Standard English Conventions

UNIT 1

Sentence Boundaries

LESSON 1

Fragments, Run-Ons,
and Comma Splices
Topic Overview

STANDARD ENGLISH
One common Standard English Conventions error occurs when a sentence is not really a sentence—
when it is instead a sentence fragment, a run-on sentence, or a comma splice. The SAT will not have

CONVENTIONS
many questions that focus exclusively on these errors; instead, fragments, run-ons, and comma
splices are more likely to appear as secondary errors in other questions involving sentence boundar-
ies. To correctly identify many sentence boundary issues, you must first be able to identify a sentence
fragment, a run-on sentence, or a comma splice.

Key Concepts

• Clauses are groups of words containing a subject and a verb.

• Independent clauses are clauses that express a complete thought; an independent clause is a
sentence.
• Dependent clauses are clauses that do not express a complete thought; dependent clauses
cannot be sentences.
• Fragments occur when a sentence is missing a subject or verb or fails to express a complete idea.
• Run-ons occur when two independent clauses are combined without the use of proper
punctuation or conjunctions.
• Comma splices are a particular type of run-on that occurs when two independent clauses
are joined only with a comma.

Identifying Independent and Dependent Clauses

It is much easier to identify fragments and run-ons if you can identify the clauses making up a sentence.

An independent clause is a group of words that can stand on its own as a sentence. Independent clauses
must include a subject and verb and must express a complete thought. Informational texts focus on

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providing factual information to the reader. These types of texts will include scientific facts, research data, or
other factual information as supporting details for the author’s main point(s).

Example A

I write.

I write stories.

I write stories about adventure.

The sentences in example A are all examples of independent clauses. Notice that even the shortest version—“I
write.”—meets the qualifications for an independent clause: it has a subject (“I”), it has a verb (“write”), and it
expresses a complete (albeit simple) idea. We can add additional words, such as objects or adjective phrases, and
as long as we continue to express a complete thought, the group of words will remain an independent clause.

A dependent clause is a group of words that cannot stand on its own as a sentence. Like independent clauses,
dependent clauses contain both a subject and a verb, but unlike independent clauses, dependent clauses don’t
express a complete thought. Dependent clauses depend on other clauses to complete the idea.

Example B

When I write.

Because I write stories.

Since I write stories about adventure.

Each of the clauses in example B is a dependent clause. They all contain subjects and verbs, but they do not express
a complete thought. What happens when I write? What happens because I write stories? What happens since I
write stories about adventure?

Dependent clauses often begin with dependent word markers, including when, because, and since in the examples
above. Other common examples include after, although, as, as if, before, if, in order to, though, unless, until, whenever,
whether, and while. Note that these are also subordinating conjunctions, which we’ll discuss in another lesson.

Most importantly, dependent clauses can never stand alone as a sentence; these are sentence fragments.

Sentence Fragments
Sentence fragments are missing one or more of the three key components of a sentence:

• A subject
• A verb
• A complete idea

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As we’ve already discussed, dependent clauses are always fragments because they fail to express a complete
idea. But although all dependent clauses are fragments, not all fragments are dependent clauses. Fragments also
include groups of words that are missing a subject or a verb.

Example A

When I write stories.

Example A is a dependent clause: it has a subject (“I”) and a verb (“write”) but does not express a complete idea.
We could fix this fragment by removing the word “when,” making the dependent clause an independent clause:
“I write stories.” We could also combine this dependent clause with an independent clause to complete the idea:
“I drink tea when I write stories.”

Example B

The story a little too long.

Example B not only fails to express a complete thought but also lacks a verb. To fix this fragment, we need to
complete the thought by adding a verb: “The story is a little too long.”

Example C

Was writing all night.

Example C once again fails to express a complete thought; it is also missing a subject! To fix this fragment, we
need to complete the thought by adding the subject: “I was writing all night.”

Example D

Writing and drinking tea all night.

Example D is missing everything! There is no subject, there is no verb (or, at best, an incomplete verb), and there
is no complete idea. To fix this fragment, we need to complete the thought by adding both a subject and a verb: “I
was writing and drinking tea all night.”

Run-Ons and Comma Splices

Now that we’ve talked about what happens when a sentence doesn’t have enough of the required components,
let’s look at errors that arise when a sentence has too many.

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Sentences are often made up of more than one clause, so they can frequently contain more than one subject or
verb. Violating the rules for combining clauses into sentences can result in run-ons and comma splices.

Let’s look at some basic rules for combining clauses:

• Combining clauses with punctuation: A colon or semicolon can be used to combine two independent
clauses. We address these specific punctuation marks in another lesson.
• Combining clauses with coordination: Two or more independent clauses can be combined using a comma
and a coordinating conjunction (FANBOYS). We address coordination in detail in another lesson.
• Combining clauses with subordination: Clauses can be combined using a subordinating conjunction
and (sometimes) a comma. We address subordination in detail in another lesson.

Violating these rules creates errors, including run-ons and comma splices.

Run-ons occur when independent clauses are combined in a single sentence without punctuation or conjunctions.

Example A

I was writing the teakettle interrupted me.

Example A is a run-on. Here we have two independent clauses: “I was writing” and “the teakettle interrupted
me.” The clauses are not joined using punctuation or a conjunction. We can solve this problem in several ways:

• Separation: “I was writing. The teakettle interrupted me.” We have now created two complete and
correct sentences.
• Coordination: “I was writing, but the teakettle interrupted me.” We have created a single sentence by
using a comma and a coordinating conjunction to join the two clauses.
• Subordination: “I was writing when the teakettle interrupted me.” We have created a single sentence
by using a subordinating conjunction to join the two clauses.

Note that one way that we cannot solve the problem is by merely separating the two clauses with a comma.

Example B

I was writing, the teakettle interrupted me.

Example B is a comma splice. A comma splice occurs when we use a comma without a conjunction to join two
independent clauses. We solve a comma splice the same way we solve other run-ons: by following the rules for
properly combining clauses using punctuation and/or conjunctions.

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Strategy
Follow these steps to tackle Fragments, Run-Ons, and Comma Splices questions:

1. Identify the question as a Sentence Boundaries question. Just as with other Standard English
Conventions questions, there will typically be a blank within the passage. You’ll know the question is
focused on sentence boundaries when the answer choices offer options for combining (or separating)
two independent clauses at this juncture.
2. Identify the most frequently occurring error by looking at the answer choices to see whether there is an
obvious pattern. Some questions may focus on punctuation, others may focus on conjunctions, and still
others may do both.
3. If the question includes both conjunction and punctuation errors, fix the most prominent error—the one
that occurs in most of the answer choices. Eliminate answer choices.
4. Reevaluate remaining answer choices with the other error in mind.
5. Reread the relevant portion with your chosen answer.

Now let’s practice putting these steps into action on some questions!

Examples
Directions: Take a look at the questions below. We’ve applied our sentence boundary strategy to correctly answer
the questions.

1. A steam engine uses the force produced by steam pressure to push a piston back and forth inside a __________
force can be transformed by a connecting rod and crank into rotational force for work.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) cylinder, this
B) cylinder. This
C) cylinder
D) cylinder,

Using the Strategy

Identify the type of The question specifically asks you to apply “the conventions of Standard
question. English,” so we know we need to look for a conventions error. If we read the
portion of the passage before and after the blank, we can see that the blank
appears at a place where two clauses or sentences might be combined. This
tells us that we’re dealing with a Sentence Boundaries error.

Identify the most frequently Most Sentence Boundaries errors will focus primarily on either punctuation or
occurring error. conjunctions, and the answer choices often give you a clue. In this case, the
answer choices focus on punctuation.

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Fix the most frequent error. Since we know we’re looking at a punctuation error, we’ll look at those
answer choices first. Choices A, B, and D all contain punctuation. Choices A
and D both create comma splices by using a comma without a conjunction.
Choice B seems not to introduce any errors, so we will keep it.

Reevaluate the remaining Choice C creates a run-on sentence by failing to use either punctuation or a
answer choices. conjunction to combine two independent clauses. We can eliminate choice C.
This leaves us with choice B as the correct answer.

Reread the relevant portion “A steam engine uses the force produced by steam pressure to push a piston
of the passage with your back and forth inside a cylinder. This force can be transformed by a connect-
chosen answer. ing rod and crank into rotational force for work.” Sounds good!

2. An elephant’s trunk has forty thousand muscles and weighs more than a Burmese python. It is strong enough
to uproot a __________ sensitive enough to suction up fragile tortilla chips.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) tree. However,
B) tree, yet it is
C) tree but it is
D) tree, it is

Using the Strategy

Identify the type of The question specifically asks you to apply the conventions of Standard
question. English, so we know we need to look for a conventions error. If we read the
portion of the passage before and after the blank, we can see that the blank
appears at a place where two clauses or sentences might be combined. This
tells us that we’re dealing with a Sentence Boundaries error.

Identify the most frequently Most Sentence Boundaries errors will focus primarily on either punctuation or
occurring error. conjunctions. In this case, the answer choices mostly focus on conjunctions.
Only choice D lacks a conjunction.

Fix the most frequent error. We’ll start by looking at the conjunctions to see whether we can eliminate
any answer choices based on incorrect punctuation use. We know we need
to illustrate a contrasting relationship because the two parts of the sentence
being joined focus on both strength and dexterity, which are opposites. All
the conjunctions in the answer choices meet that requirement, so we need
to look further. We can eliminate choice C because the coordinating con-
junction is not preceded by a comma. We can eliminate choice A because
it attempts to create two sentences, but the second sentence becomes a
fragment lacking both a subject and a verb.

Reevaluate the remaining We’re left with choices B and D. Choice D contains a punctuation error: it
answer choices. joins two independent clauses with just a comma, creating a comma splice.
Choice B is our best answer.

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Reread the relevant portion “It is strong enough to uproot a tree, yet it is sensitive enough to suction up
of the passage with your fragile tortilla chips.” Sounds good!
chosen answer.

Let’s Practice
The following five questions are modeled after the SAT. Ready to test what you’ve learned?

1. Scientists found that a seismic event recorded on Mars on Christmas Eve of 2021 was not a normal marsquake.
The seismic waves recorded by NASA’s InSight lander were not the cracking of rocks from the internal stresses
of the red __________ shock waves emanating from a space rock hitting Mars.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) planet. Instead
B) planet, and it was
C) planet. Instead, it was
D) planet, instead it was

2. Each fall, people in the United States and Canada turn their clocks back an hour, signaling the end of daylight
saving time. Polls show that most Americans dislike this twice-yearly time __________ may soon end
because the Senate has passed legislation making daylight saving time permanent.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) reset, and it
B) reset, it
C) reset it
D) reset

3. The human mouth is like a petri dish. In fact, more than seven hundred species of bacteria live inside our
mouths. Some are __________ others are harmful.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) helpful
B) helpful,
C) helpful, for
D) helpful, but

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4. Electrical charges are everywhere. Some animals have even developed ways to harness them. Honeybees, for
example, collect a positive charge as their wings rub against molecules in the __________ that charge to
attract negatively charged pollen.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) air. Using
B) air, they use
C) air, and they use
D) air, for they use

5. The World Health Organization has released a ranking of fungi that threaten human health in an ambitious
effort to draw attention to a constellation of pathogens that are largely overlooked. These fungi have become
increasingly widespread, resistant to treatment, and __________ 1.3 million people each year.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) deadly. Killing
B) deadly, they kill
C) deadly: they kill
D) deadly they kill

Practice Set 1

Directions: Read the passages below and answer the questions that follow.

1. Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, Robert Louis Stephenson’s macabre tale of good gone evil, was embraced early and often
by __________ screen versions owe more fealty to Richard Mansfield’s once-celebrated stage adaptation
than to the original novella.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) Hollywood, but most

B) Hollywood, so most
C) Hollywood since most
D) Hollywood, most

2. Horror movies were in play long before the advent of sound in __________ one of the earliest horror shorts
captured on film was “The House of the Devil,” filmed in 1896, in which Mephistopheles conjures bats, skele-
tons, and other ghouls using a magic cauldron.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) film
B) film,
C) film. For example,
D) film, for example,

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3. It would be impossible to discuss silent horror movies without mentioning the 1922 film Nosferatu. This adap-
tation of Bram Stoker’s Dracula stars Max __________ fitting role for a man whose name literally means
“fright” in German.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) Schreck, this is a
B) Schreck. This is a
C) Schreck. A
D) Schreck, and a

4. The 1931 adaptation of Dracula, starring Bela Lugosi, is a horror genre classic, in no small part because of Lugosi’s
outstanding performance. No one could doubt his dedication to the __________ was buried in a cape.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) role, when he died, and he

B) role. When he died, and he
C) role, when he died, he
D) role. When he died, he

5. The horror genre thrived in 1930s __________ viewers a brief escape from the real-world horrors of the
Great Depression.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) Hollywood. Offering
B) Hollywood, offering
C) Hollywood, and offering
D) Hollywood. By offering

6. By the 1940s, the well of terrifying Hollywood monsters had begun to run __________ filmmakers turned
to combining the frightening with the funny in a series of horror comedies. Abbott and Costello led the charge
with works like Abbott and Costello Meet Frankenstein in 1948.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) dry, for some

B) dry, so some
C) dry, some
D) dry some

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7. With the rise of television in the 1950s, filmmakers began flexing their creative muscles to keep audiences in
theaters. For example, viewers of 1959’s House on Haunted Hill were treated to a skeleton swooping over the
seats in time with the skeleton rising on the __________ The Tingler played in theaters, buzzers were placed
underneath seats to coincide with the film.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) screen when
B) screen, when
C) screen, and when
D) screen, but when

8. The horror films of the 1950s took inspiration from real-world fears of the Cold War, invasion, and nuclear
__________ featured mutated monsters, mad scientists, and denizens of the deep.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) weapons,
B) weapons they
C) weapons. They
D) weapons, they

9. The 1960s tapped into the horror of the mind. Known for his psychological __________ Hitchcock started
the decade with one of the most shocking films of all time, Psycho (1960).

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) thrillers, and Alfred

B) thrillers, Alfred
C) thrillers. Alfred
D) thrillers since Alfred

10. One of the staples of modern horror films was born of the independent film Night of the Living Dead (1968).
Although it never uses the word __________ film has served as a building block for the zombie subgenre in
the decades since.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) “zombie,” the
B) “zombie.” The
C) “zombie,” but the
D) “zombie” because the

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Practice Set 2

Directions: Read the passages below and answer the questions that follow.

