COMMON GRAMMAR PROBLEMS AND SENTENCE ERRORS:

1. RUN-ON SENTENCES
A sentence consists of at least one independent clause—one subject and one verb e.g.
College costs are rising.

A run-on is an error that occurs when two sentences are joined incorrectly.

There are two kinds of run-ons: fused sentences and comma splices.

A fused sentence occurs when two sentences are joined without any punctuation.
FUSED SENTENCE [College costs are rising] [many students are worried].
A comma splice occurs when two sentences are joined with just a comma.
COMMA SPLICE [College costs are rising], [many students are worried].

Correcting Run-Ons

You can correct run-ons in five ways.

1. Use a period to create two separate sentences. College costs are rising.
Many students are worried.
2. Use a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, nor, for, so, or yet) to
connect ideas. College costs are rising, and many students are worried.
3. Use a semicolon to connect ideas. College costs are rising; many students
are worried.
4. Use a semicolon followed by a transitional word or phrase to connect
ideas. College costs are rising; as a result, many students are worried.
5. Use a dependent word (although, because, when, and so on) to connect
ideas. Because college costs are rising, many students are worried
Examples

1. Use a period to create two separate sentences. Be sure each sentence begins with a
capital letter and ends with a period.
Incorrect (FS). Gas prices are very high some people are buying hybrid cars.
Incorrect (CS). Gas prices are very high, some people are buying hybrid cars.
Correct. Gas prices are very high. Some people are buying hybrid cars. (two separate
sentences)
2. Use a coordinating conjunction to connect ideas. If you want to indicate a particular
relationship between ideas—for example, cause and effect or contrast—you can connect
two independent clauses with a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, nor, for, so, or

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yet) that makes this relationship clear. Always place a comma before the coordinating
conjunction.
Incorrect (FS). Some schools require students to wear uniforms other schools do not.
Incorrect (CS). Some schools require students to wear uniforms, other schools do not.
Correct. Some schools require students to wear uniforms, but other schools do not.
(clauses connected with the coordinating conjunction but, preceded by a comma)
3. Use a semicolon to connect ideas. If you want to indicate a particularly close
connection—or a strong contrast—between two ideas, use a semicolon.
Incorrect (FS). Most professional basketball players go to college most professional
baseball players do not.
Incorrect (CS). Most professional basketball players go to college, most professional
baseball players do not.
Correct. Most professional basketball players go to college; most professional baseball
players do not. (Clauses connected with a semicolon)
4. Use a semicolon followed by a transitional word or phrase to connect ideas. To
indicate a specific relationship between two closely related ideas, add a transitional word
or phrase after the semicolon.
Incorrect (FS). Finding a part-time job can be challenging sometimes it is even hard to
find an unpaid internship.
Incorrect (CS). Finding a part-time job can be challenging, sometimes it is even hard to
find an unpaid internship.
Correct. Finding a part-time job can be challenging; in fact, sometimes it is even hard to
find an unpaid internship. (Clauses connected with a semicolon followed by the
transitional phrase in fact)

Some Frequently Used Transitional Words and Phrases

• as a result, moreover, nevertheless, now

• Finally, still, therefore, thus, for example
• for instance, however, in addition,
• in fact, moreover, nevertheless, now, still
• therefore, thus
5. Use a dependent word to connect ideas. When one idea is dependent on another, you
can connect the two ideas by adding a dependent word, such as when, who, although,
or because
Incorrect (FS). Car insurance premiums were high in the previous years they declined in
recent years.

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Incorrect (CS). Car insurance premiums were high in the previous years, they declined in
recent years.
Correct. Although car insurance premiums were high in the previous years, they have
declined in recent years. (Clauses connected with the dependent word although)
Correct. Car insurance premiums, which were high in the previous years, have declined in
recent years. (Clauses connected with the dependent word which)

Some Frequently Used Dependent Words

• after, even though, eventually
• although, if, instead, since
• as, that, unless, until, because
• when, which, who
2. FRAGMENTS

A fragment is an incomplete idea that tries to stand alone as a sentence. Because fragments don’t
communicate a complete idea, they can be confusing. Even though we use sentence fragments all
the time in speaking, fragments are unacceptable in standard written English.

