amphoteric substances is about
BL, Lewis, and the others…

An example of amphiprotic substance:

Here, water behaves both as the BL
acid and BL base. The one donating
the proton is the BL acid, and the
one receiving is the BL base.
An example of amphoteric substance:

In the first equation, the lone pair of O in the OH’s of Al are attracted to the H in the HCl.
Thus, the Al(OH)3 acts as an electron donor, and so a Lewis base.
In the second equation, the lone pair of O in the OH- is attracted to the Al in the Al(OH)3.
Thus, the Al(OH)3 acts as an electron receiver, and so a Lewis acid.

8.2.1 – Outline the characteristic properties of acids and bases in aqueous solution

5 Reactions of Acids:

1- When you react an acid with a metal, it makes a salt and hydrogen.
Swapping the hydrogen for the metal.

Example:

2- When you react an acid with a metal hydroxide, it makes salt plus water.

Example:

3- When you react an acid with a metal carbonate, it makes salt, carbon dioxide, and water.

Example:

4- When you react an organic acid with a metal oxide, salt plus water occurs.

Example:

5- When you react acid with hydrogen carbonate, salt, water, and carbon dioxide occurs.

Example:
Tricky Bases:

A soluble base is basically an alkali!

8.4.1 – Distinguish between aqueous solutions that are acidic, neutral, or alkaline using
the pH scale.

pH is potential of hydrogen.
pH < 7 is acidic. There are more hydrogen ions.
pH = is neutral
pH > 7 is alkaline / basic

8.4.2 – Identify which of two or more aqueous solutions is more acidic or alkaline using
pH values.

pH 14: Drain cleaner pH 12: Ammonia based toilet cleaner

pH 10: Milk of magnesia, stomach calmer pH 8: Eggs
pH 7: Water pH 6.5: Milk
pH 5.6: Rain pH 3-4:Vinegar
pH 3: Orange pH 1-2: Battery acid
Universal indicator / pH meter can be used to measure the pH of anything.

8.4.3 - State that each change of one pH unit represents a 10-fold change in the hydrogen
ion concentration [H+(aq)]

Low pH means high H+

concentration.
pH scale is logarithmic.
8.4.4 – Deduce changes in [H+(aq)] when the pH of a solution changes by more than one
pH unit.

If an acid is diluted 10 times the acid, the pH will increase 1. If 100, then it will increase 2.

Very easy basic of the pH scale.

18.1.3 – Solve problems involving [H+(aq)], [OH-(aq)], pH and pOH.

[H+(aq)] x [OH-(aq)] = 10-14 / pH + pOH = 14

pH = - log [H+(aq)] / pOH = - log [OH-(aq)]

An example:

A harder one:
18.1.1 – State the expression for the ionic product constant of water Kw

8.3.1 – Distinguish between strong and weak acids and bases.

Strong acids and strong bases 100% dissociate in the water. When acid dissociates, the
hydrogen ion will come off. When the base dissociates, the hydroxide ion will come off.

Weak acids and weak bases partially dissociate in the water. Very few of them will come off
to their give off their proteins.

Strong Acids/Bases Weak Acids/Bases

Higher conductivity Lower conductivity
Faster reaction Slower reaction
Relatively dangerous Relatively safe

8.4 - Strong acids have weak conjugate bases.

The reality is a strong acid will almost completely dissociate in the water.

Here, a strong acid almost completely dissociating is shown. This acid’s weak conjugate base
is NO3-. This base is weak and this is the explanation: as nearly 99% of the base wants to stay
as base and do not turn back to acid, it is very weak – it doesn’t want to get the hydrogen ion
back.

This normally doesn’t have the equilibrium sign

Weak acids partially dissociate in the water.

Here, a weak acid partially dissociates in water. This acid’s conjugate base is strong as it
almost always wants to take the hydrogen ion back and turn back to its original acid.

A strong base is a good proton acceptor and has a weak conjugate acid.

Here, the OH is the strong base and its weak conjugate acid is water. As can be seen it is weak
because it doesn’t want to turn back to being OH by reacting with ammonia, yet stays 99%
dissociated in the form of water.

In order to see which (conjugate) base is weak, you need to know which acid they came from.
If the parent acid is strong, the conjugate base will be weak. If the parent acid is weak, the
conjugate base will be strong.

8.5 – Sources of the oxides of sulfur and nitrogen plus methods of reduction.

Natural sources of sulfur oxides are volcanoes and forest fires.

Natural sources of nitrogen oxides are lightning strikes and bacteria.

Power stations release both gases, if they are carbon-based fuel burning, and there are several
solutions reducing or eliminating them.
If the carbon-based fuel that is burned is treated before and after combustion, or design
can be improved, or catalytic converters can be added to lessen the bad effects of the
nitrogen and sulfur oxides.
These power stations can be replaced with solar panels or wind turbines – both of t
hem do not produce nitrogen oxides or sulfur oxides.

Sulphide smelters produce sulfur oxides to produce lead, or planes, when they are flying, give
of nitrogen oxides.
If public transportation is used, both of these gas emissions can be minimized.