1. The following text is from Florence Finch Kelly’s 1909 novel, Rhoda of the Underground. Charlotte is playing with
her cat, the Prince of Walesy, as she waits for her father and sister to return home on a steamboat.

She began to whistle softly, stopped, cast a backward glance at the open door, made a little grimace and struck
again into her tune, louder than before. Up the street, under the drooping white masses of locust bloom, came
a two-seated carriage. “Mother! They’re coming! They’re right here!” she called. Then with the kitten still in
her arm she scurried down the path between the walls of fragrant lilac, her crinolined skirt giving glimpses
of trimly slippered feet as it tilted from side to side. Unlatching the gate she stepped upon its lower cross-
piece and swung back upon it as far as it would go. “Father! Rhoda!” she called out joyously, and was herself
welcomed with “Well, Charlotte!” and a kiss by her father and a laughing embrace by her sister.

As used in the text, what does the word “scurried” most nearly mean?

A) Barreled
B) Scampered
C) Dawdled
D) Sauntered

2. Syria, which is located in the Middle East, has spent over a decade in a civil war that has led more than 6.8
million Syrians to flee the country. This civil war was part of a movement in the region known as Arab Spring,
which was a series of pro-democracy protests and uprisings starting in 2010 that challenged the authoritarian
religious regimes in the Middle East and North Africa. In March 2011, growing political and economic issues
largely caused by a drought in Syria boiled over into protests, which were met with a violent crackdown by the
government. Within months, leaders of the new government and the old government were locked in a power
struggle, which has led over 30 percent of the Syrian population to seek refuge elsewhere.

Which choice best states the function of the underlined sentence in the text as a whole?

A) It establishes that civil wars were occurring all over the Middle East and North Africa, not just Syria.
B) It demonstrates that Syria’s civil war was not a part of the Arab Spring movement.
C) It describes the various political and economic issues that were occurring in Syria at the time of the protests.
D) It introduces the sources of the protests in Syria and the government’s reaction to the protestors.

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3. Solar flares are described as powerful eruptions of electromagnetic radiation in the Sun’s atmosphere.
Scientists believe solar flares happen when built-up magnetic energy in the Sun’s atmosphere accelerates
charged particles in the neighboring plasma. This causes the emission of electromagnetic radiation into the
solar system. Scientists classify solar flares based on the brightness in the x-ray wavelengths. There are three
categories of flares: X, M, and C. X-class flares are the biggest and can trigger radio blackouts around the
whole world and persistent radiation storms in Earth’s upper atmosphere. M-class flares are medium-sized
and can result in brief radio blackouts at Earth’s polar regions. C-class flares are the smallest and have very
little impact here on Earth.

According to the text, what is true about the Sun’s solar flares?

A) The Sun’s solar flares release different amounts of electromagnetic radiation with varying levels of
impact on radio transmissions and atmospheric conditions on Earth.
B) X-class solar flares have less of an impact on radio transmissions and atmospheric conditions on Earth
than C-class solar flares do.
C) Scientists classify the Sun’s solar flares based on the amount of charged magnetic particles released
into space.
D) On the Sun, C-class solar flares are the most common type of solar flare, but the X-class are the most
dangerous type of solar flare.

4. Popular in Ethiopia to make dishes such as stew, cake, and pudding, teff is a type of grass that farmers have
grown for over six thousand years in East Africa. Every year, teff seeds, which have fiber, lysine, calcium, iron,
and other important nutrients, are harvested to feed millions of people and livestock around the world. This
grass is so versatile that it can grow in rainy and dry conditions thanks to its massive shallow root system.
When conditions are dry, the shallow roots can soak up moisture from rainfall before it dries up, and the fruit
can quickly be produced, which makes this grass incredibly drought-resistant. While growing teff is relatively
easy, harvesting the seeds is more difficult. Since teff is the smallest grain in the world, seeds are frequently lost
during the harvesting process. But once harvested, __________

Which choice most logically completes the text?

A) teff seeds are replanted to make the desert regions drought-resistant.

B) teff seeds are processed to add important nutrients, such as fiber, lysine, and calcium.
C) teff seeds are turned into flour and other food staples.
D) teff seeds are planted to produce a flower that can be eaten.

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5. South African artist and musician Gerard Sekoto is considered the pioneer of Black South African modernism.
Although he went to school to be a teacher, Sekoto won second prize in an art competition in 1938, which caused
him to change his mind and become a full-time artist. He moved to Johannesburg to make a name for himself
and settled in the vibrant multiracial community of Sophiatown. His paintings from this period use rich color
to capture the reality of living in the townships despite the harsh realities of life under apartheid (racial seg-
regation). Sekoto was so skilled at capturing the social realism of Sophiatown that he became the first Black
artist to sell a painting to a municipal gallery. By 1947, Sekoto was able to fulfill his lifelong dream of living in
__________ was his home until 1993 when he passed away.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) Paris, which
B) Paris it
C) Paris, but it
D) Paris, it

6. The following is from Eleanor Stuart’s 1895 novel, Stonepastures. Two residents of the Swedish town Soot
City, Emma Butte and August Jarlsen, are set to be married although the other city residents view them as an
unlikely pair.

But when Jarlsen took Emma Butte, in the face of the whole town, the men of his acquaintance marvelled
greatly. If he were the man whom Soot City loved, Emma was the woman who ruled it. She “had not the class”
that her lover had. Coming into the city as a child, she had learned the less rough speech of the town labor and
taken on herself the somewhat milder manners of the people she now saw. But she had never tried to make
a place among __________ with her father, plying her odd trade—she was a barber—and making her
oddest pennies in another way, as shall be presently set forth.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) them. Living
B) them; she lived
C) them she lived
D) them, she lived

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7. During World War I, many women raised money for the American Red Cross, a relief organization, with
quilt fundraisers. These fundraisers earned money for the cause in two ways. First, people paid to have their
names written or embroidered on the quilt. These quilts could have hundreds or thousands of names on
__________ once the quilt was finished, the volunteers auctioned or raffled it off to raise more money. A
popular magazine at the time, Modern Pricilla, even published a Red Cross quilt pattern in its December 1917
edition to encourage more women to help with the fundraising. These fundraisers were part of the American
Red Cross War Funds initiatives in June 1917 and May 1918 that brought in about $250 million for American
Red Cross relief efforts abroad.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) them then
B) them, then,
C) them but then,
D) them. Then,

8. Ellen Swallow Richards was an environmental chemist in the late nineteenth century. She was the first
woman to earn a degree in chemistry, having received her bachelor’s degree and master’s degree from Vassar
College in the __________ when she could not find an apprenticeship, she was told to apply to attend the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), which made her the first female accepted to MIT. In 1873, she
earned another bachelor’s degree from MIT but was denied the chance to earn an advanced degree since
she was a woman. Beyond her scientific research, Richards’s passion was educating women on the connec-
tions between science and their daily lives as housewives. She wanted women to know what they could do
to prevent disease and infections at home and how to cook nutritious meals, so she became a pioneer in the
home economics movement.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) 1870s, it was
B) 1870s but
C) 1870s. However,
D) 1870s: However,

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9. Rufino Tamayo is a mid-twentieth–century Mexican artist who helped bring international attention to
Mexican art. Following the Mexican Revolution, Tamayo began his career painting murals like his peers Diego
Rivera, David Alfaro Siqueiros, and Jose Clemente Orozco. While his peers painted political murals praising
the Mexican Revolution, Tamayo had a different vision focused on celebrating Mexican culture and heritage.
__________ in the 1930s, Tamayo moved to New York City following a disagreement with his fellow mural-
ists. In New York, he not only shifted to using canvas, but he also added cubist and surrealist elements into
his still-lifes and portraits of Mexican men and women, which honored his pre-Columbian Zapotec heritage.
Tamayo’s style concentrated on using a few vibrant colors inspired by Mexico’s natural environment, in addi-
tion to textured surfaces, to create dream-like images.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical transition?

A) Despite this,
B) Additionally,
C) Indeed,
D) Consequently,

10. While researching a topic, a student has taken the following notes:

• Mabel Ping-Hua Lee was featured in a 1912 New York Times article as the symbol of a new era for women
because she led ten thousand people in the New York suffrage parade.
• The same year, sixteen-year-old Lee was admitted to Barnard College, where she majored in history
and philosophy.
• By 1921, Lee became the first Chinese woman to get a PhD in economics.
• While women got the right to vote in 1921 with the passing of the Nineteenth Amendment, Chinese
women not born in the United States, like Lee, could not vote until the Chinese Exclusion Act was
repealed in 1943.
• Lee became the director of the First Baptist Church of New York City, where she opened a community
center with a health clinic, kindergarten, vocational training, and English classes to empower the
Chinese community.
• She passed away in New York in 1966 at the age of 70.

The student wants to highlight the reason Mabel Ping-Hua Lee did not receive suffrage when the
Nineteenth Amendment was passed. Which choice most effectively uses relevant information from the
notes to accomplish this goal?

A) Mabel Ping-Hua Lee did not receive suffrage when the Nineteenth Amendment was passed because she
was too young to vote at sixteen years old.
B) Mabel Ping-Hua Lee did not receive suffrage when the Nineteenth Amendment was passed because she
could not become a United States citizen until the Chinese Exclusion Act was repealed in 1943.
C) Mabel Ping-Hua Lee did not receive suffrage when the Nineteenth Amendment was passed because she
could not pass the literary test required to vote.
D) Mabel Ping-Hua Lee did not receive suffrage when the Nineteenth Amendment was passed because she
no longer lived in the United States when it was passed.

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Practice Set 3

Directions: Read the passages below and answer the questions that follow.

1. People throughout various African communities have been using a medicinal plant called African wormwood
for over two thousand years to cure a wide range of issues. When a person comes down with conditions like
diabetes, influenza, heart inflammation, or malaria, the leaves of the plant are used to brew a bitter tea that is
sweetened with honey or sugar. For __________ ailments like joint pain or earaches, a wormwood lotion
is the prescription. People even put the tips of fresh wormwood leaves into their nostrils to clear blocked nasal
passages or in their mouths for toothaches.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word or phrase?

A) psychological
B) physical
C) spiritual
D) life-threatening

2. Considered the birthplace of chocolate, Guatemala was home to the ancient Mayans, who worshipped the cacao
tree. Mayans used the cacao beans in a drink called Xoconochco, which they made bitter and spicy by adding
chilies and cornmeal to the cacao concoction. Today, around 250 thousand farmers grow around twelve thou-
sand metric tons of cacao in Guatemala every year, even though only a small percentage is exported. Many
assume that the concept of processing cacao beans into chocolate and other artisanal sweets was developed in
Guatemala, but that process actually came from Europe. Even though chocolate sweets have been increasing in
popularity in Guatemala, most Guatemalans still use the cacao beans to make the traditional chocolate drinks.

Which choice best states the function of the underlined sentence in the text as a whole?

A) It highlights the importance of farming in the production of food for Guatemala today.
B) It demonstrates how little importance the cacao tree has in Guatemala today, despite the global
popularity of chocolate products.
C) It highlights the greed of the Guatemalans for sharing so little of the cacao beans they grow with other
countries.
D) It creates a transition from discussing how the ancient Mayans used the cacao tree in the past to how
Guatemalans use the cacao tree today.

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3. The following text is from L.M. Montgomery’s 1926 novel, The Blue Castle. Mrs. Frederick and Cousin Stickles
may keep Valancy from attending Uncle Herbert and Aunt Alberta’s silver wedding after Valancy starts demon-
strating some odd behavior in the days before the event.

Valancy would not have cared in the least if they had left her at home. These family celebrations were all
hopelessly dull. But the Stirlings always celebrated everything. It was a long-established custom. Even Mrs.
Frederick gave a dinner party on her wedding anniversary and Cousin Stickles had friends in to supper on
her birthday. Valancy hated these entertainments because they had to pinch and save and contrive for weeks
afterwards to pay for them. But she wanted to go to the silver wedding. It would hurt Uncle Herbert’s feelings if
she stayed away, and she rather liked Uncle Herbert. Besides, she wanted to look over all her relatives from her
new angle. It would be an excellent place to make public her declaration of independence if occasion offered.

According to the text, what is true about Valancy’s hatred of family celebrations?

A) Valancy hates family celebrations because the events are boring to her and require the family to be extra
frugal to pay for them.
B) Valancy hates family celebrations because her family often requires that Valancy stay home alone.
C) Valency hates family celebrations because her family celebrates everything, including wedding
anniversaries, birthdays, and weddings.
D) Valancy hates family celebrations because her family does not honor her declaration of independence.

4. “Two Years Later” is an early 1900s poem by William Butler Yeats. In the poem, the speaker asserts that the wise
words of older people are too cruel for young people to hear: __________

Which choice most effectively uses a quotation from “Two Years Later” to illustrate the claim?

A) “Has no one said those daring / Kind eyes should be more learn’d?”
B) “Or warned you how despairing / The moths are when they are burned?”
C) “Suffer as your mother suffered / Be as broken in the end.”
D) “But I am old and you are young / And I speak a barbarous tongue.”

5. The Cree are one of the largest indigenous peoples in North America. In Cree culture, drumming is considered a
sacred activity. One of the rituals that utilizes drums is the round dance. The round dance legend is the tale of a
woman who lived with her mother all her life. When the mother died, the daughter was stricken with so much
grief that her mother’s spirit could not rest until she calmed her daughter’s anguish. The mother appeared to
her daughter and taught her how to do the round __________ all the Cree people and ancestors could gather,
give each other support and love, and work through their grief.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) dance, but
B) dance: however
C) dance,
D) dance so

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 Fragments, Run- Ons, and Comma Splices

6. In the 1950s, artist and designer Jean Ray Laury began quilting as a means to express herself creatively and
promote women’s rights. In the 1960s and 1970s, her quilts focused on feminist concerns, including body image,
housework, and more. One of her most famous quilts is called Barefoot & Pregnant. Each of the nine squares of
the quilt includes part of a speech given by an Arkansas state senator. The senator said, “I’ll tell you what we do
up here in Perry County when one of our women starts poking around in something she doesn’t know anything
about. We get her an extra milk __________ don’t work, we give her a little more garden to tend. And if that’s
not enough, we get her pregnant and keep her barefoot.” She paired his words with humorous cartoons to send a
poignant message. In 1999, this quilt made it into the book The Twentieth Century’s Best American Quilts.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) cow, if that
B) cow. If that
C) cow; and if that
D) cow if that

7. There are three main parts of the brain: the cerebrum, the cerebellum, and the brain stem. The cerebrum
handles thinking and voluntary movements. The cerebellum controls balance, movement, and coordination.
Lastly, the brain stem regulates the involuntary activities in our bodies, such as pumping blood, digesting food,
and breathing __________ they each have their own jobs, the three parts of the brain constantly work in
tandem in order to allow humans to complete complex tasks.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) air even though

B) air: Even though
C) air. Even though
D) air, even though

8. In fifteenth-century Europe, the violin’s predecessor, the lira da braccio, was a bowed string instrument that
was played under the chin—da braccio means “on the arm” in __________ instrument had a wider finger-
board and flatter bridge than the modern-day violin, making it simple to play chords.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) Italian. This
B) Italian—this
C) Italian: This
D) Italian this

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9. The following text is from Arthur Scott Bailey’s 1921 novel, The Tale of the Muley Cow. When his favorite cow, old
Muley, wanders into the pasture, Jonnie Green and his dog, Spot, go to find her.