RECOGNISING FRAGMENTS

Every sentence must include at least one subject and one verb, and every sentence must
express a complete thought. If a group of words do not do all these things, it is a fragment
and not a sentence—even if it begins with a capital letter and ends with a period. The
following is a complete sentence.

The actors in the play were very talented. (The subject is actors and verb is were. The
sentence includes both a subject and a verb and expresses a complete thought)

Because a sentence must have both a subject and a verb and express a complete thought, the
following groups of words are not complete sentences; they are fragments.

Fragment (no verb) The actors in the play. (What point is being
made about the actors?)
Fragment (no subject) Were very talented. (Who were very talented?)
Fragment (no subject or verb) Very talented. (Who was very talented?)
Fragment (does not express a complete Because the actors in the play were very
thought) talented. (What happened because they were
very talented?)
Source: Kirsner et al, (2009). Writing First; Practice in Context, Fourth Edition, New York. Jersey:
Prentice Hall.

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There are five major types of fragments;

a) Missing-subject fragments
b) Dependent clause fragments
c) Phrase fragments
There are three types of phrase fragments;
i. -ing fragments
ii. To fragments
iii. Extra-information fragments
RECOGNISING AND CORRECTING MISSING-SUBJECT FRAGMENTS

Every sentence must include both a subject and a verb. If the subject is left out, the sentence
is incomplete. In the following example, the first word group is a sentence. It includes both
a subject (He) and a verb (packed). However, the second word group is a fragment. It
includes a verb (took) but no subject.

He packed his books and papers. And also took an umbrella.

One way to correct this kind of fragment is to attach it to the sentence that comes right
before it. This sentence often contains the missing subject.

CORRECT He packed his books and papers and also took an umbrella.

Another way to correct this kind of fragment is to add the missing subject.

CORRECT He packed his books and papers. He also took an umbrella.

RECOGNISING AND CORRECTING DEPENDENT CLAUSE FRAGMENTS

A dependent clause fragment is a dependent clause that is not attached to an independent clause.
These fragments are easy to recognise because they begin with a dependent word or term. The
dependent words are in bold print in the following dependent clause fragments.

Fragment: Even though people said the Nithi Bridge couldn’t be built. The engineer Michael
Mwaura knew he could do it.

Fragment: Building the Nithi Bridge involved a great commitment by the construction crews.
Because the work was so dangerous.

Fragment: After many people gave their lives to the bridge. It was finally built.

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The previous fragments contain a subject and a verb, so at first glance, they look like sentences.
However, the presence of a dependent word – even though, because, and after – turns each
statement into a dependent clause. (Try reading each dependent clause by itself, and you’ll hear that
it seems incomplete). Because each dependent clause lacks an independent clause, it is a fragment.

There are two ways of eliminating dependent word fragments.

1. Attach the fragment to another sentence

2. Turn the fragment into a complete sentence
Attaching the fragment to another sentence
The easiest way to correct a dependent word fragment is to attach it to another sentence. If a
dependent clause comes before an independent clause, you must separate the two clauses with a
comma.

Correct: Even though people said the Nithi Bridge couldn’t be built, the engineer Michael Mwaura
knew he could do it.

(The fragment has been attached to the sentence that follows it).

Correct: Building the Nithi Bridge involved a great commitment by the construction crews because
the work was dangerous.

(The fragment has been attached to the sentence that precedes it).

Correct: After many people gave their lives for the bridge, it was finally built.

(The fragment has been attached to the sentence that follows it).

Eliminating the dependent word

A second way to correct dependent clause fragments is this: eliminate the dependent word in the
dependent clause and let the clause stand alone as a complete sentence. In each of these sentences,
the fragment has been corrected by eliminating the dependent word. While eliminating the
dependent word is an effective way to correct fragments, it can make your writing choppy. Use this
technique sparingly.

