ELASTICITY AND FLUID MECHANICS

So far, we have dealt with all the solids that have been modeled as rigid bodies, that is objects do not change their
shape. Real objects, however, deform to some extent when an external force is applied to them. In this chapter we
formulate some systematic ways to describe qualitatively the deformation of solids that are subjected to applied
forces.

INTERATOMIC AND INTERMOLECULAR FORCE:

What holds the atoms in a solid or liquid? This is the question we now consider. Evidently there must exist some
interatomic or intermolecular forces that keep them bound:

Detailed calculations as well as deductions from experiment show that the interaction between any isolated pairs of
atoms or molecules may be represented by a curve that shows how the potential energy varies with separation
between them as shown in the figure. This curve describes the interatomic potential.

V(R)
R0 R
O

V0
The force between the atoms can be found from the potential energy by using the relation.
dU
F ( R)  
dR
The resulting interatomic force curve is shown in figure.

F(R)
R
O
R0

Force is along the line joining the atoms or molecules, and is shown negative for attraction & positive for repulsion.

We see that as the distance R decreases, the attractive force first increases and then decreases to zero at a separation
R0 where the potential energy is minimum. For smaller distance force is repulsive, because at these distance the
negative charge distribution associated with one atom begins to over lap with that associated with the neighboring
atom.

The above picture of interatomic or intermolecular force is an over simplification of the actual situation. However, it
provides a reasonable approximation.

CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER:
Matter can be classified into three states: solids, liquids and Gases.

Solids: A solid is that state of matter in which its atoms and molecules are strongly bound so as to preserve their
original shape and volume. Solids are of two types – crystalline & amorphous.
(a) Crystalline Solid:
A crystalline solid is one which has regular & periodic arrangement of atoms or molecules in the
three dimensions. Examples of crystalline solids are diamond, rocksalt, mica sugar etc.
 (b) Amorphous Solids or Glassy Solids:
The word ‘amorphous’ literally means ‘without any form’. There is no ‘order’ in arrangement of
atoms in such a solid.

An amorphous solid is one which does not have a periodic arrangement of atoms.

The best example of an amorphous solid is glass

In solids, the intermolecular forces are so strong that there is no change in shape and size easily.

Liquids: The intermolecular forces are comparably less than that in solids, so the shape can easily be changed. But
volume of a given mass of a liquid is not easy to change. It needs quite an effort to change the density of
liquids.

Liquids are not able to produce reaction forces to applied forces in arbitrary directions.

They can not support sharing force. (stress)

Gases: This is the third state of matter which can not support compressive, tensile, or sharing forces. Densities of
gases change very rapidly with the increase in temperature.

Together Liquids and Gases are Classified as Fluids:

The word “fluid” comes from a latin word meaning. ‘to flow”.

 On the average, the atoms or molecules in a gas are far apart, typically about ten atomic diameters at room
temperature and pressure. They collide much less frequently than those in a liquid. Gases in general are
compressible.

ELASTICITY:
The property of material of a body by virtue of which the body regains its original length, volume and shape after the
deforming forces have been removed is called elasticity

Stress, Strain and Elastic Modulii:

The precise definition of stress depends on the particular situation being considered, but in general it is force per unit
area.

The strain indicates some fractional change in dimension or volume. The unit of stress is N/m 2 , whereas strain is a
dimensionless number.

A force applied to an object can change its dimensions and shape. In general, the response of a material to a given
type of deforming force is characterized by an elastic modulus, which is defined as
Stress
Elastic modulus  ….(i)
Strain

Hooke’s Law:
Within elastic limit, the extension of an elastic body is directly proportional to the force. Stress is proportional to
strain, within the elastic limit.
stress
= constant
strain

This constant is known as modulus of elasticity or coefficient of elasticity. It depends upon the nature of the
materials.
STRESS – STRAIN GRAPHS:
The stress-strain graph of a ductile metal is shown in figure. Initially, Elastic
the stress strain graph is linear and it obeys the Hooke’s Law upto the Zone Plastic Zone
point P called the proportional limit. After the proportional limit the
 -  graph is non-linear but it still remains elastic upto the yield U
108
point Y where the slope of the curve is zero. At the yield point the B
material starts deforming under constant stress and it behaves like a Y
P
viscous liquid. The yield point is the beginning of the plastic zone. Stress ()
(Nm-2)
After the yield point, the material starts gaining strength due to
excessive deformation and this phenomenon is called strain
hardening. The point U shows the ultimate strength of the material.
It is the maximum stress that the material can sustain without failure.
After the point U the curve goes down toward the breaking point B 0.01 0.2 Strain ()
because the calculation of the stress is based on the original cross-
sectional area whereas the cross-sectional areas of the sample The stress-strain relationship for a metal.
actually decreases.

Young’s Modulus:
Young’s modulus is a measure of the resistance of a solid to a change in its length when a force is applied
perpendicular to its surface. Consider a rod with an unstressed length L0 and cross-sectional area A , as shown in the
figure. When it is subjected to equal and opposite forces Fn along it axis and perpendicular to the end faces its
length changes by L . These forces tend to stretch the rod. The tensile stress on the rod is defined as
Fn
 …(ii)
A
Forces acting in the opposite direction, as shown in figure, would produce a compressive stress. The resulting strain
is defined as the dimensionless ratio.
L0
L
 …(iii) A
L0

Young’s modulus Y for the material of the rod is defined as the

ratio of tensile stress to tensile strain. Fn Fn

Tensile stress L
So Young’s Modulus = L
Tensilestrain Fn
Fn
 F / A Fn L0
Y  n  …(iv)
 L / L0 AL A force applied normal to the end face of a rod cause a
change in length

Illustration 1. A solid cylindrical steel column is 4.0 m long and 9.0 cm in diameter. What will be decrease in
length when carrying a load of 80000 kg? Y  1.9  1011 Nm -2 .

Solution: Let us first calculate the cross-sectional area of column  r 2  (0.045 m) 2

 6.36  10 3 m 2
F/A
Then, from Y  we have
L / L
FL (8  10 4 )(9.8 N)  (4.0 m)
L    2.6  10 3 m  2.6 mm
AY (6.36 10 3 m 2 )(1.9  1011 Nm -2 )
Shear Modulus:
The shear modulus of a solid measures its resistance to a shearing force, which is a force applied tangentially to a
surface, as shown in the figure. (Since the bottom of the solid is assumed to be at rest, there is an equal and opposite
force on the lower surface). The top surface is displaced by x relative to the bottom surface. The shear stress is
defined as
Tangential force
Shear stress =
Area
Ft
 …(v)
A
where A is the area of the surface.
The shear strain is defined as
x A x
Shear strain  …(vi)
y
where y is the separation between the top and the bottom surfaces. y
The shear modulus G is defined as
Shear Stress
Shear modulus =
ShearStrain F
Ft / A F y A solid block deforms under the
G  …(vii)
x/ y Ax action of shearing forces.

Illustration 2. A box shaped piece of gelatin dessert has a top area of 15 cm2 and a height of 3 cm. When a
shearing force of 0.50 N is applied to the upper surface, the upper surface displaces 4 mm
relative to the bottom surface. What are the shearing stress, the shearing strain, and the shear
modulus for the gelatin?

tangential force 0.50 N

Solution: Shear stress    333 Pa
area of face 15  10 -4 m 2
displacement 0.4 cm
Shear stress =   0.133
height 3cm
stress 333Pa
Shear modulus G    2.5 kPa
strain 0.133

Bulk Modulus:
Fn
The bulk modulus of a solid or a fluid indicates its resistance to a change in
volume. Consider a cube of some material, solid or fluid, as shown in the
figure. We assume that all faces experience the same force Fn normal to each
face. (One way to accomplish this is to immerse the body in a fluid – as long as
fn Fn
the change in pressure over the vertical height of the cube is negligible). The Fn
pressure on the cube is defined as the normal force per unit area Fn
F
p n …(viii)
A
Fn
The SI unit of pressure is N/m2 and is given the name pascal (Pa). A cube of some material is subject to equal
[

forces normal to each face. This condition

The change in pressure P is called the volume stress and the fractional may be achieved by immersing the body in
change in volume V / V is called the volume strain. The bulk modulus B of a fluid.
the material is defined as
Volumestress
Bulk modulus =
Volume strain
p
or B …(ix)
V / V
The negative sign is included to make B a positive number since an increase in pressure (p  0) leads to decrease
in volume (V  0) .