Acid polluted lakes can sometimes be successfully be treated with calcium hydroxide which
will increase the pH and precipitate the aluminum compounds.
8.5 – Rain is naturally acidic, acid deposition effects and equations.

Acid rain is sulfuric, sulfurous, nitric, and nitrous produced by mankind.

Acid rain can be mist or snow, too. Basically, it is acid precipitation.

Calcium carbonate (marble) is susceptible to the acid rain.

Acid rain washes away the trees’ potassium, calcium, and magnesium ions.

Acid rain makes the aluminum ions in the rock released killing the trees and making the fish’s
gills not working properly.

Aluminum statues corrode due to the acid rain.

People suffer from bronchitis, emphysema, and asthma due to the acid gases produced from
the acid rain.

The iron becomes corroded due to the acid rain.

Acidic water can corrode the inside of pipes and cause poisoning to people drinking that
water.

Some metals, such as gold, are not susceptible to acid rain.

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Rain has always been acidic.

So, here the rain formation and it is acidic (carbonic
acid). When pH is smaller than 5.6, it is dangerous.

Volcanoes and lightning strikes can also produce acid gases dissolving in water to create the
acid rain.

This case, the one at the below,

doesn’t usually happen as the
hydrogen carbonate acid has a very
low Ka – acid dissociation ion. Yet,
if this happens, it makes the rain
much more acidic.

Acid deposition:
- Wet deposition: Snow, rain, or fog.
- Dry deposition: Acid gases stick onto dust or smoke particles which may later
dissolve.
Where does man made acid gases come from?
- Burning coals and oil – basically burning fossil fuels.
- If air is heated or squashed, it may react and create nitrogen.

Sulfuric acid equations:

Nitric acid equations:

Example of calcium carbonate being washed by acid rain.

The acid here is sulfuric acid. WET DEPOSITION

The acid here is nitric acid. WET DEPOSITION

The acid here is the sulphur dioxide with oxygen. DRY DEPOSITION

The acid is nitric acid.

The example of the iron.

8.1.2 – Deduce whether a species could act as a Bronsted – Lowry and/or a Lewis acid or
base.

A remainder:
A Bronsted – Lowry acid loses a proton and a Bronsted – Lowry base gains a proton.
A Lewis acid receives an electron pair and a Lewis base donates an electron pair.

18.1 – What are Lewis acids and bases?

Lewis acid is an electron pair receiver.

Lewis base is an electron pair donor.

IB’s 2 classic examples:

The ammonia is the Lewis base
as it donated an electron pair
and this pair bonded to boron
trihydride by dative covalent
bond and boron trihydride
become the Lewis acid by
receiving the electron pair.

The water is the Lewis base as it

donates its lone pairs to the
copper and a complex ion is
formed by dative bonds.

Note: A Lewis base is also a Bronsted – Lowry base, but a Lewis caid doesn’t need to be a
Bronsted – Lowry acid.
18.1.2 – Deduce [H+ (aq)] and [OH- (aq)] for water at different temperatures given Kw
values.

Look at these from the Le Chantelier principle!

18.1.4 – State the equation for the reaction of any weak acid or weak base with water,
and hence deduce the expressions for Ka and Kb.

Generic examples:
18.1.5 – Solve some problems involving solutions of weak acids and bases using the
expressions [Ka x Kb = Kw and pKa + pKb = pKw and pH + pOH = pKw]

Ka x Kb = Kw / The Ka and the Kb are for conjugate acid and base pairs – the acid and bases
having only one proton difference within between them.

Notes:
- Smallest Kb means the weakest base.
- Smallest Ka means the weakest acid.
- Biggest Kb measnt the strongest base.
- Biggest Ka means the strongest acid.

18.4.1 – Sketch the general shapes of graphs of pH against column for titrations
involving strong and weak acids and bases, and explain their important features.

Strong acid + strong base

Weak acid + strong base

Equivalence point shifts to

the stronger acid/base’s pH.
Here, for example, it shifted
to the base as weak acid and
strong base were titrated.

The part between 0 ml to 25

ml is named the buffer zone.
 Strong acid + weak base

NOTE: Conductivity is highest at the point of inflection.

Weak acid + weak base

Strong acid + weak base

18.5.2 – State and explain how the pH range of an acid – base indicator relates to its pKa
value.
18.5.3 – Identify an appropriate indicator for a titration given the equivalence point of
the titration and the pH range of the indicator.

ln is the sign of indicator. The

indicator itself is a weak acid and
left is the dissociation of the weak
acid indicator.
If the [ln-] and [Hln]
concentrations are the same, there
will be a color change and the [ln-]
and [Hln] will be 1, which will
make the Ka of the reaction to be
[H+].

As the indicator’s color changing time can be found like this, the indicator that should be used
can be picked up.

So, basically, the pKa of the indicator equals to the pH of the solution.

18.3.1 – Deduce whether salts form acidic, alkaline or neutral aqueous solutions.

Here, the weak refers to the calcium hydroxide (weak base) and strong refers to the nitric acid
(strong acid).
18.2.1 – Describe the composition of a buffer solution and explain its action.

Buffer definition: Resists a change in pH, when a small amount of acid or base is added.