1. People said the Nithi Bridge couldn’t be built. The engineer Michael Mwaura knew he could
do it.
2. Building the Nithi Bridge involved a great commitment by the construction crews. The work
was so dangerous.
3. Many people gave their lives for the bridge, it was finally built.
RECOGNISING AND CORRECTING PHRASE FRAGMENTS

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Phrase fragments are the most common type of fragments. Phrase fragments come in three major
forms.

1. –ing word fragments

2. To fragments
3. Extra-information fragments
Correcting -ing verb fragments

An –ing word fragment is a phrase that begins with the -ing form of a verb.

Fragment: Every year, thousands of tourists visit the Maasai Mara. Hoping to see a spectacle of the
wildebeest migration.

Notice that the phrase containing the -ing word does not make sense all by itself. There are two
ways to correct a fragment beginning with an -ing word.

1. Attach the -ing phrase to the sentence before it or after it, or build it into one of those
sentences
2. Turn the -ing phrase into a sentence
Attaching the -ing phrase to a sentence

An easy way to correct a phrase fragment is to attach it or build it into a nearby sentence. For
example, the fragment in the preceding example can be corrected as follows:

Correct: Every year, thousands of tourists visit the Maasai Mara hoping to see a spectacle of the
wildebeest migration.

(The fragment has been attached to the sentence that precedes it).

Correct: Every year, thousands of tourists hoping to see a spectacle of the wildebeest migration visit
the Maasai Mara.

(The fragment has been built into the sentence that precedes it).

Turning the -ing phrase into a sentence

The following passages contain-ing fragments. Rewrite each to eliminate the fragment. Answers will
vary.

1. Skyscrapers are buildings of great height. Being constructed on a steel skeleton.

Skyscrapers are buildings of great height. They are constructed on a steel skeleton.
2. Originating in the United States in the late 1800s. The skyscraper soon became a common
sight in large American cities.

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 Originating in the United States in the late 1800s, the skyscraper soon became a common
sight in large American cities.
3. Originally, the bottom floors of tall building had very thick walls. Holding up the higher
floors.
Originally, the bottom floors of tall building had very thick walls holding up the higher floors.
Correcting To fragments

To fragments, also called infinitive fragments, are easy to recognise. They begin with an
infinitive – the word to followed by a verb. Correct such a fragment by attaching it to the
sentence before or after it, just as you would do to correct an -ing fragment.

Fragment: A person must be very fit. To walk down the stairs of the Kenyatta International
Convection Centre.

Correct: A person must be very fit to walk down the stairs of the Kenyatta International
Convection Centre.

EXERCISE

Rewrite each of the following passages, correcting the to fragments.

1. The Eiffel Tower is a beautiful landmark. To see in Paris.

The Eiffel Tower is a beautiful landmark to see in Paris.
2. The Eiffel Tower continues. To inspire people through its beauty and strength. It
stands as a triumph in engineering.
The Eiffel Tower continues to inspire people through its beauty and strength. It
stands as a triumph in engineering.
RECOGNISING AND CORRECTING -ING FRAGMENTS

Every sentence must include a subject and a verb. If the verb is incomplete, a word group
is a fragment, not a sentence. An -ing verb cannot be a complete verb. It needs a helping
verb to complete it. An -ing verb, such as looking, cannot stand alone in a sentence without
a helping verb (is looking, was looking, were looking, and so on). When you use an -ing
verb without a helping verb, you create a fragment.

INCORRECT The twins are full of mischief. Always looking for trouble.

One way to correct an -ing fragment is to attach it to the sentence that comes right before
it.

CORRECT The twins are full of mischief, always looking for trouble.

Another way to correct an -ing fragment is to add a subject and a helping verb.

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CORRECT The twins are full of mischief. They are always looking for trouble.