The inverse of B is called the compressibility, factor

1
k …(x)
B

Elastic Properties of Matter

State Shear Modulus Bulk Modulus
Solid Large Large
Liquid Zero Large
Gas Zero Small

Energy Stored in a Wire:

Consider an elastic wire of length l . Suppose it is stretched by a length l when a force F is applied at one end. If
the elastic limit is not exceeded, then the extension is directly proportional to the applied load. Consequently, the
force in the wire increases in magnitude from zero to F. So, the average force in the wire while stretching was F / 2 ,
Now, work done = average force  extension
 ( F / 2)  l .
This is the amount of energy stored in the wire. It is the gain in molecular potential energy of the molecules due to
their displacement from their mean positions
F .l YAl
Again, Y or F
Al l
1 l 2
Work done  YA
2 l

A Note on Thermal Stress :

Consider a bar which is heated & then prevented from contracting as it cools. A considerable force will be exerted at
the ends of the bar, if the bar were free to contract, then decrease in length, l  l … (i)
Where l is the original length,  is the coefficient of linear expansion &  is the fall of temperature.
F/A Fl Fl
Again, Y   or l  …(ii)
l / l Al AY
Where, F is the force developed in the bar & A is the cross-sectional area of the bar.
Fl
From (i) & (ii),  l  or F  YA
AY
F
Again, thermal stress= or Thermal stress = Y  .
A

FLUID STATICS:
It refers to the state when there is no relative velocity between fluid elements. In this section we will learn some of
the properties of the fluid statics.

Density:
The density  of a substance is defined as the mass per unit volume of a sample of the substance.
If a small mass element m occupies a volume V , the density is given by
m

V
In general, the density of an object depends on position, so that
   f ( x, y, z )
If the object is homogeneous, its physical parameters do not change with position throughout its volume. Thus, for a
homogeneous object of mass M and volume V , the density is defined as
M
 …(xi)
V
The SI units of density are kg m-3.

Specific Gravity:
The specific gravity of a substance is the ratio of its density to that of water at 4º C, which is 1000 kg/m3. Specific
gravity is a dimensionless quantity numerically equal to the density quoted in g/cm3. For example, the specific
gravity of mercury is 13.6, and the specific gravity of water at 100 ºC is 0.998.

Illustration 3. Find the density and specific gravity of gasoline if 51 g occupies 75 cm3?

mass 0.051kg
Solution: Density =   680 kg/m 3
volume 75  10 6 m 3
density of gasoline 680 kg/m3
Sp. gr =   0.68
density of water 1000 kg/m3
mass of 75cm 3 gasoline 51g
or Sp. gravity = = =0.68
mass of 75 cm3 water 75g

Illustration 4. The mass of a liter of milk is 1.032 kg. The butterfat that it contains has a density of 865 kg/m3
when pure, and it constitutes 4 percent of the milk by volume. What is the density of the fat-free
skimmed mill?

Solution: Volume of fat in 1000 cm3 of milk = 4%  1000 cm3 = 40 cm3

Mass of 40 cm3 fat = V   (40 10 6 m3 )(865 kg/m 3 )  0.0346 kg
mass (1.032  0.0346)kg
Density of skimmed milk = =  1039 kg/m 3
volume (1000  40)  10 6 m3

Pressure:
The pressure exerted by a fluid is defined as the force per unit area at a point
within the fluid. Consider an element of area A as shown in figure and an F
external force F is acting normal to the surface. The average pressure in the
fluid at the position of the element is given by
F
Pav 
A 
As A  0 , the element reduces to a point, and thus, pressure at a point is A normal force F acts on a small
cylindrical element of cross-section
defined as area A .
F dF
p  Lim  …(xii)
 A  0 A dA
When the force is constant over the surface A , the above equation reduces to
F
p …(xiii)
A
The SI unit of pressure is Nm-2 and is also called pascal (Pa).
The other common pressure units are atmosphere and bar.
1 atm = 1.01325  105 Pa
1 bar = 1.00000  105 Pa
1 atm = 1.01325 bar
Illustration 5. Atmospheric pressure is about 1.01  105 Pa. How large a force does the atmosphere exert on a
2cm 2 area on the top of your head?

Solution: Because p  F / A , where F is perpendicular to A , we have F  pA . Assuming that 2 cm2 of your

head is flat (nearly correct) and that the force due to the atmosphere is perpendicular to the surface
(as it is), we have
F  pA  (1.01 105 N/m 2 )(2  104 m 2 )  20N

Pressure is Isotropic:
Imagine a static fluid and consider a small cubic element of the fluid deep
within the fluid as shown in the figure. Since this fluid element is in
equilibrium therefore, forces acting on each lateral face of this element must
also be equal in magnitude. Because the areas of each face are equal, therefore,
the pressure on each face are equal, therefore the pressure on each of the lateral
faces must also be the same. In the limit as the cube element reduces to a point,
the forces on top and bottom surfaces also become equal. Thus, the pressure
exerted by a fluid at a point is the same in all directions – the pressure is
isotropic.
A small cubical element is m equilibrium
inside a fluid.
Since the fluid cannot support a shear stress, the force exerted by a fluid
pressure must also be perpendicular to the surface of the container that
holds it.

Variation of Pressure with Depth:

Weight of a fluid element of mass m (p+p)A

W  (m) g (m)g
m
y
The pressure force acting on the lower face of the element
pA
is pA and that on the upper face is ( p  p ) A . The figure
y
(b) shown the free body diagram of the element. Applying
the condition of equilibrium we get,
pA  ( p  p ) A  (m) g  0 (a) (b)
if  be the density of the fluid at the position of the
(a) A cylindrical fluid element in a fluid
element, then m  A( y ) (b) Free body diagram of the element.

and pA  ( p  p ) A  gA(y )  0
p
or  g
y
p
In the limit y approaches to zero, becomes
y
dp
 g …(xiv)
dy
The above equation indicates that the slope of p versus y is negative. That is, the pressure p decreases with
height y from the bottom of the fluid.
In otherwords, the pressure p increases with depth h , i.e.,
dp
 g …(xv)
dh
The Incompressible Fluid Model:
For an incompressible fluid, the density  of the fluid remains constant
throughout its volume. It is a good assumption for liquids. To find pressure at p h
the point A in a fluid column as shown in the figure is obtained by integrating A
equation (xv).
y
p h
dp  gdh or  dp  g  dh
p0 0 A point A is located in a fluid at a height y
from the bottom and at a depth h from the
or p  p0  gh or p  p0  gh …(xvi) free surface.

where  is the density of the fluid, and

p0 is the atmospheric pressure at the free surface of the liquid.

Absolute Pressure and Gauge Pressure:

Absolute pressure is the total pressure at a point while gauge pressure is relative to the local atmospheric pressure.
Gauge pressure may be positive or negative depending upon the fact whether the pressure is more or less than the
atmospheric pressure.

Pascal Law:
According to equation (xvi)
p  p0  gh
pressure at any depth h in a fluid may be increased by increasing the pressure p0 at the surface. Pascal recognized a
consequence of this fact that we now call Pascal’s Law.
A pressure applied to a confined fluid at rest is transmitted equally undiminished to every part of the fluid
and the walls of the container.

This principle is used in a hydraulic jack or lift, as shown in the figure. F2

The pressure due to a small force F1 applied to a piston of area A1 is
transmitted to the larger piston of area A2 . The pressure at the two pistons is F1
the same because they are at the same level.
A1 A2
F1 F2
p 
A1 A2
A 
or F2   2  F1 …(xviii)
 A1 
Consequently, the force on the larger piston is large. A hydraulic jack
Thus, a small force F1 acting on a small area A1 results in a larger force
F2 acting on a larger area A2 .