It was the first time Johnnie Green had known the Muley Cow to jump the fence back into the pasture after
jumping out of it. Before, she had always made him let down the bars for her, quite as if she had never done
such a giddy thing as to leap over a fence. __________ however, she was in too great a hurry to bother with
bars. So she topped the fence like a deer, while Johnnie slipped through it like a pig a few seconds later, and old
Spot wriggled under it like a weasel soon afterward.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical transition?

A) Periodically,
B) Now,
C) As long as,
D) Rarely,

10. While researching a topic, a student has taken the following notes:

• Lea Salonga, a Filipino actress and singer, was the first Asian to play the role of Eponine in the musical
Les Misérables on Broadway.
• Her voice is also well known as she was the singing voice for Princess Jasmine in Aladdin and Fa Mulan
in Mulan.
• Over her forty-year career, she has been part of thirty-seven stage productions and twenty films and
has performed for six Philippine presidents, three American presidents, and two British royals.
• Despite Salonga’s success, her story is not the norm for New York stage actors of Asian descent.
• According to the Asian American Performers Action Coalition (AAPAC), only 6 percent of all Broadway
roles in the 2018–2019 Broadway season were played by Asian American actors.
• The AAPAC was created to help ensure more Asian actors get the chance to perform on the stages in
New York City.

The student wants to demonstrate that Lea Salonga is a great example of the AAPAC’s mission. Which
choice most effectively uses relevant information from the notes to accomplish this goal?

A) The Asian American Performers Action Coalition’s mission is to ensure more Filipino actors, like Lea
Salonga, get the opportunity to perform on the stages of New York City.
B) The Asian American Performers Action Coalition’s mission is focused on monitoring the Broadway actor
demographics on a yearly basis and reporting the roles held by Asian American actors.
C) The Asian American Performers Action Coalition’s mission is to encourage more Asian Americans
and Asian immigrants to become film actors so they can become successful like Filipino actress Lea
Salonga, who has starred in twenty films in her forty-year career.
D) The Asian American Performers Action Coalition’s mission is to assist Asian actors to gain more roles
on the New York City stage so that they can become successful like Filipino actress Lea Salonga, who has
starred in thirty-seven stage productions in her forty-year career.

Sentence Boundaries: Fragments, Run-Ons, and Comma Splices 23

 Fragments, Run- Ons, and Comma Splices

Practice Set 4

Directions: To practice your pacing, aim to complete this set in 12 minutes.

1. Cosmology is the study of the origin and development of the __________ one of its most famous theories is
the big bang theory. Although there is no direct evidence for it, many scientists do not question the fact that the
universe began as a very dense, hot ball of energy.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) universe,
B) universe, and
C) universe. Although
D) universe:

2. In the summer of 2012, Masovic calculated that he and his colleagues at the Bosnian government’s Missing
Persons Institute had found more than seven hundred mass graves, containing the remains of nearly twen-
ty-five thousand people. Of all the atrocities committed in Bosnia between 1992 and 1995, the one that compels
Masovic the most is Srebenica, which has come to symbolize the Bosnian War’s unspeakable brutality and the
international community’s colossal failure in confronting it.

As used in the text, what does the word “colossal” most nearly mean?

A) Immense
B) Miraculous
C) Tragic
D) Titanic

3. I remember the first time the term liu si—meaning June 4, which is how the Tiananmen protests, the wide-
spread 1989 demonstrations that ended in bloodshed, are referred to in __________ up in conversation with
my peers. On the twentieth anniversary of the crackdown, a friend turned to me and asked what liu si was all
about. Twenty-five years after the massacre, the topic remains taboo here.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) China; it came
B) China came
C) China, came
D) China—came

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4. A quadrat is a way of marking off square areas within a habitat, __________ placed on the ground. After
setting the quadrats, researchers then count the number of individuals that lie within their boundaries. Multiple
quadrat samples are performed throughout the habitat at several random locations.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) either by staking out an area with sticks and string; or by the use of a wood, plastic, or metal square,
which is
B) either by staking out an area with sticks and string or by the use of a wood, plastic, or metal square
C) which is done by staking out an area with sticks and string or else by using a square made of wood,
plastic, or metal that is
D) either by staking out an area, with sticks and string, or with a square, made of wood, plastic, or metal,

5. Concepts of animal population dynamics can be applied to human population growth. Humans are not unique
in their ability to alter their environment. __________ beaver dams alter the stream environment where
they are built. Humans, however, have the ability to alter their environment to increase its carrying capacity,
sometimes to the detriment of other species (e.g., via artificial selection for crops that have a higher yield).

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) For example,
B) In addition,
C) Therefore,
D) Nevertheless,

6. The increased prosperity of the 1920s gave many Americans more disposable income to spend on entertain-
ment. As the popularity of “moving pictures” grew in the early part of the decade, “movie palaces” capable of
seating thousands sprang up in major cities. A ticket for a double feature and a live show cost twenty-five cents;
for a quarter, Americans could escape from their problems and lose themselves in another era or world. People
of all ages attended the movies with far more regularity than today, often going more than once per week. By
the end of the decade, __________

Which choice most logically completes the text?

A) people grew tired of watching the same movies over and over.
B) movie palaces shut down as parents complained that their children were learning bad behaviors from
the actors and actresses on screen.
C) restaurants, shopping malls, and other businesses suffered severely as moving pictures grew in popularity.
D) weekly movie attendance swelled to 90 million people.

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 Fragments, Run- Ons, and Comma Splices

7. Because of the limited supply of water, especially in the western United States, states disperse a system of legal
water rights defined as a claim to a portion or all of a water source, such as a spring, stream, well, or lake.
Federal law mandates that states control water rights, with the special exception of federally reserved water
rights, such as those associated with national parks and Native American tribes, and navigation servitude that
maintains navigable water bodies. Each state in the United States has a different way of dispersing and man-
aging water rights.

Which choice best states the main purpose of the text?

A) To describe the different kinds of water sources that can be found in the United States
B) To highlight the issue of state governments not managing their water resources efficiently
C) To explain how the federal and state governments regulate control over water rights in the United States
D) To maintain that the United States federal government should prevent state laws from controlling who
can have access to natural bodies of water

8. Jackie Robinson, the first black player to play in the major leagues, took the field for the Brooklyn Dodgers in
1947, __________ twelve years until every major league team had at least one black player.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) but it took
B) it took
C) it took him
D) but, it took

9. Alfred Wegener (1880–1930) was a German scientist who specialized in meteorology and climatology. His
penchant for questioning accepted ideas started in 1910 when he disagreed with the explanation that the
Bering Land Bridge was formed by isostasy and that similar land bridges once connected the continents. After
reviewing the scientific literature, he published a hypothesis stating the continents were originally connected
__________ While he did not have the precise mechanism worked out, his hypothesis was backed up by a
long list of evidence.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) and then drifted apart.

B) than drifted apart.
C) and would have drifted apart.
D) and then have drifted apart.

10. A scientist named Magdy Iskander has invented a new type of __________ he believes will prompt signif-
icant and positive changes for patients suffering from heart failure and other related conditions. It attaches to
the skin of the chest and uses a novel radio frequency (RF) sensor to detect small changes in lung water and
monitor vital signs such as heart rate, respiration rate, and stroke volume.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) stethoscope,
B) stethoscope that,
C) stethoscope that
D) Stethoscope. That

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 Fragments, Run- Ons, and Comma Splices

Practice Set 5

Directions: To practice your pacing, aim to complete this set in 12 minutes.

1. An experiment found that exposure to different types of fictional villains affected attitudes about justice: People
who viewed shows, like Game of Thrones, featuring antiheroes overwhelmingly said that they felt that the
justice system was broken. It may seem odd to believe that entertainment shapes our __________ a great
volume of research has already examined the effects of entertainment on other behaviors, such as violence or
the development of unhealthy habits.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) politics; however,
B) politics—
C) politics, since
D) politics, while

2. American football finds its roots in rugby football, in which two teams vie for possession of a __________
then attempt to kick or carry into an opponent’s goal zone. In the late 1800s, American football began to become
a popular collegiate sport. Eventually the Intercollegiate Football Association was created.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) ball. That they

B) ball; that they
C) ball that they
D) ball that, they

3. When developing personalized treatments, researchers must work to identify the problem at the molecular
level, __________ with this mutation to participate in the clinical trial. To learn which patients would
benefit from a particular drug therapy, doctors use companion diagnostics, which are medical devices that help
doctors decide which treatments to offer patients and which dosages to give.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) to develop a medicine that targets that specific problem, and identifying patients
B) developing a medicine that targets that specific problem, and identify patients
C) develop a medicine that targets that specific problem, and to identify patients
D) develop a medicine that targets that specific problem, and identify patients

4. During his first administration, Woodrow Wilson enacted a sweeping raft of progressive __________ The
New Freedom. The New Freedom continued the anti-trust and anti-monopoly policies of Theodore Roosevelt;
in some ways, Wilson took these policies considerably further.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) legislation it was called

B) legislation called
C) legislation; called
D) legislation, it was called

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 Fragments, Run- Ons, and Comma Splices

5. The following text is from H. G. Wells’s 1895 novel, The Time Machine.

I think that at that time none of us quite believed in the Time Machine. The fact is, the Time Traveller was
one of those men who are too clever to be believed: you never felt that you saw all round him; you always
suspected some subtle reserve, some ingenuity in ambush, behind his lucid frankness. Had Filby shown the
model and explained the matter in the Time Traveller’s words, we should have shown him far less skepticism.
For we should have perceived his motives: a pork-butcher could understand Filby. But the Time Traveller had
more than a touch of whim among his elements, and we distrusted him.

Which choice best states the function of the underlined sentence in the text as a whole?

A) It contrasts Filby’s intelligence with that of farm animals.

B) It describes the line of work that Filby is in.
C) It makes an analogy to describe the simple nature of Filby.
D) It implies that Filby is not deemed trustworthy by the other characters.

6. Your past experiences with computers, cell phones, and other electronic devices represent your conscious
choice to connect with a global community. __________ you may post on social media sites where you
receive instant feedback from around the world in the form of reposts or likes. Through these interactions, you
are empowered to influence people more than at any other point in history. With applications that instantly
translate into many languages, even language has become less of a barrier to your potential audience and thus
to your potential influence.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical transition?

A) For example,
B) Admittedly,
C) Yet,
D) Still,

7. Natural gas is a fossil fuel that develops in deposits deep within the earth. Drilling companies often collect it
through a technique known as fracking. Straight from the ground, natural gas will be mostly methane (CH4),
along with a mix of other hydrocarbons and gases. Before it’s piped to homes and businesses, gas companies
will remove most of the non-methane gases. Since methane has no odor, gas companies add a strongly scented
__________ to alert people to possible leaks of this explosive gas.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) chemical, it smells like rotten eggs,

B) chemical, which smells like rotten eggs
C) chemical (it smells like rotten eggs)
D) chemical—which smells like rotten eggs

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8. The following text is from Jules Verne’s 1870 novel, Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Seas.

Three seconds after reading the letter of the honourable Secretary of Marine, I felt that my true vocation,
the sole end of my life, was to chase this disturbing monster, and purge it from the world. But I had just
returned from a fatiguing journey, weary and longing for repose. I aspired to nothing more than again seeing
my country, my friends, my little lodging by the Jardin des Plantes, my dear and precious collections. But
nothing could keep me back! I forgot all—fatigue, friends and collections—and accepted without hesitation
the offer of the American Government.

Based on the text, why does the speaker accept the offer?

A) They are eager to return home.

B) They long to go on a journey.
C) They dream of living in America.
D) They feel called to fulfill their goal.

9. A dinosaur refers to a specific type of land creature that roamed the earth during the Triassic, Jurassic, and
Cretaceous __________ children use the term more loosely, including pterodactyls and some marine
animals as well.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) periods most
B) periods; most
C) periods, most
D) periods: most

10. Though labeled as an atheist and considered an innovator, __________ He believed in a well-ordered society
where rules and guidance come from the very top (the emperor or “the heavens,” as it may be). Scholars today
identify Confucianism as a form of virtue ethics because it is an approach to ethics that focuses on personal
virtue or character.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) there are those who consider Confucius to have been culturally conservative.
B) Confucius was in other ways culturally conservative.
C) records show other areas in which Confucius may have been culturally conservative.
D) Confucius is now culturally conservative.

Sentence Boundaries: Fragments, Run-Ons, and Comma Splices 29

 Coordination

LESSON 2

Coordination
Topic Overview
Coordination is a concept that falls under the Standards of English Conventions domain. Coordination defines
how conjunctions and punctuation should be used to connect two complete sentences, clauses, words, or other
parts of speech that include similar or corresponding ideas. Coordination questions will appear in the last
quarter of the questions asked on each module.

Key Concepts

• Coordination defines how conjunctions and punctuation should be used to connect two complete
sentences that include similar or corresponding ideas.
• Coordinating conjunctions, also known by the acronym FANBOYS, include the conjunctions for, and,
nor, but, or, yet, and so.

Identify and Use Coordinating Conjunctions

Coordination

When you read a newspaper article or novel, does the writer use the same sentence structure over and over again?
Unlikely!