RECOGNISING AND CORRECTING EXTRA-INFORMATION PHRASES

A third type of phrase sometimes ends up as a fragment. The extra-information phrase

contains details that contribute meaning to a subject covered in another sentence, usually
the previous sentence. See the following box for a list of words that often begin the extra-
information phrases.

A fragment that begins with the word including is an -ing fragment as well as extra-
information fragment. You can correct these two types of fragments in the same way, so
don’t worry about deciding which type of fragment an including fragment is.

The information provided in the fragment that follows is interesting and necessary for
specific communication. However, because these details appear in a fragment, the reader
will have difficulty understanding how they relate to the rest of the information provided.

Fragment: Many jobs are required to keep the Kenyatta International Convention C in
good shape. Including updating the elevators, cleaning, doing preventive maintenance,
washing windows, and adding high-speed Internet connections.

Two main strategies can correct extra-information fragments:

1. Attach the fragment to the sentence before it

2. Turn the fragment into a sentence by;
i. Adding a subject and a verb or
ii. Revising it so that it makes sense on its own
Attaching the fragment to the sentence before or after it

When attaching an extra-information fragment (such as the one in the preceding example)
to the previous sentence, remember to use a comma or semi-colon.

Words that often begin extra-information phrases

Also, especially, except, for example, for instance, for one, from, including, like, such as

Correct: Many jobs are required to keep the Kenyatta International Convention in good
shape, including updating the elevators, cleaning, doing preventive maintenance, washing
windows, and adding high-speed Internet connections.

(The fragment is attached to the previous sentence).

Turning the fragment into a sentence

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You can correct an extra-information fragment by turning it into a sentence on its own.
You can do this by;

i. Adding a subject and a verb to the fragment

ii. Revising the fragment to make it a sentence.
Fragment: Most people don’t realize how much work is in maintaining the Kenyatta
International Convection Centre. Especially how long it takes to wash all the windows.

Correct: Most people don’t realize how much work is in maintaining the Kenyatta
International Convection Centre. Especially surprising is how long it takes to wash all the
windows.

Correct: Most people don’t realize how much work is in maintaining the Kenyatta
International Convection Centre. Washing the windows, for instance, takes a long time.

3. ERRORS IN PARALLELISM

Clear, consistent writing requires parallel or balanced sentences. In parallelism, or parallel

structure, two or more related words or groups of words have the same structure. The
following sentences contain faulty parallel sentence structure;

Faulty parallelism:

1. Cookies come in many shapes, sizes and are of different flavours.

Shapes – noun, sizes – noun, and are of different flavours – verb phrase

(The first two items in the series are nouns, but the third – are of different flavours – is
not).

2. People enjoy eating cookies for snacks and when they want dessert.

(The first item in the series is a prepositional phrase, but the second is a clause).

Read the corrected, parallel versions of the same sentences

Revised: Cookies come in many shapes, sizes and flavours.

(The three items in the series are all plural nouns).

Revised: People enjoy eating cookies for snacks and for dessert.

(The two prepositional phrases for snacks and for dessert are parallel.

Parallel structure gives your writing consistency and strength. The repetition helps your
reader anticipate points in your writing.
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CORRECTING FAULTY PARALLELISM

The sentences below contain errors in parallelism. Rewrite each sentence using parallel
structure.

Faulty parallelism: Cookies resulted first from a test, then from an experiment and finally
someone made a decision.

Revised: Cookies resulted first from a test, then from an experiment, and finally from a
decision.

Faulty parallelism: Originally cooks wanted to test oven temperature, batter flavour, and
that the consistency of the batter was good.

Revised: Originally, cooks wanted to test oven temperature, batter flavour and batter
consistency.

WRITING PARALLEL SENTENCES

The sentences below are incomplete. Complete the sentences using parallel structure.

My favourite things about going to a Chinese restaurant are having great food, eating with
chopsticks, and getting fortune cookies.

Fortune cookies are usually light brown, crunchy and sweet.

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