Brain Teaser:
1. Water is poured to the same level in each of the vessels shown, all having the same base area. If the pressure is
the same at the bottom of each vessel, the force experienced by the base of each vessel is the same. Do the
three vessels then have different weights when put on a scale. This apparently contradictory result is commonly
known as the hydrostatic paradox
Illustration 6. Find the absolute pressure and gauge pressure at
1m Kerosene
point A, B and C as shown in the figure (1 atm = A 2m
105 Pa) 1=800 kg/m3

1.5m Water
2m
B 2=1000 kg/m3
C Mercury 0.5m
3 =13.6×103 kg/m3
Solution: patm  105 Pa
Points Gauge Pressure Absolute Pressure
A p A  1 ghA  (800)(10)1  8 kPa p A  p A  patm = 108 kPa
B pB  1 g (2)  2 g (1.5) pB  pB  patm = 131 kPa
= (800)(10)(2) + (103) (10) (1.5) = 31 kPa
C pC  p1 g (2)   2 g (2)  3 g (0.5) pC  pC  patm = 204 kPa
= (800)(10)(2)+(103)(10)(2)+(13.6  103 )(10)(0.5)
= 104 kPa

Illustration 7. Find the pressure in the air column at which the piston remains in equilibrium. Assume the
piston to be massless and frictionless.

Solution: Let pa be the air pressure above the AIR

piston. Piston
5m 1.73m
Applying Pascal’s law at point A and B . Kerosene
Datum 60º S=0.8
3 A B
patm   w g (5)  pa   k g (1.73) Water
2
Pa = 138 kPa

Illustration 8. A weighted piston confines a fluid of

density  in a closed container, as shown
h
in the figure. The combined weight of
piston and weight is W  200 N, and the B
cross-sectional area of the piston is A  8
cm2 . Find the total pressure at point B if
the fluid is mercury and h = 25 cm (  m =
13600 kg/m3). What would an ordinary
pressure gauge read at B ?

Solution: Pascal’s principle tells us about the pressure applied to the fluid by the piston and atmosphere.
This added pressure is applied at all points within the fluid. Therefore the total pressure at B is
composed of three parts:
Pressure of atmosphere  1.0  105 Pa
W 200N
Pressure due to piston and weight    2.5  105 Pa
A 8  104 m 2
Pressure due to height h of fluid  hg = 0.33  105 Pa
In this case, the pressure of the fluid itself is relatively small. We have
Total pressure at B  3.8  105 Pa = 380 kPa
The gauge pressure does not include atmospheric pressure. Therefore,
Gauge pressure at B  280 kPa
F
Illustration 9. For the system shown in figure, the cylinder
on the left, at L, has a mass of 600 kg and a
cross-sectional area of 800 cm2 . The piston on
the right at S , has cross-sectional area 25 cm2
and negligible weight. If the apparatus is
filled with oil (   0.78 g/cm3), find the force
F required to hold the system in equilibrium
as shown in figure.
Solution: The pressures at point H1 and H 2 are equal because they are at the same level in the single
connected fluid. Therefore,
Pressure at H1 = Pressure at H 2
(Pressure due to left piston) = (Pressure due to F and right piston)
(600)(9.8)N F
 +(8m)(780 kg/m-3)(9.8)
0.08m 2 25  104 m 2
After solving, we get, F  31 N.

The Compressible – Fluid Model:

For gases, the constant density assumed in the compressible model is often not adequate. However, an alternative
simplifying assumption can be made that the density is proportional to the pressure, i.e.,
  kp
Let 0 be the density of air at the earth’s surface where the pressure is atmospheric p0 , then
0  kp0
After eliminating k, we get

 0 p
p0
Substituting the value of  in equation (xiv)
dp  gdy
 
or dp    0 p  g dy
 p0 
On rearranging, we get
p
dp 0 h
p p   p0 g 0 dy
0

where p is the pressure at a height y  h above the earth’s surface.

After integrating, we get
p 
ln   0 gh
p0 p0
0
gh
p0
or p  p0 e …(xix)

Note:
That instead of a linear decrease in pressure with increasing height as in the case of an incompressible fluid, in
this case pressure decreases exponentially.

PRESSURE MEASURING DEVICES:

Manometer:
A manometer is a tube open at both the ends and bent into the shape P0
of a “ U ” and is partially filled with mercury. When one end of the
tube is subjected to an unknown pressure p , the mercury level drops
on that side of the tube and rises on the other so that the difference in
mercury level is h as shown in the figure. h
p =?
According to Pascal’s Law, when we move down in a fluid pressure 0 h0
increases with depth and when we move up the pressure decreases A B
with height. When we move horizontally in a fluid pressure remains
constant. Therefore,
p  0 gh0  m gh  p0
where p0 the atmospheric pressure, and An U – shaped manometer tube connected to a vessel.
0 is the density of the fluid inside the vessel

Illustration 10. As shown in the figure, as column of water 40

cm high supports a 31 cm of an unknown fluid.
What is the density of the unknown fluid?

Solution: The pressure at point A due to the two fluids must

be equal (or the one with the higher pressure 40 cm
would push the lower pressure fluid away).
Therefore, 31 cm
Pressure due to water = pressure due to known
fluid
h11 g  h2 2 g
A
h 40
from which 2  1 1  (1000 kg/m2)
h2 31
= 1290 kg/m3.

Illustration 11. For the arrangement shown in the figure, Kerosene

determine h if the pressure difference between h ( s=0.8)
the vessels A and B is 3 kN/m2.

A Water

20cm

B Water
Kerosene
Solution: Let pressure in the horizontal tube is P (s=0.8)k
So in left vertical tube
P  k gh1  w gh0  PB h1
h2
P  k gh2  w g (h0  h  0.2)  PA h

here, pB  p A  3 103 N/m2 (h0-h-0.2)

h0 A Water
 w  103 kg/m3
k  800 kg/m3 20cm

Thus, h  0.5 m = 50 cm. B Water

The Mercury Barometer:

It is a straight glass tube (closed at one end) completely filled with mercury
and inserted into a dish which is also filled with mercury as shown in the p0=0
figure. Atmospheric pressure supports the column of mercury in the tube to a
height h . The pressure between the closed end of the tube and the column of m
mercury is zero, p  0 .
p0 p0 h
Therefore, pressure at points A and B are equal and thus
p0  0   m gh A B
At the sea level, p0 can support a column of mercury about 76 cm in height
Hence, p0  (13.6  103 )(9.81)(0.76)  1.01 105 Nm-2 for Pa A mercury barometer

Illustration 12.
What must be the length of a barometer tube used to measure atmospheric pressure if we are
to use water instead of mercury.
Solution:
We know that
p0  m ghm  w ghw
where  w and hw are the density and height of the water column supporting the atmospheric
pressure p0 .
m
 hw  hm
w
m
Since  13.6 and hm  0.76 m
w
 hw  (13.6)(0.76)  10.33 m.

Illustration 13. In the figure shown, find 2

(a) the total force on the bottom of the tank due to A1=10cm
the water pressure. 5m
(b) the total weight of water.
A2=100cm2

1m
Solution: (a) Pressure at the base due to water is
p   w g[5  1]  (103 )(10)(5  1)  6  10 4 N/m2
 Force  pA2  (6 10 4 )(100  10 4 )  600 N

(b) Weight of water

  w g [5 A1  A2 ]  10 4 [5  10  104  100  10 4 ]  150 N.

Buoyancy:
If a body is partially or wholly immersed in a fluid, it experiences an upward force due to the fluid surrounding it.
The phenomenon of force exerted by fluid on the body called buoyancy and the force is called buoyant force.
A body experiences buoyant force whether it floats or sinks, under its own weight or due to other forces applied on
it.