Why? Skilled writers know they must utilize many different sentence structures in their work to reduce reader
boredom, better emphasize their message, and improve the reading flow and rhythm. Coordination is one way to
accomplish this goal. The practice of coordinating sentences is useful when you have two independent clauses with
similar or interconnected ideas that would be more impactful in a passage if the connection between the ideas was
highlighted. Within a sentence, you can also create coordination between two words or other parts of speech.

Now that we know why writers use coordination, let’s discuss how you would use coordinating conjunctions and
punctuation to create coordination between and within sentences.

Coordinating Conjunctions

There are seven conjunctions that can be used when creating coordination; these are also known by the acronym
FANBOYS. These conjunctions can be used to create relationships between two or more sentences, main inde-
pendent clauses, words, or other parts of speech. In the table below, you will find the intended purpose of each
coordinating conjunction and an example of how each coordinating conjunction is used to combine sentences.

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 Coordination

Coordinating
conjunction Purpose Example

For Indicates effect and then My boyfriend gave me a present, for he wanted to
cause remind me how much he loves me.

And Joins two or more items The engaged couple called the cake decorator, and
without specifying a rela- the cake decorator set them up for an appointment.
tionship between them

Nor Adds to a previously nega- He does not like to eat breakfast, nor does he like to
tive statement wake up before noon.

But Highlights a relationship I can go to the party, but I must be home by 11:00
contradiction or an p.m.
exception

Or Indicates alternative My favorite team must play well enough to be one of

options the top six teams to go to the playoffs, or they will not
get the chance to advance to the next league.

Yet Indicates that the second I told you the consequences of breaking the rules,
statement happened in yet you chose to break the rules anyway.
spite of the prior statement.

So Indicates cause and then My dad played in the band in middle school, so he
effect encouraged me to do the same.

Most of the questions you will answer on the SAT involving coordination will ask you to determine which coor-
dinating conjunction and corresponding punctuation is appropriate in the context of a particular sentence.
Since some of the intended purposes of the coordinating conjunctions overlap, sometimes there may be multiple
options that would work to connect two sentences. Thus, you will need to identify the author’s intended connec-
tion between the two items that are being coordinated. Take a look at the example below, and think about which
coordinating conjunction(s) would match an intended purpose for connecting these two sentences.

Example A

The police were called, __________ the caller did not provide an address for the emergency

For example A, let’s look at our options. “For” and “so” are intended for cause-and-effect relationships, but
neither event in sentences 1 or 2 caused the other to happen.

Next, let’s eliminate “nor.” Given that the first sentence is not a negative statement, using “nor” would not make
sense because you are not adding an additional negative statement. We can also eliminate “or” because the sen-
tences do not offer alternative options.

That leaves “and,” “but,” or “yet.” “And” might not be technically wrong, but it does not most closely match the
relationship that is intended to be highlighted.

Sentence Boundaries: Coordination 31

 Coordination

“But” and “yet” could both work in this case. In the example, it could be said that “the caller did not provide
an address for the emergency” contradicts or happens in spite of the first statement, “The police were called.”
However, if both of those words were answer options, what would you do?

This brings us to the other requirement of using a coordinating conjunction between two complete sentences:
punctuation.

When you are coordinating two complete sentences, you must include a comma following the last word of the
first sentence (prior to the coordinating conjunction). Since the comma is a requirement between coordinated
sentences, some questions may add complexity by leaving out the punctuation in some answer options.

Example B

The police were __________ the caller did not provide an address for the emergency.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) called, but
B) called; and
C) called yet
D) called, so

As you can see, these answer options require you to pick the correct answer based not just on the coordinating
conjunction but also on the punctuation. In this example, answer choice A is correct because it uses one of the
appropriate coordinating conjunctions we identified earlier (“but”) and the required preceding punctuation of
a comma.

Please note that the comma and coordinating conjunction connect two complete (independent) sentences. It is
not a coordination error if one of the clauses is dependent.

Example C

Since she goes to school, and she is smart.

In example C, “since she goes to school” is a dependent clause, meaning it is not a complete sentence, so although
this example does need editing (by removing either the coordinating conjunction “and” or the subordinating
conjunction “since”), it does not represent a pure coordination error.

Coordination Within a Sentence

As mentioned before, be aware that you will also see coordinating conjunctions combining other elements within
a sentence. The only difference in these cases is that the coordinating conjunctions will not have the same punc-
tuation requirements. Let’s briefly look at an example of coordination within a sentence that may be challenging.
Check out example D.

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 Coordination

Example D

The police and parents discussed possible punishments for the boys but did not come to a decision.

In example E, coordinating conjunctions are used to create both a compound subject (“The police and parents”)
and also a compound predicate (“discussed possible punishments for the boys but did not come to a decision”).
However, no comma is required before the coordinating conjunctions this time.

Why not? A comma is only required before a coordinating conjunction if the coordinating conjunction is com-
bining two independent clauses. Occasionally, commas will come before some coordinating conjunctions in a
sentence if they are being used within a series of items or if they are part of a nonessential phrase.

Strategy
Follow these steps for answering Coordination questions on the SAT:

1. Identify the question as a Coordination question. Like other Standard English Conventions questions,
there will be a blank within the passage, and the question will ask, “Which choice completes the text
so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?” Coordination questions will either expect
you to choose the correct coordinating conjunction and punctuation to connect two complete sentences,
clauses, words, or other parts of speech or ask you to choose the correct phrase to ensure coordination
in the sentence.
2. Read the text that appears before and after the blank.
• Determine which parts of the sentence or which sentences are being coordinated.
• If you are asked to select the clause before or after a coordinating conjunction, ensure the clause you
choose is an independent clause (a complete sentence).

3. Look at the answer choices to check for any obvious mistakes that do not follow the appropriate rules for
coordination.
4. Reevaluate the remaining answer choices to determine if one of the remaining answers is intended to
confuse or trick you.
5. Reread the text with your chosen answer in place to check that it all makes sense together.

Now let’s practice putting these steps into action on some questions!

Sentence Boundaries: Coordination 33

 Coordination

Examples
Directions: Take a look at the questions below. We’ve applied our coordination strategy to correctly answer the
questions.

1. The following text is from H.G. Wells’s 1898 novel, The War of the Worlds.

The secular cooling that must someday overtake our planet has already gone far indeed with our neighbor. Its
physical condition is still largely a __________ we know now that even in its equatorial region the midday
temperature barely approaches that of our coldest winter.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) mystery but
B) mystery, but
C) mystery, and
D) mystery and

Using the Strategy

Identify the question as a This question requires you to determine which answer choice correctly
Coordination question. coordinates the two independent sentences around the blank. Notice the
coordinating words used in some of the answer options.

Read the text that appears You are determining which coordinating conjunction and punctuation is most
before and after the blank appropriate to create coordination between the two sentences in the blank.
to check for which items
are being coordinated to
ensure they are connected
appropriately.

Look at the answer choices Given that the two clauses are complete, we can eliminate answer choices A
to check for any obvious and D since they don’t include punctuation.
mistakes that do not follow
the appropriate rules for
coordination.

Reevaluate the remaining Now we need to determine which coordinating conjunction makes the most
answer choices to deter- ideal connection between the sentences. The first sentence, “Its physical
mine if one of the remaining condition is still largely a mystery,” indicates that humans do not know much
answers is intended to about this other planet. The second sentence provides a contradiction that
confuse you. we do know at least one thing (“we know now that even in its equatorial region
the midday temperature barely approaches that of our coldest winter”). So
answer choice B is correct.

Reread the text with your “Its physical condition is still largely a mystery, but we know now that even in
chosen answer in place its equatorial region the midday temperature barely approaches that of our
to check that it all makes coldest winter.”
sense together.

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2. In 1789, assisted by Thomas Jefferson, the French aristocrat Marquis de Lafayette drafted the Declaration of
the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, which stated the divine rights of the citizens of France, __________
Lafayette’s actions helped to spread the ideals of representative government throughout Europe.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) but resulted in the National Assembly of France’s recognition of the principles of freedom, equality of
rights, and equitable distribution of taxation.
B) yet resulted in the National Assembly of France’s recognition of the principles of freedom, equality of
rights, and equitable distribution of taxation.
C) for the National Assembly of France used these rights as the basis to sanction the principles of freedom,
equality of rights, and equitable distribution of taxation for all French citizens.
D) and the National Assembly of France used these rights as the basis to sanction the principles of freedom,
equality of rights, and equitable distribution of taxation for all French citizens.

Using the Strategy

Identify the question as a This question requires you to determine which answer choice correctly
Coordination question. coordinates the first sentence before the blank with the second sentence
provided in the answer choices.

Read the text that appears You are determining which coordinating conjunction and second sentence
before and after the blank are most appropriate to create coordination between the two ideas. Note
to check for which items that each answer choice option begins with a FANBOYS word, and there is
are being coordinated to already a comma placed right before our answer choices begin.
ensure they are connected
appropriately.

Look at the answer choices In answer choices A and B, the second clause provided is not a complete
to check for any obvious sentence. Therefore, we can eliminate both options since picking either
mistakes that do not follow answer would create a coordination error.
the appropriate rules for
coordination.

Reevaluate the remaining Now we need to decide between the conjunctions “for” (option C) and
answer choices to deter- “and” (option D) to combine the two sentences. Since “for” is intended to
mine if one of the remaining be structured with the effect sentence before the cause sentence, option C
answers is intended to would create a coordination error since the cause sentence would precede
confuse you. the effect sentence. Thus, “and” (option D) is the correct answer.

Reread the text with your “In 1789, with the assistance of Thomas Jefferson, the French aristocrat
chosen answer in place Marquis de Lafayette drafted the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the
to check that it all makes Citizen, and the National Assembly of France used these rights as the basis to
sense together. sanction the principles of freedom, equality of rights, and equitable distribu-
tion of taxation for all French citizens.”

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 Coordination

Let’s Practice
The following five questions are modeled after the SAT. Ready to test what you’ve learned?

1. Did you know that the leaders of the Allied Powers met at a four-day conference in 1943 to discuss Iran? The
Tehran Conference was the first conference of the “Big Three” Allied leaders (Winston Churchill, Joseph Stalin,
and Franklin D. Roosevelt). Although each of the leaders had a distinct goal for the conference, the foremost
outcome was the Western Allies’ decision to open a second front to fight Nazi Germany, __________ Other
conference topics included the Big Three Allies’ relationship guidelines with Turkey and Iran, the operations in
Yugoslavia and against Japan, and the envisaged postwar agreement.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) and that the Big Three pledged to recognize Iranian independence.

B) but that the Big Three pledged to recognize Iranian independence.
C) and the secondary outcome was that the Big Three pledged to recognize Iranian independence.
D) yet the secondary outcome was that the Big Three pledged to recognize Iranian independence.

2. A traditional Korean house is called a hanok. Prior to the twentieth century, all aspects of the hanok—its loca-
tion in proximity to the natural environment, construction requirements, and design aesthetic—were intended
to bring positive energy into the home. The more elaborate houses had specialized living quarters for each type
of __________ included walls with gates to separate each section. The sarang’chae was intended for the
head of the household, and the an’chae was for the lady of the household and her children. Servants resided in
the haengnang’chae.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) resident and
B) resident, and
C) resident, but
D) resident but

3. Before the twentieth century, West African kings and members of their courts commissioned unique stools for
use during formal events. The practice was rooted in the cultural belief that the soul of the stool owner would
stay in the stools after their __________ the stools, which were treated similarly to modern-day urns, were
often stored in a special place of honor.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) death, so
B) death, yet
C) death but
D) death nor

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4. In the summer of 1863, while the Civil War was waging, New York City exploded into chaos. For four days,
a rabble of angry citizens set out to protest the first military draft, __________ the mob looted stores;
assaulted police, soldiers, and some civilians; and set homes and businesses ablaze. This uprising was caused
by the first federal draft in U.S. history. By this time, the initial fervor for the Civil War had diminished, causing
the Union army to struggle to meet recruitment needs. Hence, President Lincoln declared a draft that would
begin in New York City on Saturday, July 11, 1863. This declaration said all men aged twenty to thirty-five, plus
all unmarried men aged thirty-five to forty-five, who were selected at random were legally bound to serve in
the military, unless they could afford a three-hundred-dollar exemption fee.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) nor
B) yet
C) so
D) and

5. Intense angles, flattened forms, ornate colors, __________ distorted views are distinguishing charac-
teristics of expressionism. Even though expressionism was considered an international movement of art,
architecture, literature, and performance that occurred from 1905 to 1920, this movement was most popular
in Germany and Austria. Why? Expressionists began migrating to cities with the growth of industry in Europe.
In these cities, expressionist artists could form societies, share their studios, show their work together, and
publish their work and writing. There was strength in numbers!

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) but
B) or
C) and
D) nor

Practice Set 1

Directions: Read the passages below and answer the questions that follow.

1. Which of the following statements about coordinating conjunctions is incorrect?

A) These conjunctions can be used to create relationships between two or more sentences, main clauses,
words, or other parts of speech.
B) A comma and a coordinating conjunction are both used when connecting an independent clause to
dependent clause.
C) There are seven conjunctions that can be used when creating coordination; These are also known by the
acronym FANBOYS
D) There are two coordinating conjunctions that can be used to establish a cause and effect relationship:
“for” and “so.”

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 Coordination

2. Which of the following sentences contains a coordination error?

A) The mother and her son came to the show but did not stay long.
B) Monet, Dega, and Michelangelo are all famous artists that lived at different periods of time.
C) Simon and Garfunkel were a 1960s singing duo, but my parents never liked their music.
D) Inspiring a generation, yet being a bad boy is not cool.

3. Which of the following is the purpose of using the coordinating conjunction “but”?

A) Indicate cause and effect

B) Add to a previously negative statement
C) Highlight a relationship contradiction or an exception
D) Indicate that the second statement happened in spite of the prior statement

4. Which of the following is not a coordinating conjunction?

A) For
B) But
C) Since
D) Yet

5. Which of the following sentences includes an example of coordination within a sentence?

A) My father does not like dogs but does like cats.

B) The dog is fast, but the cat is faster.
C) I have to feed my animals daily, or they will become malnourished.
D) We learned my sister is allergic to cats, so we have to find a new home for our cat.