Archimedes Principle:
A body immersed in a fluid experiences an upward buoyant force equivalent to the weight of the fluid displaced by
it.
The proof of this principle is very simple. Imagine a body of arbitrary shape completely immersed in a liquid of
density  as shown in the figure. A body is being acted upon by the forces from all directions. Let us consider a
vertical element of height h and crosssectional area dA as shown in the figure(b).
The force acting on the upper surface of the element is F1 (downward) and that on the lower surface is F2 (upward).
Since F2  F1 , therefore, the net upward force acting on the element is

dF  F2  F1
It can be easily seen from the figure(b), that
F1  (gh1 )dA and F2  (gh2 )dA

so dF  g (h)dA

Also, h2  h1  h and h( dA)  dV

 The net upward force is

F   gdV  Vg
Hence, for the entire body, the buoyant force is the weight of the volume of the fluid displaced.
The buoyant force acts through the centre of gravity of the displaced fluid.

h1 F1
h2 dA
h
F2

(a) The fluid exerts force on the immersed body (b) The net force experienced by every vertical
from all directions. element of the body is in the upward

Important
It buoys because the pressure in the fluid is not uniform: it increases with depth.

An object floats on water if it can displace a volume of water whose weight is greater than that of the object. If the
density of the material is less than that of the liquid, it will float even if the material is a uniform solid, such as a
block of wood floats on water surface. If the density of the material is greater than that of water, such as iron, the
object can be made to float provided it is not a uniform solid. An iron built ship is an example to this case.

Brain Teaser:
2. Does Archimedes principle hold in a vessel in free fall? In a satellite moving in a circular orbit?

Illustration 14. An iceberg with a density of 920 kgm-3 floats on an ocean of V

above water
density 1025 kgm-3. What fraction of the iceberg is visible.
w(V0-V)
Solution: Let V be the volume of the iceberg above the water surface, then
the volume under water will be V0  V .
Under floating conditions, the weight (i V0 g ) of the iceberg is
balanced by the buoyant force  w (V0  V ) g . Thus,
iV0 g  w (V0  V ) g
or  wV  ( w  i )V0 or  wV  ( w  i )V0
V   w  i 
or  
V0   w 
Since  w  1025 kg m-3 and i  920 kg m-3, therefore,
V 1025  920
  0.10
V0 1025
Hence 10% of the total volume is visible.

When a 2.5 kg crown is immersed in water, it has an apparent weight of 22 N. What is the
Illustration 15.
density of the crown?
Solution: Let W  actual weight of the crown W  = apparent weight of the crown
 = density of crown 0 = density of water
The buoyant force is given by
FB  W  W 
or 0Vg  W  W 
W
Since W  Vg , therefore, V 
g
Eliminating V from the above two equations, we get
W
 0
W W 
(103 )(25)
Here W  25 N; W   22 N; 0  103 kg m-3    8.3  103 kg m-3.
25  22

Stability of a Floating Body:

The stability of a floating body depends on the effective point of application of the buoyant force. The weight of the
body acts at its center of gravity. The buoyant force acts at the center of gravity of the displaced liquid. This is
called the center of buoyancy. Under equilibrium condition the center of gravity G and the center of buoyancy B
lies along the vertical axis of the body as shown in the figure(a).

FB
M

FB
G
W
W

(a) (b)
(a) The buoyant force acts at the center of gravity of the displaced fluid.
(b) When the boat tilts, the line of action of the buoyant force intersects the axis of the boat at the
metacenter M . In a stable boat, M is above the center of gravity of the boat.

When the body tilts to one side, the center of buoyancy shifts relative to the center of gravity as shown in the
figure(b). The two forces act along different vertical lines. As a result the buoyant force exerts a torque about the
center of gravity. The line of action of the buoyant force crosses the axis of the body at the point M , called the
metacentre. If G is below M , the torque will tend to restore the body to its equilibrium position. If G is
above M , the torque will tend to rotate the body away from its equilibrium position and the body will be
unstable.
1 cm
Illustration 16. An ice cube of side 1 cm is floating at the interface of Kerosin
kerosene and water in a beaker of base area 10 cm2 . The ICE S= 0.8
level of kerosene is just covering the top surface of the ice
cube.
(a) Find the depth of submergence in the kerosene and that
in the water.
(b) Find the change in the total level of the liquid when the
whole ice melts into water.
Solution: (a) Condition of floating
0.8 w ghk   w ghw  0.9  w gh
or 0.8hk  hw   0.9  h …(i)
where hk and hw be the submerged depth of the ice in the kerosence and water, respectively.
Also, hk  hw  h …(ii)
Solving equation (i) and (ii), we get
hk  0.5 cm, hw  0.5 cm
(b) 1cm3 
melts
 0.9cm 3
(Ice) (Water)

0.5
Fall in the level of kerosence hk 
A
0.9  0.5 0.4
Rise in the level of water hw  
A A
Net fall in the overall level
0.1 0.1
h    0.01 cm = 0.1 mm.
A 10

FLUID SUBJECTED TO CONSTANT ACCELERATION:

A fluid, contained in a vessel, may be subjected to a constant linear acceleration without any relative movement
being created between different element of the fluid in the vessel. The fluid orient itself to attain a new equilibrium
position under the action of the acceleration. Although the fluid is undergoing an acceleration, it is moving with the
appearance of a rigid body. The fluid is thus said to be in a state of relative rest. In the absence of relative motion
between different fluid elements, the law of fluid statics is applicable.

Consider a liquid contained in a vessel. While at rest, the free surface maintains horizontal level but in the state of
relative rest under a constant acceleration a , the liquid orients itself to maintain the free surface inclined at an angle
 with the horizontal as shown in the figure (b). The inclination  may be related to the magnitude and direction of
the acceleration vector by considering the dynamics of an element of the liquid.
 dp 
p   y
 dy 

p Fpy  dp 
y  a Fpx p    x
x
ay  dx 
W
y ax
x
p
(a) (b) (c)
(a) Liquid at rest
(b) Liquid under constant acceleration
(c) Free Body Diagram of the element w.r.t. vessel
Consider a small element of size x and y at the position coordinates ( x, y ) as shown in the figure(b). From the
free body diagram we can write the equation of dynamics along the x -axis
 dp 
p ( y )   p  x  y  Fpx = 0
 dx 
Since Fpx  a x (x)(y )
dp
  (x)(y )  a x (x)(y )  0
dx
dp
or  ax …(xx)
dx
along the y -axis
  dp  
p  x    p    y  x  W  Fpy  0
  dy  
Since W  g (x )(y ) , and therefore Fpy  a y (x)(y )
dp
or  ( g  a y ) …(xxi)
dy

Note
that if a x  0 and a y  0 , then

dp dp
0 and  g
dx dy

That is, pressure does not vary along the x -axis if a x  0 , thus pressure at all the points on plane are small
when ax  0 pressure increases in the opposite direction of acceleration. The angle of inclination of the free
surface is obtained by

 dp 
dy  dx  ax
tan     …(xxii)
dx  dp  g  a y
 
 dy 

Illustration 17. An open rectangular tank 5 m  4 m  3 m high Front

Rear a0
containing water upto a height of 2 m is accelerated
horizontally along the longer side. 3m Water 2m
(a) Determine the maximum acceleration that can be
given without spilling the water.
(b) Calculate the percentage of water spilt over, if this 5m
acceleration is increased by 20%
(c) If initially, the tank is closed at the top and is
accelerated horizontally by 9 m/s2, find the gauge
pressure at the bottom of the front and rear walls of
the tank. (Take g  10 m/s2)
Solution: (a) Volume of water inside the tank remains constant
 3  y0 
 2 5 4  5 2 4 
 
3m a0
or y0  1m 2m
y0
3 1
 tan 0   0.4
5 5m
 a0
Since, tan 0  , therefore a0  0.4 g  4 m/s2
g
(b) When acceleration is increased by 20%
a  1.2 a0  0.48 g
a
 tan    0.48 3m
g 
v
Now, y  3  5 tan   3  5(0.48)  0.6 m
Fraction of water spilt over 5m
(3  0.6)
4 2  5  5 4
 2  0.1
2 5 4
Percentage of water spilt over =10%
(c) a  0.9 g
x
a
tan    0.9
g AIR
y
volume of air remains constant 3m '
1 Water
4  yx  (5)(1)  4
2
Since y  x tan 
5m
1 2
 x tan   5
2
or x  3.33 m ; y  3.0 m
Gauge pressure at the bottom of the
i) Front wall p f  zero
ii) Rear wall
pr  (5 tan )wg  5(0.9)(103 )(10)  4.5  10 4 Pa
60 rpm
Illustration 18. A vertical U - tube with the two limbs 0.75 m apart is filled
with water and rotated about a vertical axis 0.5 m from the
left limb, as shown in the figure. Determine the difference
in elevation of the water levels in the two limbs, when the
speed of rotation is 60 rpm.

0.5m
0.75m
Solution: Consider a small element of length dr at a distance r from the axis
of rotation. Considering the equilibrium of this element.
( p  dp )  p  2 r dr
or dp  2 r dr
On integrating between 1 and 2 h1
r1
dr r h2
p1  p2  2  r dr
 r2 1 p 2
p+dp
2
 2 2 r1 r2
p1  p2  (r1  r2 )
2
2 2 2 (2)2
or h1  h2   r1  r2   [(0.5) 2  (0.25)2 ]  0.37 m.
2g 2(10)
FORCES ON FLUID BOUNDARIES:
Whenever a fluid comes in contact with solid boundaries it exerts a force on it. Consider a rectangular vessel of base
size l  b filled with water to a height H as shown in the figure. The force acting at the base of the container is
given by
Fb  p  (area of the base)
because pressure is same everywhere at the base and is equal to gH . h
Therefore, Fb  gH (lb)   g lb H dF dh H
Fb
Since, lbH  V (volume of the liquid)
Thus, Fb  gV  weight of the liquid inside the vessel b
l
A fluid contained in a vessel exerts forces
in the boundaries.
Unlike the base, the pressure on the vertical wall of the vessel is not uniform but increases linearly with depth from
the free surface. Therefore, we have to perform the integration to calculate the total force on the wall. Consider a
small rectangular element of width b and thickness dh at a depth h from the free surface. The liquid pressure at this
position is given by
p  gh
The force at the element is
dF  p (b dh )  gbh dh
H
1
The total force is F  gb  h dh  gbH 2
0 2
The total force acting per unit width of the vertical wall is
F 1
 gH 2 …(xxiii)
b 2
The point f application (the centre of force) of the total force from the free surface is given by
H
1
hc   h dF …(xxiv)
F 0
H
where  h dF is the moment of force about the free surface.
0
H H H
2 1
Here  h dF   h( gbh dh)   gb  h dh   gbH 3
0 0 0 3
1
Since F  gbH 2 , therefore,
2
2
hc  H ….(xxv)
3
Illustration19. Find the force acting per unit width on a plane wall
inclined at an angle  with the horizontal as shown
y h=y sin
in the figure. dF
H
dy

Solution: Consider a small element of thickness dy at a distance y measured along the wall from the free
surface. The pressure at the position of the element is
p  gh  gy sin 
The force is given by
dF  p(b dy )  gb( y dy )sin 
The total force per unit width b is given by
H / sin  H / sin 
F  y2  F 1 H2
 g sin  .  y dy  g sin    or  g …(xxvi)
b 0  2 0 b 2 sin 
Note:
1
That the above formula reduces to gH 2 for a vertical wall (  90o ) .
2

FLUID DYNAMICS:
The Equation of Continuity:
In order to describe the motion of a fluid, in principle one might apply Newton’s laws to a particle (a small volume
element of fluid) and follow its progress in time. This is difficult approach. Instead, we consider the properties of the
fluid, such as velocity pressure, at fixed points in space.
In order to simplify the discussion we make several assumptions:
(i) The fluid is non viscous:
There is no dissipation of energy due to internal friction between adjacent layer in the fluid.
(ii) The flow is steady:
(iii) The flow is irrotational:
A tiny paddle wheel placed in the liquid will not rotate.

In rotational flow, for example, in eddies, the fluid has angular momentum about a given point.

In general the velocity of a particle will not be constant along a l1

streamline. The density and the cross-sectional area of a tube of A1 l2
flow will also change. Consider two sections of a tube of flow, as A2
shown in the figure. The mass of fluid contained in a small v2
cylinder of length l1 and area A1 is m1  1 A1 l1 . v1

Since fluid does not leave the tube of flow, this mass will later
A “tube of flow”
pass through a cylinder of length l2 and area A2 . The mass in
The fluid contained in the left cylinder of length l1 is
this cylinder is m2  2 A2 l2 . The lengths l1 and l2 are
later contained in the right cylinder of length l2 .
related to the speeds at the respective locations:
l1  v1t and l2  v2 t . Since no mass is lost or gained.
m1  m2 and
1 A1v1  2 A2 v2 …(xxviii)
This is called the equation of continuity. It is statement of the conservation of mass.

If the fluid is incompressible, its density remains unchanged. This is a good approximation for liquid, but not for
gases. If 1  2 , the equation (xviii) becomes,
A1v1  A1v2 …(xxix)
The product Av is the volume rate of flow (m3 / s ) . Figure shows a pipe whose cross section narrows. From equation
(xxix) we conclude that the speed of a fluid is greatest where the cross-sectional area is the least. Notice that the
streamlines are close together where the speed is higher.

v1 v2

A fluid flowing through a pipe whose cross section changes. Notice that the streamlines are closer
together in the narrower section. This indicates that the fluid is moving faster.

Bernoulli’s Theorem
Statement
When an incompressible and non-viscous liquid (or gas) flows in streamlined motion from one place to another, then
at every point of its path the total energy per unit volume (Pressure energy + Kinetic energy + Potential energy) is
constant. That is
1
P  v 2  gh = constant.
2
Thus, Bernoulli’s theorem is in one way the principle of conservation of energy for a flowing liquid (or gas).

Bernoulli’s Equation:
Let us focus our attention on the motion of the shaded region. This its our l2
“system”. The lower cylindrical element of fluid of length l1 and area A1
F2
is at height y1 , which moves with speed v1 . After some time, the leading
F1 l1
section of our system fills the upper cylinder of fluid of length l2 and
area A2 at height y2 , and is then moving with speed v2 .
v2
A pressure force F1 acts on the lower part of the cylindrical tube towards
right and pressure force F2 acts on the upper part of the cylindrical tube y2
y1
towards left. The net work done on the system F1 and F2 is The motion of a fluid in a tube of flow. The work done
by the pressure forces-equals the change in energy of
the shaded volume of fluid.
W  F1 l1  F2 l2  P1 A1l1  P2 A2 l2  ( P1  P2 )V
where we have used the relations F  PA and V  A1 l1  A2 l2 . The net effect of the motion of the system is to
raise the height of the lower cylinder of mass m and to change its speed. The changes in the potential and kinetic
energies are
U  mg ( y2  y1 )
1
K  m(v22  v12 )
2
These changes are brought about by the net work done on the system,
W  U  K
1
( P1  P2 )V  mg ( y2  y1 )  m(v22  v12 )
2
Since the density is   m / V , we have
1 1
p1  gy1  v12  p2  gy2  v22
2 2
Since the points 1 and 2 can be chosen arbitrarily, we can express this
result as Bernoulli’s Equation
1 v1 v2
p  gy  v 2 = constant …(xxx)
2
It is applied to all points along a streamline in a nonviscous, A fluid flowing through a tube whose cross section decreases.
incompressible fluid. The pressure in the narrower tube, where the fluid is moving
faster, is lower.

Brain Teaser:
3. The height of the liquid in the standpipes of figure indicates that the pressure drops along the channel, even
through the channel has a uniform cross section and the flowing liquid is incompressible. Explain.
Illustration 20. A tank, initially at rest, is filled with water to a height
H  4 m. A small orifice is made at the bottom of the
wall. Find the velocity attained by the tank when it
Water
becomes completely empty. Assume mass of the tank to be H=4
negligible. Friction is negligible.