6. Some Australians are burning __________ not for the reason you might think. As world temperatures
have increased, about a quarter of Australians have quickly embraced the use of solar panels to collect energy
from the sun. However, construction of apartments and townhomes are quickly creating problems. With
more high-rise buildings casting shades on solar panels for much of the day, more households want the gov-
ernment to intervene.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) mad, but
B) mad but
C) mad, nor
D) mad nor

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7. In 1872, based on the ballot results, Democratic presidential candidate Horace Greeley was set to lose the elec-
tion by a significant margin of electoral college votes (66 vs. 286) to incumbent Ulysses S. Grant. In a shocking
turn of events, Greeley passed away before the electors could actually cast their votes. Although federal law says
electors are not obligated to vote for a candidate if that candidate dies or becomes incapacitated, three Georgia
electors still cast their ballots for __________ their votes were invalidated because it is impossible to serve
as president if you are not alive.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) Greeley, or
B) Greeley or
C) Greeley, yet
D) Greeley yet

8. In underground mines, scientists are experimenting with a technology that was considered futuristic in the
movie __________ could be made a reality that will transform how mining companies handle dangerous,
dark caves. Imagine fully autonomous drones that would fly without a human controlling them into caves too
hazardous for human miners. Once in the cave, a rotating laser on the drone will create a detailed three-dimen-
sional map, which will help keep miners safe and allow them to excavate more gold.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) The Incredibles but

B) The Incredibles, but
C) The Incredibles nor
D) The Incredibles or

9. In 1886, long before diamond painting became a popular hobby, Georges-Pierre Seurat used his knowledge of
optical theory to develop a painting technique known as pointillism. This type of painting uses small dots of
color to create form, __________ In his first work using pointillism, Evening, Honfleur, Seurat flawlessly
applied at minimum 25 colors to the form of thousands of dots carefully placed on the canvas.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) for causing the impression of magical shimmering.

B) yet causing the impression of magical shimmering.
C) for even though they are dots, they can both coalesce into shapes and remain separate particles, causing
the impression of magical shimmering.
D) nor even though they are dots, they can both coalesce into shapes and remain separate particles,
causing the impression of magical shimmering.

Sentence Boundaries: Coordination 39

 Coordination

10. Born in Massachusetts in 1820, Susan B. Anthony was a ground-breaking champion for the women’s suffrage
movement in the United States __________ Her hard work paved the way for the Nineteenth Amendment
to the Constitution in 1920, which gave women the right to vote.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) but president of the National American Woman Suffrage Association for 8 years.
B) and president of the National American Woman Suffrage Association for 8 years.
C) but she served as the president of the National American Woman Suffrage Association for 8 years.
D) and she served as the president of the National American Woman Suffrage Association for 8 years.

Practice Set 2

Directions: Read the passages below and answer the questions that follow.

1. The Impressionist movement in the 19th century has been characterized by its interest in capturing changing
quality of light as well as depiction of ordinary subjects. Among the most universal of these images dissemi-
nated by Impressionist painters __________ the ballet dancers of Edgar Degas.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) is
B) are
C) was
D) were

2. In March of 1766, after much debate in the English Parliament, King George III signed a bill repealing the
wildly unpopular Stamp Act. The English did not want to seem as if they had given into the colonists’ demands,
__________ they also passed the Declaratory Act, which stated that the British government had total power
to legislate the American colonies.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) because
B) so
C) and
D) but

3. Pablo Picasso’s Blue Period is so named due to both the somber nature of the paintings Picasso produced during
this time as well as __________ predominately blue and green color palettes, only occasionally relieved
with the warmth of colors.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) its
B) his
C) their
D) it’s

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4. Our knowledge of Homo neanderthalensis, the extinct human species commonly known as the Neanderthals,
is in constant flux. Because archaeological and genetic evidence must be available, we can only make certain
claims confidently regarding their interaction with modern Homo sapiens. We know from the archaeological
record that Neanderthals and modern humans lived together in Europe for at least 5,000 years, __________
there is little evidence of cultural interaction. However, as technology has advanced, genomic evidence has
become available to suggest that Neanderthals and modern humans do indeed share enough genes to demon-
strate that interbreeding must have occurred.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) yet
B) and
C) however
D) nor

5. When Teddy Roosevelt launched the Bull Moose Party, it was bad news for the Republican vote. Roosevelt was
popular and known for his firm trust busting and regulatory policies. When his more radical reforms were
blocked by his enemies in Congress, he formed a new party, splitting the vote and __________ Democrat
Woodrow Wilson to win the White House.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) allowed
B) allows
C) allowing
D) to allow

6. Propaganda during World War II invoked a sense of cultural superiority for Americans of European descent over
Japanese people. Such images were pervasive, and they depicted Japanese people as weak, cowardly, and ani-
mal-like. __________ Disney picked up on the trend during a 1944 short film “Commando Duck,” in which
Donald Duck airdrops into the battlefield, and the Japanese are depicted as mockable, overly polite caricatures.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) Even
B) Yet
C) Also
D) However

7. Rather than taking a hands-off approach to the Great Depression, as his predecessor Herbert Hoover had,
American President Franklin Delano Roosevelt (FDR) initiated a program known as the New Deal. In addition to
these economic policies, he attempted to restore public confidence through a series of weekly radio addresses
called “fireside chats,” __________ actions like these made FDR one of America’s most popular presidents.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) but
B) for
C) and
D) yet

Sentence Boundaries: Coordination 41

 Coordination

8. The concept of the multiverse is inherent in Hindu cosmology. In the Bhagavad Gita, Lord Krishna briefly offers
his disciple Arjun a __________ of multiple cosmic creations. A multiverse contains 14 lokas (worlds), which
can be seen along the body of Krishna.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word or phrase?

A) sermon
B) lesson
C) text
D) glimpse

9. Often, people participate in what is called “sunk-cost fallacy,” assuming that it would be beneficial to continue
with an action due to the amount of time and/or effort put into the course of action. Such choices consider
neither the possibility that abandoning the choice might be beneficial __________ that continuing the
course of action is likely to only waste more time and resources.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) or
B) and
C) but
D) nor

10. A dinosaur refers to a specific type of land creature that roamed the Earth during the Triassic, Jurassic, and
Cretaceous Periods __________ children use the term more loosely, including pterodactyls and some
marine animals as well.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) ; most
B) , most
C) , while most
D) ; but most

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Practice Set 3

Directions: Read the passages below and answer the questions that follow.

1. In the 1600s, Europe was dominated by Catholicism, which influenced the people’s perspectives considerably.
When coffee was introduced around this time, it is said, many pressed for the beverage to be banned as “Satan’s
Drink.” However, it gained papal approval when Pope Clement VIII tasted it and __________ blessed the
bean, declaring it too good to only let “infidels” partake in it.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word or phrase?

A) officiously
B) meticulously
C) disparagingly
D) allegedly

2. The water around Hawaii and the people who fish in it are at odds with each other. The area’s coral reefs depend
on tropical fish to eat algae that would otherwise overtake the __________ the beautiful marine creatures
so that they can sell them to pet stores. If the collectors take too many fish, the coral reefs can lose their beauty
and eventually die from the overgrowth of algae.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) coral but fish collectors take

B) coral, but fish collectors take
C) coral, so fish collectors take
D) coral; therefore, fish collectors take

3. Vaccines in general work by providing the human body the opportunity to develop a partial immunity to a spe-
cific virus. However, since certain viruses, such as influenza, by nature are constantly changing, doctors must
try to create new vaccines regularly to “match” the currently circulating viral strain, which __________
will then administer at appropriate intervals.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) doctors
B) viruses
C) it
D) they

4. Although the rise of the novel is widely considered to have occurred in the 19th century, this was only in the
Western world. The Tale of Genji, the story of a deposed son of the emperor, was written by Murasaki Shikibu
sometime before 1021. It was widely influential during the Heian period and became a classic of Japanese
__________ not fully translated into modern Japanese until the early 20th century.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) literature, so was
B) literature but was
C) literature, and it was
D) literature nor was it

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 Coordination

5. Some of the best subway systems in the world are in the Eastern Hemisphere. The Seoul Metropolitan System
is considered by many to be the longest system by __________ it is, however, operated by multiple carriers.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) length,
B) length, but
C) length;
D) length, so

6. Recent political historians have suggested that “stochastic terrorism” may well describe certain historical acts
of violence against vulnerable groups. Despite the relative recency of the term, stochastic terrorism describes
seemingly “random” acts of terrorism inspired by the use of mass public communication to cohere negative
sentiment against a person or group; such actions could enable a retroactive analysis of the WW2 propaganda
that turned people against Japanese Americans or the moral panic of the 1940s and 50s that normalized perse-
cution and violence against sexual and gender minorities. As a result, __________

Which choice most logically completes the text?

A) vulnerable groups should find ways to be more cautious when rhetoric against them begins to rise on
social media.
B) we can analyze history through this lens to consider the similarities between these kinds of events and
understand them more deeply.
C) we can assume these events have no connection apart from a group of bad actors intending specific
targeting of the object of their bigotry.
D) we can learn important rhetorical strategies that will enable us to most effectively convey our message
to a wide range of people.

7. In Greek mythology, the Chimera was part lion, part she-goat, and part serpent. The fire-breathing monster
terrorized the residents of Lycia, who could neither kill the beast __________ escape it.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) nor could they

B) and they couldn’t
C) nor
D) but couldn’t

8. In the 19th and 20th centuries, miners used birds to determine when underground gases reached dangerous
__________ are much more susceptible than humans to poisoning from carbon monoxide. The birds pro-
vided an early-warning system.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) levels, for birds

B) levels, but birds
C) levels, and birds
D) levels, so birds

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9. The creation of our modern understanding of dinosaurs is the work of paleoartists, who draw images of
dinosaurs and other paleolithic creatures. However, since they base their renderings on the findings of pale-
ontologists, namely fossils, pictures of dinosaurs tend to lack certain features: soft tissues such as pouches
or lips and accurate coverings of hair and potentially feathers. __________ experts say that paleoartists
sometimes exaggerate the size of the heads and claws, which may be a result of enthusiasm for fierce dinosaurs
as a concept more than sufficient data.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical transition?

A) Moreover,
B) Therefore,
C) As a result,
D) However,

10. Researchers have long been fascinated with video games and their impact on behavior; however, with the rise
of neuroscience, scientists can more precisely test changes in the brain. Cognition and attention have most
consistently improved with the use of video games, but current researchers __________ how role-playing
games may help recovery in cases of traumatic brain injury, due to their reliance on executive functioning,
memory, and general cognition.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) began testing
B) had begun testing
C) would begin testing
D) have begun testing

Practice Set 4

Directions: To practice your pacing, aim to complete this set in 12 minutes.

1. In 1907, the Model N, a $600 dollar car produced by the Ford Motor Company, was the most popular automobile
in the United States. A year later, the Model T or “Tin Lizzie” was released. The model T was easier to drive,
but still affordable at $950. In fact, the Model T became so popular so quickly that the company had to put new
orders on hiatus temporarily. To solve these production issues, the Ford Motor Company opened a massive new
factory in Highland Park, Michigan, just north of Detroit in 1910.

As used in the text, what does the word “hiatus” most nearly mean?

A) Hesitation
B) Pause
C) Closure
D) Lull

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 Coordination

2. The following text is from Robert Sheckley’s 1952 short story “Final Examination.”

Just as I was passing Mary-Belle’s Frocks, and wondering how soon they’d have their summer line in, I heard
it. It was a pleasant voice, friendly. It seemed to come from just behind me, about three feet over my shoulder.

“Judgment of the inhabitants of the planet Earth,” it said, “will be held in five days. Please prepare yourselves
for final examination and departure. This announcement will be repeated.”

I looked around at once to find out who was speaking. I half-expected to find a tall, cadaverous fanatic at
my shoulder, some fiery-eyed fellow with flowing hair and a beard. But there was no one at all. The nearest
person was about fifteen feet from me. For a moment I thought I was having a hallucination, hearing voices,
that sort of thing. Then I saw that everyone else must have heard it, too.

Which choice best describes the function of the eighth sentence in the overall structure of the text?

A) It establishes the problem of the story: an unknown entity announces that judgement of Earth
inhabitants will occur in five days.
B) It conveys the main character’s internal thought process as he is processing what he just experienced.
C) It depicts the excitement that the voice of the alien entity induced in the people who heard it that day.
D) It continues the imagery of the unknown alien entity being peaceful and friendly.

3. The following text is from Margaret Wandercook’s 1921 novel The Ranch Girls and the Silver Arrow.

“Via, you are more apt to be weary than Eda! You do look a little used up, child! Suppose we sit down and rest
a while when we come to the edge of the enchanted lake we saw ahead of us a few moments ago. Although it
has disappeared, I am sure we shall discover it again as soon as we pass on the other side of this cliff,” Jeanette
remarked. She and Via were especially devoted to each other. Via—or Olivia, to give her her full name—did
appear more frail than her sisters. She had fair hair and dark eyes and a gentle manner.

Which choice best describes the function of the sixth sentence in the overall structure of the text?

A) It introduces Olivia as a character in the story.

B) It establishes the relationship between two of the sisters: Jeanette and Olivia.
C) It explains why Jeanette expressed concern for Eda’s well-being during their hike.
D) It illustrates an aspect of Olivia’s appearance that impacts how others view her.

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4. The following text is from “The Sky-Scraper,” a 1900 short story published in The Nerve of Foley and Other
Railroad Stories by Frank H. Spearman.

Very likely you know that a new engine must be regularly broken, as a horse is broken, before it is ready for
steady hard work. And as Georgie McNeal was not very strong yet, he was appointed to do the breaking. For
two months it was a picnic. Light runs and easy lay-overs. After the smash at the Narrows, Hamilton had sort
of taken the kid engineer under his wing; and it was pretty generally understood that any one who elbowed
Georgie McNeal must reckon with his doughty old fireman. So the two used to march up and down the street
together, as much like chums as a very young engineer and a very old fireman possibly could be. They talked
together, walked together, and ate together.

Which choice best states the main purpose of the text?

A) It establishes the difficulties that come from working on a new railroad engine.
B) It contrasts the vastly different working habits of McNeal and Hamilton.
C) It illustrates how the mentor relationship was built between Hamilton and McNeal.
D) It conveys the message that hard work is easy when you are working with a friend.