Solution: Let v be the instantaneous velocity of the tank, and c be

the instantaneous velocity of efflux with respect to the
tank. A
Thrust exerted on the tank.
F  ac 2 Water v
where a is the cross-sectional area of the orifice.
c  2 gh a
where h is the instantaneous height of water in the tank. c
Mass of the tank at any time t is
m  Ah
A = cross-sectional area of the tank,
Using Newton’s second law
dv dv
F m  Ah
dt dt
dv
 Ah  ac 2  2gah
dt
dv a
or  2g   …(i)
dt  A
In a time dt if the water level falls by dh, then according to
the conservation of mass.
dh ac
 Adh  acdt or 
dt A
Equation (i) can be written as
dv dh a dv  ac  a
 2   g or     2g  
dh dt A
  dh  A   A
dv 2g 2g 2g
or   
dh c 2 gh h
On integrating
v 0
dh
0 dv   2 g H h v  2 2 gH

Since H  4 m, therefore v  2 2(10)(4)  17.9 m/s

APPLICATIONS OF BERNOULLI’S PRINCIPLE:

(a) Working of Aeroplane:
This is also based on Bernoulli’s principle. The wings of the aeroplane are having v large,
p small
tapering as shown in figure. Due to this specific shape of wings when the aeroplane
runs, air passes at higher speed over it as compared to its lower surface. This
difference of air speeds above and below the wings, in accordance with Bernoulli’s
principle, creates a pressure difference, due to which an upward force called ‘dynamic
lift’ (= pressure difference  area of wing) acts on the plane. If this force becomes v small, p large
greater than the weight of the plane, the plane will rise up.
(b) Velocity of Efflux:
If a liquid is filled in a vessel up to height H and a hole is made at a depth
h below the free surface of the liquid as shown in figure, then taking the level h C
of hole as reference level (i.e., zero point of potential energy) and applying v  2 gh
Bernoulli’s principle to the liquid just inside and outside the hole (assuming
H 
the liquid to be at rest inside) we get
1
( p0  hg )  0  p0  v 2
2
x
or v  2 gh
which is the same speed that an object would acquire in falling from rest through a distance h and is called ‘velocity
of efflux’ or velocity of flux. From this expression it is clear that:

(1) The speed of the liquid coming out of the orifice is independent of the nature and quantity of liquid in
the container or the area of the orifice.

(2) Greater is the distance of the hole from the free surface of liquid
v1
greater will be the velocity of efflux (i.e., v  h ). This is why
liquid gush-out with maximum velocity from the orifice which is v2
at maximum vertical distance from the free surface of the liquid. v3

(3) As the vertical velocity of liquid at the orifice is zero and it is at a h C v

height ( H  h) from the base, the time taken by the liquid to
reach the base-level H
H-h
2( H  h)
t
g
Now during this time liquid is moving horizontally with constant A x B
velocity v , so it will hit the base level at a horizontal distance x
(called range) as shown in figure such that
x  vt  2 gh  [2( H  h) / g  2 h( H  h)
From this expression it is clear that x will be maximum when x 2 h=H/2
is maximum H
d 2 d
i.e., ( x )  0 or 4 ( Hh  h 2 )  0
dh dh
or H  2h  0 , i.e., h  H / 2 xMax=H
H  H
So that xmax 2 H  2   H
2  
i.e., range x will be maximum ( H ) when h  H / 2 .

(4) If the level of free surface in a container is at height H from the base and there are two holes at depth
h and y below the free surface, then
x  2 h( H  h ) and x  2 y(H  y)
Now if x  x , i.e., h( H  h)  y ( H  y )
i.e., y 2  Hy  h( H  h)  0
1
or y  h  ( H  2h )  ,
2
i.e., y  h or ( H  h)
 i.e, the range will be same if the orifice is at a depth h or ( H  h) below the free surface. Now as
the distance ( H  h) from top means H  ( H  h)  h from the bottom, so the range is same for
liquid coming out of holes at same distance below the top and above the bottom.

(5) If A0 is the area of orifice at a depth y below the free surface and A that of container, the volume of
liquid coming out of the orifice per second will be

(dV / dt )  vA0  2 gy A0 [as v  2 gy ]

Due to this, the level of liquid in the container will decrease and so if the level of liquid in the container
above the hole changes from y to y  dy in time t to t  dt then  dV  A dy

dy A 1 1/ 2
A
dt
 A0 2 gy , i.e.,  dt   A 0 2g
y dy

A
h
y y
H H
A0
h
A x=x' B
So the time taken for the level to fall from H to H 
H
A 1 1/ 2 A 2
t y dy  [ H  H ]
A0 2g H A0 g
If the hole is at the bottom of the tank, time t taken to emptied the tank:

A 2H
t [as here H   0 ].
A0 g

(c) Ventury Tube:

A ventury tube is used to measure the flow speed of fluid in a tube. It consists of a constriction or a throat in the
tube. As the fluid passes through the constriction, its speed increases in accordance with the equation of continuity.
The pressure thus decreases as required by Bernoulli’s equation.

A1
0 v2
v1 P2 A2
P1

Figure shows a ventury tube through which a liquid of density  is flowing. The area of cross-section is A1 at the
wider part and A2 at the constriction. Let the speeds of the liquid at A1 and A2 be v1 and v2 and the pressures at
A1 and A2 be P1 and P2 respectively. By the equation of continuity
A1v1  A2 v2 …(i)
and by Bernoulli’s equation,
1 1
P1  v12  P2  v22
2 2
1
or, ( P1  P2 )  (v22  v12 ) …(ii)
2
Figure also shown two vertical tubes connected to the ventury tube at A1 and A2 .If the difference in heights of the
liquid levels in these tubes is h , we have
 P1  P2  gh .
Putting in (ii),
2gh  v22  v12 …(iii)

Knowing A1 and A2 , one can solve equation (i) and (iii) so as to get v1 and v2 . This allows one to know the rate of
flow of liquid pass a cross-section.

SURFACE TENSION:
The properties of a surface are quite often markedly different from the
properties of the bulk material. A molecule well inside a body is surrounded by C
B
similar particles from all sides. But a molecule on the surface has particles of
A
one type on one side and of a different type on the other side. Figure shown an
example. A molecule of water well inside the bulk experiences force from
water molecules from all sides but a molecule at the surface interacts with air
molecules from above and water molecules from below. This asymmetric force
distribution is responsible for surface tension.

By a surface we shall mean a layer approximately 10-15 molecular diameters. B

A
The force between two molecules decreases as the separation between them
increases. The force becomes negligible if the separation exceeds 10-15
molecular diameters. Thus, if we go 10-15 molecular diameters deep, a
molecule finds equal forces from all directions.

Imagine a line AB drawn on the surface of a liquid (figure). The line divides the surface in two parts, surface on one
side and the surface on the other side of the line. Let us call them surface to the left of the line and surface to the
right of the line. It is found that the two parts of the surface pull each other with a force proportional to the length of
the line AB . These forces of pull are perpendicular to the line separating the two parts and are tangential to the
surface. In this respect the surface of the liquid behaves like a stretched rubber sheet. The rubber sheet which is
stretched from all sides is in the state of tension. Any part of the sheet pulls the adjacent part towards itself.
Let F be the common magnitude of the forces exerted on each other by the two parts of the surface across a line of
length l . We define the surface tension T of the liquid as
T  F /
The SI unit of surface tension is N/m.
Illustration 21. Calculate the force required to take away a flat circular plate of radius 4 cm from the surface of
water, surface tension of water being 75 dyne cm-1.

Solution: Length of the surface = circumference of the circular plate

 2 r  (8) cm
Required force  T  L  72  8  1810 dyne.

The fact that a liquid surface has the property of surface tension can be demonstrated by a number of simple
experiments.

Take a ring of wire and dip it in soap solution. When the ring is taken
out, a soap film bounded by the ring is formed. Now take a loop of
thread, and place it gently on the soap film. The loop stays on the film in
an irregular fashion as it is placed. Now prick a hole in the film inside
the loop with a needle. The thread is readily pulled by the film surface
outside and it takes a circular shape (figure).
Before the picking, there were surfaces both inside and outside the thread loop. Taking any small part of the thread,
surfaces on both sides pulled it and the net force was zero. The thread could remain in any shape. Once the surface
inside was punctured, the outside surface pulled the thread to take the circular shape.