5. The U.S. government’s World War II propaganda character “Rosie the Riveter” was inspired by real munitions
__________ everything else about her was fictional. While Rosie may not be “real,” the campaign featuring
her was one of the most successful recruitment tools in American history.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) workers but
B) workers, but
C) workers; so
D) workers, so

6. On July 25, 1974, Barbara Jordan, U.S. Representative from Texas’ 18th District, gave a 15-minute opening state-
ment at the House Judiciary Committee’s impeachment hearing for Richard Nixon. Her statement, which focused
on defending the U.S. Constitution, led to Nixon’s decision to resign from the presidency __________ gained
Jordan national acclaim.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) and
B) but
C) nor
D) for

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 Coordination

7. The Pyramid of the Sun and the Pyramid of the Moon were built in Teotihuacan, the first advanced civilization
on the North American continent, which existed from 100 BCE to 700 CE in central Mexico. Considered two
of the most architecturally significant pyramids constructed in the pre-Columbian Americas, these amazing
structures have a base similar in size to the Egyptian __________ they rise to only half the height.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) pyramids, yet
B) pyramids: yet
C) pyramids so
D) pyramids, so

8. The Hawaiian monk seal is one of the most endangered species of seal in the world. It is estimated that there are
only around 1,200 Hawaiian monk seals left in the wild, __________ the people of Hawaii are working to
protect these creatures by cleaning up contaminants and preventing people from hunting them.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) nor
B) yet
C) so
D) for

9. The following text is from Lewis Carroll’s 1871 novel Through the Looking-Glass and What Alice Found There.

It certainly was a very large Gnat: “about the size of a chicken,” Alice thought. __________ she couldn’t
feel nervous with it, after they had been talking together so long.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical transition?

A) Before,
B) Also,
C) Similarly,
D) Still,

10. As part of a recent study, researchers reviewed the scientific literature regarding the social organization of over
900 mammal species. __________ they categorized the species into three groups: solitary, pair-living, and
group-living. They determined that group-living mammals tended to live roughly 10 years longer on average
than solitary mammal species.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical transition?

A) However,
B) Then,
C) Previously,
D) Furthermore,

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Practice Set 5

Directions: To practice your pacing, aim to complete this set in 12 minutes.

1. The following text is from Jane Austen’s 1818 novel Persuasion.

She had, while a very young girl, as soon as she had known him to be, in the event of her having no brother, the
future baronet, meant to marry him, and her father had always meant that she should. He had not been known
to them as a boy; but soon after Lady Elliot’s death, Sir Walter had sought the acquaintance, and though his
overtures had not been met with any warmth, he had persevered in seeking it, making allowance for the
modest drawing-back of youth; and, in one of their spring excursions to London, when Elizabeth was in her
first bloom, Mr Elliot had been forced into the introduction.

As used in the text, what does the word “persevered” most nearly mean?

A) Ceased
B) Persisted
C) Agonized
D) Tolerated

TEXT 1
Circadian rhythms, 24-hour cycles that regulate sleep and other functions, like appetite and mood, are necessary for
humans. To maintain these rhythms, the human body synchronizes with the natural light-darkness cycles of the Sun.
Circadian misalignment, which occurs in Daylight Saving Time, can compound “sleep debt,” which refers to the effects
of long-term sleep loss on brain and body functioning.

TEXT 2
Humans have natural circadian rhythms that impact many processes in the bodies. Since Daylight Saving Time
essentially shifts an hour of light to the morning, 12 PM no longer represents the time when the sun is at its highest
point. While this might not seem problematic, research by neurologist Beth Malow and her colleagues has linked
major health concerns, such as an increased risk for heart attacks and death from stroke, to the transition to Daylight
Saving Time.

2. Based on the texts, how would neurologist Beth Malow and her colleagues (Text 2) most likely characterize
the conclusion presented in Text 1?

A) As puzzling because the human body should be able to synchronize to a new light-darkness cycle after
transitioning to Daylight Saving Time
B) As problematic because the shift in time due to Daylight Saving Time is too minimal to cause Circadian
misalignment
C) As credible because her research findings are consistent with the health concerns associated with
Circadian misalignment
D) As deceptive because they do not take into account other factors that may contribute to sleep debt

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3. Although Dutch painter Johannes Vermeer is now recognized worldwide for his artistic talents, he was not
known outside his hometown until the 19th century. In his lifetime, Vermeer produced fewer than 50 paint-
ings, of which 34 have survived. In modern times, he is most revered for his almost photo-like attention to
detail, created by his clever use of pigments to represent light. Vermeer’s famous 1665 painting, Girl with a Pearl
Earring, is a prime example of the realism Vermeer could create through his adept painting techniques.

Which choice best states the main idea of the text?

A) Although Vermeer was a talented artist, he did not produce as many works of art as other renowned
painters due to his focus on creating photo-like works.
B) Despite modern appreciation for his adept painting techniques, Vermeer did not gain international
recognition for his paintings until the 19th century.
C) The lack of international recognition for Vermeer’s artistic talents during his lifetime is the reason few
of his works survived.
D) Vermeer was not a prolific painter, but his skillful use of paint pigments to create photo-like works of
art gained him great recognition from the art community.

4. During the 16th and 17th centuries, many smallpox epidemics spread throughout North America. While the
Native Americans and newly arrived European settlers were both vulnerable to infection as the smallpox
spread, scientists estimate that the vast majority—up to 90 percent—of the disease fatalities occurred in Native
American communities. Given the modern understanding that mortality rates due to disease infection decrease
as a population builds immunity through repeated exposure, the mortality estimates for these smallpox epi-
demics strongly suggest that __________

Which choice most logically completes the text?

A) Native Americans were frequently exposed to smallpox prior to the arrival of the European settlers.
B) Native Americans had a higher level of immunity to smallpox than did the European settlers.
C) European settlers had experienced limited exposure to smallpox prior to arriving in North America.
D) European settlers had a higher level of immunity to smallpox than did the Native Americans.

5. Photography is often considered an objective medium that simply documents and preserves moments in
__________ the choices of the photographer, including which subjects are included, what background is
used, and what post-development editing is necessary, create biases that actually express his or her specific
point of view.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) time but
B) time, but
C) time:
D) time,

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6. The following text is from Kate Chopin’s 1899 novel The Awakening.

Mrs. Pontellier’s eyes were quick and bright; they were a yellowish brown, about the color of her hair. She had
a way of turning them swiftly upon an __________ holding them there as if lost in some inward maze of
contemplation or thought.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) object and
B) object, and
C) object nor
D) object, nor

7. Many modern historians consider the Ancient Egyptians to be experts in desert agriculture, __________
their irrigation technology made it possible for them to cultivate crops even during the dry months when crop
growth is typically more difficult.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) yet
B) but
C) nor
D) for

8. Scientists initially thought that the single-celled alga Emiliania huxleyi had a symbiotic relationship with a
strain of Roseobacter __________ they discovered upon further research that the Emiliania huxleyi ulti-
mately backstabs its bacterial host by eating it when it is no longer useful as a partner.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) bacteria:
B) bacteria, but
C) bacteria—which
D) bacteria, so

9. The following text is from Charles Dicken’s 1850 novel David Copperfield.

Let me do myself justice, however. I was moved by no interested or selfish motive, __________ was I
moved by fear of him. I admired and loved him, and his approval was return enough. It was so precious to me
that I look back on these trifles, now, with an aching heart.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) nor
B) for
C) yet
D) and

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10. A significant amount of Islamic art, ranging from dishware to buildings, is decorated with Arabic calligraphy.
While most Islamic calligraphy is written in the Arabic language, other languages are sometimes used. The
Persian or the Ottoman Turkish languages are two such non-Arabic languages. __________ Islamic callig-
raphy and Arabic calligraphy are not synonymous.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical transition?

A) Additionally,
B) Hence,
C) For instance,
D) As a result,

LESSON 3

Subordination
Topic Overview
Subordination is one means of combining clauses to form sentences. Many sentence boundaries questions on
the SAT will include subordination, either as an error or as a possible solution to an error. Questions involv-
ing subordination will appear between about halfway and three-quarters of the way through the Reading and
Writing modules as part of the Standard English Conventions portion of the test.

Key Concepts

• The word subordinate means to treat as less valuable or important. When we use subordination, we
make one clause less important to the sentence than another clause.
• The subordinate clause that occurs when we add a subordinating conjunction is no longer an
independent clause: it becomes a dependent clause instead.
• There are many subordinating conjunctions to choose from. It is important to identify the
conjunction that expresses the most accurate relationship between clauses.
• When a subordinating clause comes before an independent clause, use a comma. When a subordinating
clause comes after an independent clause, do not use punctuation.

Identifying and Using Subordinating Conjunctions

There are many different subordinating conjunctions. They are used to show detailed relationships, and it is
important to pay attention to these nuanced relationships when determining an appropriate conjunction. This
table shows some of the most commonly used subordinating conjunctions and the relationships they indicate.

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Cause Compare
Time Place and effect Condition and contrast

when where because even if as

whenever wherever since if as though
while so that in case as if
after in order to provided though
until as unless whereas
before now that if only while
once although
since even though

We use these conjunctions to join two independent clauses. When we add a subordinating conjunction to one of
the clauses, it becomes a dependent clause, and the conjunction then establishes the relationship between the
independent and dependent clauses. Let’s look at an example.

Example A

I am very tired. I stayed up all night studying for my algebra test.

In example A, we have two independent clauses. If we want to combine these clauses into a single sentence using
subordination, we must first define the relationship between the clauses. In this case, the event in the second
clause is the cause for the event in the first clause, so we have a cause-and-effect relationship.

Example B

I am very tired because I stayed up all night studying for my algebra test.

Example B correctly uses a cause-and-effect subordinating conjunction to combine the two clauses. Notice that
the word “because” makes the second clause a dependent clause: “because I stayed up all night studying for my
algebra test” no longer expresses a complete idea and is, therefore, no longer an independent clause.

When working with subordinating conjunctions, it is important to use the conjunction that best defines the rela-
tionship between the two independent clauses.

Example C

I am very tired although I stayed up all night studying for my algebra test.

In example C, the sentence doesn’t make logical sense because we’ve used a conjunction that doesn’t accurately
identify the relationship between the two clauses. Staying up all night would not be in contrast with being tired.

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Example D

I am very tired although I slept really well last night.

Example D offers an example of a contrasting relationship: sleeping really well the night before would not usually
make one feel tired, so there is a contrasting relationship.

Punctuation and Subordination

Punctuating a sentence that uses subordination depends on whether the subordinating clause comes before or
after an independent clause.

If the subordinating clause comes before an independent clause, we use a comma after the subordinating clause.

Example A

Because I stayed up all night, I am tired.

To determine whether the sentence in example A is punctuated correctly, we first need to identify the subordi-
nating clause. The conjunction “because” shows us that the subordinating clause comes before an independent
clause, so we need to include a comma after the subordinating clause.

If the subordinating clause comes after an independent clause, we do not use a comma.

Example B

I am tired because I stayed up all night.

Now the subordinating conjunction comes after an independent clause. When we reverse the clauses, we do not
include a comma.

To determine whether or not a comma is needed, you need to first identify the subordinating clause by looking for the
clause that begins with a subordinating conjunction. Then you need to determine whether the subordinating clause
comes before or after an independent clause. If it comes before, use a comma. If it comes after, do not use a comma.

Strategy
Because subordination is one way to combine sentences, questions involving subordination are considered
Sentence Boundaries questions. Let’s review our Sentence Boundaries strategy:

1. Identify the question as a Sentence Boundaries question. Like other Standard English Conventions
questions, there will be a blank within the passage. If the blank includes a place that seems to bridge
two different clauses, check for a Sentence Boundaries question.

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2. Read the text that appears before the blank.

• Does it begin with a subordinating conjunction? Then you are likely looking for a comma followed
by an independent clause.
• Is it an independent clause, or could it become one depending on what’s in the blank? You now have
to consider the range of punctuation and conjunction options for joining independent clauses.

3. Look at the answer choices to see whether there is an obvious pattern. Some questions may focus on
punctuation, others may focus on conjunctions, and still others may do both.
• If the question includes both conjunction and punctuation errors, fix one error first. For example,
only look for conjunctions that make sense in context.

4. Review the answer choices to eliminate those that do not correct the first error.
5. Reevaluate the remaining answer choices to eliminate any that do not correct the second error and/or
introduce a new error.
6. Reread the text with your chosen answer in place to check that it all makes sense together.

Now let’s practice putting these steps into action on some questions!

Examples
Directions: Let’s take a look at some examples. In this question, we’ve applied our Sentence Boundaries strategy
to solve a problem with subordination.

1. __________ we tend to picture cars and smokestacks, not dinner. The truth is, our need for food poses one
of the biggest dangers to the planet because agriculture is one of the greatest contributors to global warming,
emitting more greenhouse gases than all our cars, trucks, trains, and airplanes combined.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) When we think about threats to the environment

B) When we think about threats to the environment,
C) Although we think of threats to the environment
D) Although we think about threats to the environment,

Using the Strategy

Identify the question as a The blank contains the point at which two clauses join, so we can be pretty
Sentence Boundaries ques- sure this is a Sentence Boundaries question. Since all of the answer choices
tion involving subordination. include subordinating conjunctions, we know subordination is involved.

Look at the answer choices There are two types of possible errors among the answer choices: punctua-
to spot a pattern: does the tion and conjunction choice. We’ll tackle conjunction choice first.
question focus on punctua-
tion, conjunctions, or both?

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Eliminate answer choices Our choices for the conjunction are “when” and “although.” If we look at the
that do not correct the first two clauses, we can see that the first clause establishes the conditions or
error. time frame in which we would think of cars and smokestacks. “When” estab-
lishes time, but “although” establishes contrast. We can, therefore, eliminate
choices C and D since “although” doesn’t make sense in this context.

Reevaluate the remaining We are now left with choices A and B, which both use the correct conjunction
answer choices to eliminate “when.” When a subordinating clause comes before an independent clause,
any that do not correct the we need to use a period after the subordinating clause. This makes choice B
second error and/or intro- the correct answer.
duce a new error.

Reread the text with your Let’s plug our answer in: “When we think about threats to the environment,
chosen answer in place we tend to picture cars and smokestacks, not dinner.” Sounds good!
to check that it all makes
sense together.

2. If you are a regular reader of food packaging, you may have noticed a row under the “total carbohydrate”
section of some nutrition facts labels called “sugar alcohol.” Surprisingly, sugar alcohols are neither sugars nor
__________ the name implies that they are both.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) alcohols though
B) alcohols, although
C) alcohols,
D) alcohols as though

Using the Strategy

Identify the question as a The blank contains the point at which two clauses join, so we can be pretty
Sentence Boundaries ques- sure this is a Sentence Boundaries question. Since several of the answer
tion involving subordination. choices include subordinating conjunctions, we know subordination is
involved.