Surface Energy:
We have seen that a molecule well within the volume of a liquid is surrounded by the similar liquid molecules for all
sides and hence there is no resultant force on it (figure). On the other hand, a molecule in the surface is surrounded
by similar liquid molecules only on one side of the surface while on the other side it may be surrounded by air
molecules or the molecules of the vapour of the liquid etc. These vapours having much less density exert only a
small force. Thus, there is a resultant inward force on a molecule in the surface. This force tries to pull the molecule
into the liquid. Thus, the surface layer remains in microscopic turbulence. Molecules are pulled back from the
surface layer to the bulk and new molecules from the bulk go to the surface to fill the empty space.

When a molecule is taken from the inside to the surface layer, work is done against the inward resultant force while
moving up in the layer. The potential energy is increased due to this work. A molecule in the surface has greater
potential energy than a molecule well inside the liquid. The extra energy that a surface layer has is called the surface
energy. The surface energy is related to the surface tension as discussed below.

Relation between Surface Tension and Surface Energy:

Consider a U-shaped frame with a sliding wire on its arm. Suppose it is dipped
in a soap solution, taken out and placed in a horizontal position (figure). B B
C
The soap film that is formed may look quite thin, but on the molecular scale its
2 F
thickness is not small. It may have several hundred thousands molecular layers.
So it has two surfaces enclosing a bulk of soap solution. But the surfaces are in
contact with the sliding wire and hence exert forces of surface tension on it. If D
T be the surface tension of the solution and l be the length of the sliding wire, A A
each surface will pull the wire parallel to itself with a force T  . The net force
of pull F on the wire due to both the surfaces is
F  2T  .
One has to apply an external force equal and opposite of F so as to keep the wire in equilibrium.

Now suppose the wire is slowly pulled out by the external force through a distance x so that the area of the frame is
increased by lx .As there are two surfaces of the solution, a new surfaces area 2lx is created. The liquid from the
inside is brought to create the new surface.
The work done by the external force in the displacement is
W  Fx  2Tlx  T (2lx )
As there is no change in kinetic energy, the work done by the external force is stored as the potential energy of the
new surface.
The increase in surface energy is
U  W  T (2lx )
U
Thus, T
(2lx)
U
or, T .
A
We see that the surface tension of a liquid is equal to the surface energy per unit surface area.
In this interpretation, the SI unit of surface tension may be written as J/m2. It may be verified that N/m is equivalent
to J / m 2 .

Illustration 22. Calculate the work done in blowing a soap bubble of radius 10 cm, surface tension being 0.06
Nm-1. What additional work will be done in further blowing it so that its radius is doubled?

Solution: In case of a soap bubble, there are two free surfaces.

 work done at blowing a soap bubble of radius R is given by.
 W  2  4 R 2  T , where T is the surface tension of the soap solution.
where R  0.1 m, T  0.06 Nm-1

 W   8(0.1)2  0.06 J = 1.51 J

Similarly, work done is forming a bubble of radius 0.2 m is,
W  8(0.2)2  0.06 J  6.03J
 Additional work done in doubling the radius of the bubble is given by,
W  W   6.03 J – 1.51J = 4.52J.

Angle of contact:
When a solid body in the form of a tube or plate is immersed in a liquid, the 
surface of the liquid near the solid is, in general curved. It is defined as the P P
angle between the tangents to the liquid surface and the solid surface at the
point of contact, for that pair of solid and liquid is called angle of contact. 

For example when glass strip is dipped in water and mercury as shown in
figure (a) and (b) respectively, the angle  is angle of contact, which is acute in
case of water and obtuse in case of mercury. (a) (b)

Excess Pressure:
The pressure inside a liquid drop or a soap bubble must be in excess of the pressure outside the bubble drop because
without such pressure difference a drop or a bubble cannot be in stable equilibrium. Due to surface tension the drop
or bubble has got the tendency to contract and disappear altogether. To balance this, there must be excess of pressure
inside the bubble.
PS cos
PS


PS sin
r

S'

To obtain a relation between the excess of pressure and the surface tension, consider a water drop of radius r and
surface tension T . Divide the drop into two halves by a horizontal passing through its centre as shown in figure and
consider the equilibrium of one-half, say, the upper half. The forces acing on it are:

(i) forces due to surface tension distributed along the circumference of the section.
(ii) outward thus on elementary areas of it due to excess pressure.

Obviously, both the types of forces are distributed. The first type of distributed forces combine into a force of
magnitude 2 r  T . To find the resultant of the other type of distributed forces, consider an elementary area S of
the surface. The outward thrust on S  pS where p is the excess of the pressure inside the bubble. If this thrust
makes an angle  with the vertical, then it is equivalent to Sp cos  along the vertical and Sp sin  along the
horizontal. The resolved component Sp sin  is infective as it is perpendicular to the resultant force due to surface
tension. The resolved component Sp cos  contributes to balancing the force due to surface tension.

The resultant outward thrust  Sp cos 

  pS cos 
 pS  where S   S cos  = area of the projection of S on the horizontal dividing plane
2 2
 p  r (S   r )
For equilibrium of the bubble we have
r 2 p  2r.T
2T
or, p …(iv)
r
If it is a soap bubble, the resultant force due to surface tension is 2r , 2T , because a bubble has two surfaces. Hence
for the equilibrium of a bubble we have
r 2 p  4rT
4T
or p ...(v)
r

Illustration 23. If a number of little droplets of water, all of the same radius r coalesce to form a single drop of
3T  1 1 
radius R , show that the rise in temperature of the water is given by.  -  where J is the
J r R
mechanical equivalent of heat, and T is the surface tension of water.
Solution: Let n be the number of droplets, each of radius r cm that coalesce to form a single drop of radius
R
 Decrease in the surface area  4 r 2 n  4R 2
Decrease in the surface energy  (4r 2 n  4 R 2 )T
4T
 Heat energy produced in the drop  (nr 2  R 2 )
J
Suppose the whole of heat energy is used to raise the temperature of the resultant drop by  ,
therefore,
4T
mS   (nr 2  R 2 )
J
where m is the of the drop having specific heat S .
4
m  R3  1 (density = 1 gm/cc) S  1 cal/gºC for water
3
4T 3 3T  nr 2 1 
  (nr 2  R 2 )    3   …(i)
J 4R3 J  R R
Since volume remains the same,
3
4 4 R
n r 3  R3 or n   
3 3 r
3T  R 3 r 2 1  3T  1 1 
Putting this value in (i), we have         
J  r 3 R3 R  J  r R 
3T  1 1 
Thus the rise in temperature is given by,     .
J r R
Capillary Action:
When a glass tube of very fine bore called a capillary tube is dipped in a liquid (like water), the liquid immediately
rises up into it due to the surface tension. This phenomenon of rise of a liquid in a narrow tube is known as
capillarity.
Suppose that a capillary tube of radius r is dipped vertically in a liquid. The Tl cos
liquid surface meets the wall of the tube at some inclination  called the angle
of contact. Due to surface tension a force, lT act on an element l of the Tl
circle of contact along which the liquid surface meets the solid surface and it is r
Tl sin
tangential to the liquid surface at inclination  to the wall of the tube. (The
liquid on the wall of the tube exerts this force. By the third law of motion, the h 
tube exerts the same force on the liquid in the opposite direction.) Resolving
this latter force along and perpendicular to the wall of the tube, we have
lT cos  along the tube vertically upward and lt sin  perpendicular to the
wall. The latter component is ineffective. It simple compresses the liquid
against the wall of the tube. The vertical component lT cos  pulls the liquid
up the tube.
The total vertical upward force = lT cos 
 T cos L  T cos 2 r ( l  2r )