Look at the answer choices There are two types of possible errors among the answer choices: punctua-
to spot a pattern: does the tion and conjunction choice. We’ll tackle conjunction choice first.
question focus on punctua-
tion, conjunctions, or both?

Eliminate answer choices If we look at the two clauses, we see that they have a contrasting relation-
that do not correct the first ship. Both choices A and B include conjunctions that indicate a contrast, but
error. choice D uses “as though,” which suggests similarity or comparison rather
than contrast. We can, therefore, eliminate choice D.

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Reevaluate the remaining Since choices A and B both use an accurate conjunction, we’ll look at their
answer choices to eliminate difference in punctuation: Choice B incorrectly uses a comma before the
any that do not correct the subordinating clause. When the subordinating clause follows an independent
second error and/or intro- clause, no comma is necessary. We can eliminate choice B. Choice C con-
duce a new error. tains a comma with no conjunction. Since the two clauses being joined are
independent clauses, this would create a comma splice, so we can eliminate
choice C. Choice A uses an accurate conjunction and contains no punctua-
tion errors.

Reread the text with your Let’s plug our answer in: “Surprisingly, sugar alcohols are neither sugars nor
chosen answer in place alcohols though the name implies they are both.” Sounds good!
to check that it all makes
sense together.

Let’s Practice
The following five questions are modeled after the SAT. Ready to test what you’ve learned?

1. While octopuses are intelligent, most species live largely solitary lives. In Jervis Bay, Australia, however, unusual
numbers of one species—the aptly named gloomy octopus—gather at certain sites, drawn by ideal denning
conditions and abundant food. When these unsociable animals gather in close __________ common for
them to poke, prod, grab, and otherwise annoy one another.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) quarters, so it’s
B) quarters although it’s
C) quarters it’s
D) quarters, it’s

2. In 1994, a mysterious interspecies outbreak erupted in Australia. First horses and then humans developed flu-
like symptoms. Scientists eventually traced the outbreak to a virus carried by fruit bats. In the years since, there
have been dozens of additional outbreaks in horses and humans. The disease spillovers __________ are
driven into human-dominated habitats by deforestation.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) occur, even if bats

B) occur, because bats
C) occur when bats
D) occur so that bats

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3. Every four years, an extra day gets tacked onto the end of February, a time-keeping convention known as the
leap year. This extra day is __________ resolves a mismatch between the 365-day calendar and the actual
length of time it takes Earth to make a trip around the sun, which is nearly one-quarter of a day longer.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) necessary because it
B) necessary, because it
C) necessary. Because it
D) necessary; because it

4. The origins of the colloquial plural pronoun “y’all” are mysterious. __________ term could have originated
with Scottish-Irish immigrants, there are reasons to suspect it derives at least in part from the vernacular of
enslaved Black people, whose influence on Southern speech is undeniable but difficult to trace.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) The
B) Unless the
C) While the
D) Because the

5. The funding mechanisms, rules, and priorities that determine the fates of millions of Americans struggling
with housing insecurity are flawed. The system is not well equipped to address the types of homelessness expe-
rienced by children and __________ is focused largely on adults experiencing homelessness in large cities.
This leaves many children, particularly those in rural areas, with very little in the way of a support system.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) families, it
B) families because it
C) families, because it
D) families, so it

Practice Set 1

Directions: Read the passages below and answer the questions that follow.

1. During World War II, several Major League Baseball executives, led by Philip K. Wrigley, were concerned that the
league would have to shut __________ so many men were away at war.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) down because
B) down, since
C) down,
D) down, because

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2. __________ they wanted to keep interest in baseball alive, the executives formed a women’s league that
could continue to play in spite of World War II.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) Although
B) Whenever
C) While
D) Because

3. Although the men’s baseball league was not forced to shut down during the __________ women’s league
still flourished alongside the men’s league for about a decade.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) war the
B) war, the
C) war; the
D) war, yet the

4. The women’s league did not play according to the standard rules of baseball __________ it was officially
considered to be a professional baseball league.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) because
B) even though
C) while
D) as if

5. __________ the play initially resembled softball, over the years the rules were changed to become more like
those of men’s professional baseball.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) Although
B) Because
C) Until
D) If

6. __________ scouts went out to many major cities across the United States to recruit players in 1943, 280
women were invited to the final tryouts in Chicago where they vied for just 60 roster spots.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) As though
B) Although
C) After
D) As long as

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7. The players were required to attend “charm school” in order to learn proper feminine __________ Wrigley
did not want the female athletes to appear too masculine.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) etiquette, because
B) etiquette because
C) etiquette, although
D) etiquette although

8. __________ a woman wanted to maintain her spot on the team, she had to obey the league’s strict “Rules
of Conduct.”

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) If
B) Unless
C) Even if
D) As if

9. Interest in the league grew ______ people across the country were impressed by the women’s athletic talent.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) quickly although
B) quickly, although
C) quickly as
D) quickly, as

10. The league’s highest attendance was reached in __________ the teams attracted a total of 910,000 fans.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) 1948 when
B) 1948 where
C) 1948 while
D) 1948 whereas

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Practice Set 2

Directions: Read the passages below and answer the questions that follow.

1. James Kirkland and his colleague Tamar Tchkonia, a molecular biologist at the Mayo Clinic, are leaders in a
growing movement to halt chronic disease by protecting brains and bodies from the biological fallout of aging.
One of their targets is decrepit cells that build up in tissues as people age. These “senescent” cells have reached
a point—due to damage, stress, or just time—when they stop dividing, but don’t die. While senescent cells
typically make up only a small fraction of the overall cell population, they accounted for up to 36 percent of
cells in some organs in aging mice, one study showed. And they don’t just sit there quietly. Senescent cells can
release a slew of compounds that create a toxic, inflamed environment that primes tissues for chronic illness.
Senescent cells have been linked to diabetes, stroke, osteoporosis, and several other conditions of aging. These
observations suggest that __________

Which choice most logically completes the text?

A) senescent cells may not be harmful to humans since studies have been limited to mice.
B) targeting senescent cells could reverse the aging process, effectively curing diseases like diabetes and
osteoporosis.
C) targeting these harmful cells could improve health and lead to longer lifespans.
D) this is the area of research that is most likely to find the “cure” for aging, potentially leading to longer,
healthier lives.

2. As the largest living mammals on Earth, blue whale mothers have a big job to do. Once their calves are born, the
fast-growing giant babies gain 200 pounds per day. To provide enough sustenance to reach their adult weight of
up to 400,000 pounds, blue whale mothers produce 50 gallons of milk per day with between 35 and 50 percent
fat content. Researchers are currently working to learn how whale mothers accomplish this herculean task.

As used in the text, what does the word “sustenance” most nearly mean?

A) nourishment
B) support
C) necessities
D) independence

3. Medicinal knowledge is not relegated to our own species. While animals like elephants, bears, and other apes
have been known to ingest material for medicinal __________ was not until recently that researchers
observed apes using topical ointments for healing. After catching insects, the wild chimpanzees then squished
them between their lips, rubbed the insect in the wound, and removed the insect afterward.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) purposes. It
B) purposes; it
C) purposes, it
D) purposes, but it

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4. King Arthur first appeared in Welsh poetry in the late sixth and early seventh centuries as a hero who was said
to have led the Britons in battle against Saxon invaders. In the Welsh cleric Geoffrey of Monmouth’s History of
the Kings of Britain, which was written in 1136 CE and purported to trace Britain’s history back to its supposed
founding by Trojan exiles, an almost certainly fictitious sixth-century king named Uther Pendragon sleeps
with the wife of a local duke after the magician Merlin turns Pendragon into a likeness of her husband. “That
night she conceived Arthur, the most famous of men, who subsequently won great renown by his outstand-
ing bravery,” Geoffrey wrote. Though scholars have universally dismissed Geoffrey’s text as a pseudo-history
woven from ancient Welsh folk tales and his febrile imagination rather than fact, many 12th century Britons
believed the story.

Which choice best describes the figure of King Arthur, as presented in the text?

A) He was most likely not an actual historical figure but rather the product of folklore.
B) He was a historical figure who inspired many early Welsh poets and storytellers.
C) He was likely a historical figure whose biography has been embellished with fictitious elements.
D) Though fictitious, he was an inspiration for Britons of the twelfth century.

5. Researchers at George Washington University examined all the fossil evidence for butchery in eastern Africa,
including 59 sites dated between 2.6 and 1.2 million years ago. They concluded that the evidence for increased
carnivory in our ancestors is merely an effect of increased sampling of the archaeological record at certain
time intervals starting around two million years ago, during the same period in which large brains first begin
to appear in Homo erectus, suggesting that there is no strong relationship between eating more meat and the
evolution of larger brains in our ancestors.

Which finding, if true, would most directly undermine the conclusion drawn by researchers at George
Washington University?

A) A recent study of European men and women found that those who consumed a diet that is high in
animal proteins had brains that were an average of 10% larger than those who ate plant-based diets.
B) Members of many groups from across the globe and throughout time have consumed plant-based diets
without any change to brain size, even over millennia.
C) A similar analysis of sites across southern Africa dated between 2.1 and 1 million years ago found a
sustained increase of carnivory that correlated with the development of larger brains in Homo erectus.
D) A study of sites in southwest Asia dated from 1.6 to 1.9 million years ago found that evidence of carnivory
was reduced the further Homo erectus migrated from Africa despite the finding of larger brains among
specimens at these sites.

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6. If one were to pinpoint the precise moment the Porter sisters experienced the pinnacle of literary fame, it would
likely be the year 1814. By then, Jane and Anna Maria Porter were in their late 30s and living together outside
London. They’d published 17 books, including several international bestsellers, and gained reputations as two
very different paragons of feminine talent. Although they had no more than a charity-school __________
Misses Porter (as they were sometimes called) arguably created the modern historical novel, weaving fascinat-
ing, romantic tales out of facts and events culled from history books.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) education, the
B) education the
C) education. The
D) education; the

7. In addition to companionship, humans also domesticated animals __________ and for labor. A recent study
traced the origin of chicken domestication to around 1650 BCE in Thailand, corresponding to the spread of
grains (specifically rice and millet). Chickens then appear to follow the grains as they spread around the world
as a food source.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) for food
B) they could eat
C) that were edible
D) to eat

8. Born to a French noblewoman and a leader of the famed Medici banking family on April 13, 1519, Catherine
was orphaned within a month of her birth. She spent her childhood living with various relatives but was taken
hostage in __________ rebels ousted the Medici from power and forced her into a convent. In October
of 1529, as pro-Medici troops besieged Florence, the cornered rebels turned their attention to 11-year-old
Catherine. When an escort arrived to remove Catherine from the convent, she feared the worst, cutting her hair
and putting on a nun’s habit in hopes of discouraging her captors.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) 1527, because
B) 1527 because
C) 1527, when
D) 1527 when

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9. The friars of medieval Britain pledged themselves to a life of poverty, but they enjoyed a high standard of com-
munal living. The monks dwelled in beautiful stone buildings, studied in libraries, and dined lavishly. When
nature called, they enjoyed dedicated latrines and hand-washing facilities, complete with running water
systems that were rare even among the era’s wealthiest households. __________ new research on human
remains from a friary buried below the University of Cambridge shows that the monks suffered greatly from a
gastrointestinal affliction commonly associated with unsanitary conditions—worms. In fact, the friars were
afflicted with intestinal worms at almost double the rate of Cambridge’s general population, despite the fact
that many of the city’s inhabitants lived with sanitary facilities no better than a hole in the ground.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise transition word or phrase?

A) Indeed,
B) Accordingly,
C) However,
D) For example,

10. When creatures like these hapless horses fell ill, medieval peasants and nobles alike relied on the occult powers
of animal healers, forerunners to today’s veterinarians. Employing magic words and rituals alongside early
medicines, these horse doctors and hound charmers faced down the most incurable of diseases with a combi-
nation of faith, tradition, and science. In the 16th century and even later, local “cunning folk” provided much
the same service that medieval veterinarians once __________ they faced sometimes strict scrutiny from
the local church.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) did. Even though

B) did even though
C) did, even though
D) did; even though

Practice Set 3

Directions: Read the passages below and answer the questions that follow.

1. Dinosaurs such as Apatosaurus are sometimes depicted as gentle giants, nibbling at Jurassic conifers. The tails
of these dinosaurs, however, hint that these enormous herbivores sometimes clashed with each other. A team
of paleontologists had previously proposed that the thin, whip-like tails of dinosaurs like Apatosaurus might
have been able to crack like actual whips and break the sound barrier. Although more recent analyses have found
that the tails didn’t reach supersonic speeds and instead topped out at 74 miles per __________ breaks
frequently found in sauropod tailbones still support the theory that these tails were formidable weapons.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) hour healed
B) hour, healed
C) hour, but healed
D) hour since healed

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2. More than half a century ago, Susie Hinton was a student at Will Rogers High School, where she received a D in
creative __________ class assignments were nowhere near as important to her as working out the plot and
characters of The Outsiders, the novel that would become her claim to fame as an author known by the pen name
S.E. Hinton.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) writing because
B) writing, because
C) writing although
D) writing, although

3. The date palm is a very old __________ remains show that its ancestors were already flourishing 50 million
years ago, it was only recently, around 4000 B.C., that enterprising humans in the vicinity of modern-day Iraq
domesticated the trees.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) plant. Fossilized
B) plant, though fossilized
C) plant though fossilized
D) plant. Though fossilized

4. In the beachside resort town of Gulf Shores, Alabama, there is a long-overlooked trench that has recently been
identified as a feat of engineering and a rare archaeological find: a canal, nearly a mile long, built for canoe
travel 1,400 years ago by the Native Americans who navigated the region’s waterways. The canal would have
connected the Gulf of Mexico with more protected __________ tribes had better access between coastal
fishing areas and trade routes to the rest of the Southeast.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) bays so that local

B) bays, so that local
C) bays so local
D) bays, local

5. Archaeologists working in a remote part of Indonesian Borneo have discovered what may be the earliest known
example of a successful amputation—predating the next oldest such surgery by an amazing 24,000 years. The
skeleton shows that a youngster’s lower left leg was skillfully severed and, despite the deadly risks of blood
loss and infection, healed successfully. Researchers believe the boy lived for years after the __________ leg
bones show signs of growth that would have occurred after the surgery.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) amputation so the
B) amputation, so the
C) amputation because the
D) amputation, because the

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6. A blackened, broken leg bone from Earth’s prehistoric past may hold the answer to when early humans diverged
from apes and started their own evolutionary path. The fossilized find, first uncovered two decades ago, sug-
gests that early humans regularly walked on two feet some seven million years ago. This new analysis makes
a strong case that Sahelanthropus tchadensis, a species that lived during the critical time when our human
lineage diverged from the chimps, habitually walked on two legs. Since many consider bipedalism the major
milestone that put our own lineage on a different evolutionary path than the apes, Sahelanthropus could be the
very oldest known hominin—the group consisting of modern humans, extinct human species, and all of our
immediate ancestors.