Due to this upward pull liquid rises up in the capillary tube till it is balanced by the downward gravitational pull. If
h is the height of the liquid column in the tube up to the bottom, the gravitational pull, i.e., weight of the liquid
inside the tube is (r 2 h  V )g , where V is the volume of the liquid in meniscus.
For equilibrium of the liquid column in the tube
2rT cos   (r 2 h  V )g
If volume of the liquid in meniscus is negligible then,
2 rT cos   (r 2 h)g
2T cos 
h ….(vi)
r g
The small volume of the liquid above the horizontal plane through the lowest point of the meniscus can be calculated
if  is given or known. For pure water and glass   0º and hence the meniscus is hemispherical.
 V = volume of the cylinder of height r - volume of hemisphere.
1 4 3
 r 3  r
2 3
2 1
 r 3  r 3  r 3.
3 3
 For water and glass
 r 3 
2rT   r 2 h   g
 3 
 r
2T  r  h   g
 3
2T r
h 
r g 3

For a given liquid and solid at a given place as , T ,  and g are constant,

 hr  constant
i.e., lesser the radius of capillary greater will be the rise and vice-versa.
Illustration 24. Water rises to a height of 10 cm in a certain capillary tube. The level of mercury in the same
tube is depressed by 3.42 cm. Compare the surface tension of water and mercury for the contacts
angles zero and 135º respectively.
r h g
Solution: Using the capillarity relation, T 
2 cos 
 r  1  g  10
T1 (for water)   5 rg
2cos 
r  13.6  g  (3.42)
T2 (for mercury) =
2cos135º
= 32.9 rg
T1 5 rg 1
   0.15 .
T2 32.9 rg 6.5

VISCOSITY:
If water in a tube is whirled and then left to itself, the motion of the water stops after some time. This is a very
common observation. What stops the motion? There is no external force to stop it. A natural conclusion is, therefore,
that whenever there is relative motion between parts of a fluid, internal forces are set up in the fluid, which oppose
the relative motion between the parts in the same way as forces of friction operate when a block of wood is dragged
along the ground. To maintain relative motion between layers of a fluid an external force is needed.

“This property of a fluid by virtue of which it oppose the relative motion between its different layers is known
as viscosity and the force that is into play is called the viscous force”.

Consider the slow and steady flow of a fluid over a fixed horizontal surface. Let v be the velocity of a thin layer of
the fluid at a distance from the fixed solid surface. Then according to Newton, the viscous force acting tangentially
to the layer is proportional to the area of the layer and the velocity gradient at the layer. If F is the viscous force on
the layer, then
F  A where A is the area of the layer
dv

dx
The negative sign is put to account for the fact that the viscous force is opposite to the direction of motion.
dv
 F  A
dx
where  is a constant depending upon the nature of the liquid and is called the coefficient of viscosity and
dv
velocity gradient 
dx
dv
If A  1 and  1 , we have F  
dx
Thus the coefficient of viscosity of a liquid may be defined as the viscous force per unit area of the layer where
velocity gradient is unity.
The coefficient of viscosity has the dimension [ ML1T 1 ] and its unit is Newton second per square metre ( Nsm 2 ) or
kilograme per meter per second (kgm 1 s 1 ) . In CGS the unit of viscosity is poise.

Illustration 25. A metal plate 100 cm2 in area rests on a layer of castor oil ( η = 15.5 poise) 0.2 cm thick.
Calculate the horizontal force required to move the plate with a speed of 3 cm/s.

dv
Solution: F  A
dx
where   15.5 poise A  100 cm2
dv 3
  15s 1
dx 0.2
F  15.5  100  15  23250 dyne =- 0.233 N
So force required = 0.233 N

Poiseuille’s Equation:
When a liquid flows slowly and steadily through a capillary tube, the flow is streamline. the rate of this streamline
flow through the tube is given by an equation deduced by Poiseuille and is known as Poiseuille’s equation.
V=0

V= max

V=0

Consider a laminar flow through a horizontal round pipe of length

l as shown in figure. The equilibrium of cylinder of radius r dr
r
contained in a lamina of radius r  dr is considered, For
equilibrium, the net pressure force on cylindrical element due to
pressure difference ‘  ’ across its ends must equal to the shear
force on its periphery due to the presence of a cylindrical lamina l
over it.
l dv
Pr 2  (2r )
dr
0
P R
 v dv   2l r rdr
P
 v (R2  r 2 ) ….(viii)
4l

Total discharge through the pipe. ( m 3 / sec )

R R
 P  2 2 P  2 r 2 r 4  PR 4
Q   2r dr   (R  r )  R   
0  4l  2l  2 4 0 8l
PR 4
 Q …(ix)
8l
Equation (ix) can also be expressed as
P 8l
Q where Rt 
Rt R 4
Rt is known as fluid resistance.

Capillaries in Series and Parallel:

Capillaries in series: When two capillaries are connected in series across constant pressure difference P , then
8l 8l
Rt  R1  R2  41  42 …(x)
r1 r2
The volume of fluid flowing per second through both the tubes is the same i.e.,
P
Q  V1  V2  …(xi)
R1  R2
If P1 and P2 be the pressure differences across individual capillaries respectively,
P  P1  P2 …(xii)
Capillaries in parallel: When two capillaries are connected to parallel across constant pressure difference P , then
1 1 1
 
Rt R1 R2
R1 R2
or Rt  …(xiii)
R1  R2
The volume of fluid flowing through the first capillary
P
V1  …(xiv)
R1
Similarly, the volume of fluid flowing through second capillary
P
V2 
R2

Reynolds Number:
The stability of laminar flow is maintained by viscous forces. It is observed, however that laminar or steady flow is
disrupted if the rate of flow is large. Irregular, unsteady motion, turbulence, sets in at high flow rates.

Reynolds defined a dimensionless number whose value given one a approximate idea, whether the flow rate would
be turbulent. This number, called the Reynolds number Re is defined as,
vd
Re 

Where  the density of the fluid flowing with a speed v .The parameter d stand for the typical dimension of the
obstacle or boundary to fluid flow.

Illustration 26. The diameter of the tap is 1.25 cm and the flow rate through it is 5 × 10 -5 m 3 s -1 . Is the flow
turbulent? Given coefficient of viscosity of water is 10 -3 poise.
d 2
Solution: Volume of water flowing out per second is Q  vx
4
4Q
 v 2
d
Reynold’s number Re  4Q / d   5100
The flow will be turbulent.

Stoke’s Law:
When a solid moves through a viscous medium, its motion is opposed by a viscous force depending on the velocity
and shape and size of the body. The energy of the body is continually deceases in overcoming the viscous resistance
of the medium. This is why cars, aeroplanes etc. are shaped streamline to minimize the viscous resistance on them.

The viscous drag on a spherical body of radius r , moving with velocity v , in a

viscous medium of visocsity  is given by
Fviscous  6rv .
F  6rv
This relation is called Stokes’ law

Illustration 27. An air bubble of diameter 2 cm rises through a long cylindrical column of a viscous liquid, and
travels at 0.21 cms-1. If the density of the liquid is 1.47 g cm-1 find its coefficient of viscosity.
Ignore the density of the air.

Solution: Weight of the bubble is equal to the viscous force.

4 3 2r 2 g 
r g  6 rv or  …(i)
3 9v
Given r  10 2 m ;   1.47  103 kg/m3
v  0.21 102 m / s g  9.8 m / s 2
Substituting these values in (i) we have,
 2  (10 2 )2  1.47  103  9.8
  152.5 kgm1s 1 .
9  0.21  10 2

Terminal Velocity:
Let the body be driven by a constant force. In the beginning the viscous drag on the body is small because the
velocity is small and so the body is accelerated through the medium by the driving force with the increases of
velocity of the body the viscous drag on it will also increase and eventually when it becomes equal to the driving
force, the body will acquire a constant velocity. This velocity is called the terminal velocity of the body:
Consider the downward motion of a spherical body through a viscous medium such
as a ball falling through liquid. If r is the radius of the body,  the density of the
material of the body and  is the density of the liquid then, 3
B=4/3r g
4 3
the weight of the body  r g , downwards
3 F  6rv
4 3
and the buoyancy of the body  r g , upwards.
3 W=4/3r3g
4 3
The net downward driving force  r (  ) g .
3
If v is the terminal velocity of the body, then the viscous force on the body is F  6rv .For no acceleration of the
body we have
4 3 2 r 2 g (  )
6rv  r (  ) g or, v . …(xvi)
3 9 