Which choice best states the function of the underlined sentence in the text as a whole?

A) To correct a common misunderstanding about apes

B) To clarify why the results of the new analysis are significant
C) To argue that humans were not the first species to walk on two legs
D) To identify the oldest known hominin

7. Just 5,000 years ago, even though it was a part of their diet, virtually no adult humans could properly digest
milk. In the blink of an evolutionary eye, northern Europeans began inheriting a genetic mutation that enabled
them to do so. The trait became common in just a few thousand years, and today it’s found in up to 95 percent of
the population. Scientists now theorize that this rapid evolution of lactose tolerance resulted from exceptional
environmental stressors like pathogens, which may have exacerbated milk’s typically mild gastrointestinal
effects on the lactose intolerant, creating deadly bouts of diarrhea and dehydration, and famines, which would
have made the ability to digest milk extra valuable.

As used in the text, what does the word “enabled” most nearly mean?

A) Entitled
B) Commissioned
C) Authorized
D) Allowed

8. The dream of a single, continuous railroad that would unite America’s east and west coasts dates back to the
1830s, not long after the introduction of the country’s first steam locomotive. A transcontinental railroad would
shrink a dangerous, cross-country wagon-train journey of six months or more to less than a week, and it would
open vast stretches of the West to new settlement. Still, it wasn’t until 1862, in the midst of the Civil War, that
Abraham Lincoln signed into law the Pacific Railway Act, which finally undertook to make that dream a reality.

According to the text, what is true about the importance of a transcontinental railroad in the U.S.?

A) It would allow expansion by opening new areas of the West to settlement.

B) It would help to resolve the Civil War by uniting the east and west coasts.
C) It was the top priority for President Abraham Lincoln’s administration.
D) It would eliminate the need for wagons, leading to more efficient means of transport.

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9. While researching a topic, a student has taken the following notes:

• The Vikings left little record of their 250-year-long role in English history, which lasted from the end
of the 8th century to the middle of the 11th.
• Most archeological findings have been limited to bones, grave goods, or buried coins and jewelry.
• The Vikings left no contemporaneous written record.
• The Viking’s time in England is memorialized in fictional Icelandic sagas and folklore written in later
centuries.
• The Vikings likely did construct dwellings in England, but most structures would have been built of
wood, leaving no archeological evidence behind.

The student wishes to highlight the reasons why little is known of the Vikings’ actions in England. Which
choice most effectively uses relevant information from the notes to accomplish this goal?

A) Though the Vikings were a part of English history for roughly 250 years, the only records of their time in
England are the Icelandic sagas and folklore written about the Viking settlements in England.
B) Little is known of the Viking’s role in English history because they left no contemporaneous written
record and very little lasting archeological evidence beyond graves and buried valuables.
C) The Vikings in England in the 8th through 11th centuries acted intentionally to avoid leaving a historical
record, using materials that would not stand the test of time, like wood, to build with and refusing to
maintain a contemporaneous written record.
D) The Vikings used only wood in the construction of dwellings, which did not stand the test of time, so
there is no archeological evidence of their time in England in the 8th through 11th centuries.

10. For many decades, scientists hypothesized that the Arctic-dwelling camels that went extinct about 10,000
years ago were more closely related to llamas and alpacas native to South America than to the camels of Eurasia
because C. hesternus bones resembled a “giant llama” or “llamas on steroids,” says paleontologist Grant
Zazula. More recent evidence undermines this theory. DNA recently extracted from bones found in 2008 near
Alaska showed that the Ice Age western camels actually share more genes with modern-day camels than with
llamas or alpacas.

Which choice best states the main idea of the text?

A) Scientists should base hypotheses about the relationships among different species on DNA evidence
rather than physical appearance.
B) Paleontologists use bones to develop hypotheses about the relationships among different animal species.
C) Extinct Arctic-dwelling camels are more closely related to modern-day camels than to llamas or alpacas.
D) Scientists are still learning about the evolution of camels, alpacas, and llamas.

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Practice Set 4

Directions: To practice your pacing, aim to complete this set in 12 minutes.

1. Marine biologist Flavie Bidel and her colleagues were curious about how octopuses choose which arms to use.
Bidel’s team of researchers worked with 10 California two-spot octopuses. Before an experiment, the team
would move each octopus to a tank __________ they could film the animal’s behavior in order to observe
whether it showed any preferences among its arms.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) where
B) when
C) wherever
D) in case

2. In 1765, the British Parliament moved to better regulate westward expansion and trade by putting in place the
Stamp Act. __________ architects of the Stamp Act saw the measure as a way to manage the costs of the
British Empire, it nonetheless gave rise to the first major colonial protest against British imperial control. The
Stamp Act reinforced the sense among some colonists that Parliament was not treating them as equals to their
peers across the Atlantic.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) The
B) While the
C) After the
D) Given that

3. Ancient astronomers constructed a model (partly from observations and partly from philosophical beliefs)
that Earth was the center of the universe and everything moved around it in circular orbits. __________
the centuries passed and improved instruments were developed for keeping track of objects in the sky, the old
model could no longer explain all the observed facts. A new model, with the Sun at the center, fit the experi-
mental evidence better.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) Now that
B) Unless
C) Because
D) As

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4. Records of attempts to detect lies, whether by technical means or by skilled observers, go back at least 3,000
years. Forensic science lie detection techniques have become increasingly popular __________ the inven-
tion of the polygraph early in the 20th century, with the latest methods involving advanced brain imaging.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) since
B) even after
C) before
D) until

5. As far as it has evolved, artificial intelligence (AI) is still far from being as smart as the human brain.
__________ an AI system might be able to play checkers and identify a cat, but it can’t yet understand why
cats can’t play checkers.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical transition?

A) Therefore,
B) Nonetheless,
C) For instance,
D) In addition,

6. Identifying endangered species is the first step toward conserving them. For many species, that work begins
with the Red List, created by The International Union for Conservation of Nature, or IUCN. Based in Gland,
Switzerland, IUCN maintains the most __________ descriptions of the global status of at-risk plants and
animals.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word or phrase?

A) urgent
B) complete
C) progressive
D) perfect

7. Cells of the immune system can be split into two closely related military squads: innate and adaptive. The
mission of the body’s innate immune system is to distinguish between friendly cells (the body’s own cells) and
intruders (non-self). When faced by a tough adversary, they can call in back-ups—the adaptive cells.

As used in the text, what does the word “mission” most nearly mean?

A) Vocation
B) Obligation
C) Ambition
D) Objective

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8. In a 2010 survey conducted by professors at the University of Indiana, nearly all participants (99.8 percent)
agreed that a husband, wife, and children constitute a family. Ninety-two percent stated that a husband and
a wife without children still constitute a family. The numbers drop for less traditional structures: unmarried
couples with children (83 percent), unmarried couples without children (39.6 percent), gay male couples with
children (64 percent), and gay male couples without children (33 percent).

According to the text, what is true about how families are perceived?

A) Those who come from families with traditional structures are less likely to recognize non-traditional
structures as families.
B) Couples need children in order to be validated as a “legitimate” family.
C) Children tend to be the key indicator in establishing “family” status.
D) It is generally accepted that more than two members are needed to constitute a family.

9. According to new research published in Psychological Science, recommendations that are heard rather than
read have a greater influence on our behavior. People generally perceive someone as more intelligent and com-
petent when they convey spoken information rather than delivering the same message in writing.

Which finding, if true, would most directly undermine the researchers’ claim?

A) A brand that used printed advertisements saw a greater increase in sales than a similar brand that used
auditory advertising only.
B) Patients who were given recommendations by doctors in person were more likely to follow their
guidelines than patients who received the same recommendations through an online messaging system.
C) More smartphone users will choose a feminine-sounding voice for their virtual assistants in favor of a
masculine-sounding voice.
D) Students who perform well in English courses are more likely to pursue careers related to public
speaking than students who perform poorly in such courses.

10. As people have spent more time at home during the COVID-19 pandemic, it seems like wildlife has responded
by coming out to play. There are videos of coyotes walking down San Francisco streets, and people are sharing
pictures of snakes on sidewalks and bike trails. However, it is unlikely that there are more wild animals than
normal. With the decreased presence of noise, pollution, and human activity, animals are exploring more boldly.

Which choice best describes the overall structure of the text?

A) It presents a phenomenon and explains the science behind it.

B) It introduces a common misconception and then argues against it.
C) It brings up a possible reason for an event in order to prove it wrong.
D) It describes a situation and clarifies its implications.

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Practice Set 5

Directions: To practice your pacing, aim to complete this set in 12 minutes.

1. The genus Chrysocycon, or “golden dog,” contains just one species: the maned wolf. __________ these
canines look like enormous foxes, with similar coloring and face shape, they are not genetically related to foxes.
Genetic tests have provided evidence that the maned wolf is the only South American canine species to survive
the Late Pleistocene extinction at least 12,000 years ago.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) Whereas
B) Unless
C) Because
D) Although

2. The following is Robert Frost’s 1915 poem “The Road Less Traveled.”

Two roads diverged in a yellow wood, And both that morning equally lay
And sorry I could not travel both In leaves no step had trodden black.
And be one traveler, long I stood Oh, I kept the first for another day!
And looked down one as far as I could Yet knowing how way leads on to way,
To where it bent in the undergrowth; I doubted if I should ever come back.

Then took the other, as just as fair, I shall be telling this with a sigh
And having perhaps the better claim, Somewhere ages and ages hence:
Because it was grassy and wanted wear; Two roads diverged in a wood, and I—
Though as for that the passing there I took the one less traveled by,
Had worn them really about the same, And that has made all the difference.

Which choice best states the main idea of the text?

A) It is better to risk future regret than to avoid making difficult or uncommon choices, as they can often
lead to wonderful outcomes.
B) Life will often require people to make choices, and it can be rewarding to explore more adventurous or
less common options.
C) Although it may sometimes feel like one is lost, making less common choices can often lead one to
unexpectedly wonderful destinations.
D) Maintaining a connection with nature can help one to make the best choices when faced with life’s
inevitable difficulties.

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3. Few actors enjoy a career as long and successful as that of Estelle Winwood. Winwood, born Estelle Ruth Goodwin
in 1883, knew from age five that she wanted to be an __________ she had enjoyed success in London’s West
End, she moved to the U.S. and began performing on Broadway. Winwood, who preferred the stage, eventually
made her film debut in 1931. She continued to star in films and television shows until she was 100 years old.
Estelle Winwood was, when she died at 101, the oldest ever member of the Screen Actors Guild.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) actress: after
B) actress, after
C) actress. After
D) actress after

Leaf Colors Visible When Certain Plant Pigments Are Present

Plant Pigment Colors Visible When Present

Chlorophyll Green
Lycopene Orange, Red
Carotene Yellow
Xanthophyll Yellow
Flavanol Yellow
Anthocyanin Red

4. Leaf color results from the interaction of different pigments produced by plants. A green pigment called chloro-
phyll is produced in response to sunlight and impacted by seasonal change. Chlorophyll masks the other colors,
so when present, leaves appear green. As summer turns to autumn, chlorophyll production in leaves slows
while production of other pigments increases, which results in non-green variations in leaf color. For example,
leaves with large amounts of __________

Which choice most effectively uses data from the table to complete the example?

A) flavanol and anthocyanin appear orange.

B) carotene and lycopene appear yellow.
C) xanthophyll and chlorophyll appear green.
D) anthocyanin and lycopene appear red.

5. Historians speculate that it was Leonardo da Vinci’s fascination with flight that inspired him to innovate the
anemometer, an instrument for measuring the speed of wind. His hope was that, eventually, the device could
be used to give people insight into the direction of the wind before attempting flight. Since wind direction can
vastly affect the mechanics of __________ is an important tool for making flying a safer activity.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) flight; the anemometer

B) flight: the anemometer
C) flight the anemometer
D) flight, the anemometer

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6. The prosperity of the post-World War II period broadened gradually in the late 1940s, accelerated in the 1950s,
and soared to unimaginable heights in the 1960s. By then it was a boom that astonished observers. One econo-
mist, writing about the twenty-five years following World War II, put it simply by saying that this was a “quarter
century of sustained growth at the highest rates in recorded history.” Former Prime Minister Edward Heath of
Great Britain agreed, observing that the United States at the time was enjoying unprecedented prosperity.

Which finding, if true, would most directly support Prime Minister Heath’s claim?

A) Research by historians shows that, in the post-war U.S., farming became more mechanized and
scientific than ever, which increased output so fast that overproduction became a problem.
B) Census surveys from the post-war era show that the number of American children born each year
increased by 50% between 1948 and 1955, the greatest increase in the history of the U.S.
C) An economic historian calculates that, in the 1960s, the U.S. unemployment rate stayed under 4%, and
the median family income rose from $8,543 to $10,768, a bigger jump than ever before.
D) The year after World War II ended, records show President Truman made severe budget cuts, which
resulted in an over-18% inflation rate, which has never been matched since.

7. Whereas operating systems for smart phones today are open to the development of third-party __________
environment of standard cell phones was quite different. First-generation mobile phones were designed and
developed by the handset manufacturers developing handset software in house. What came out of the box was
unchangeable. That’s not to say some manufacturers didn’t add some whimsy to their products. Nokia, for
example, was famous for putting the 1970s video game “Snake” on some of its earliest phones.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) software—the conventional programming

B) software. The conventional programming
C) software the conventional programming
D) software, the conventional programming

8. The following text is from John Steinbeck’s 1939 novel The Grapes of Wrath. The novel is set in the Dust Bowl era
of the 1930s.

When the night came again it was black night, for the stars could not pierce the dust to get down, and the
window lights could not even spread beyond their own yards. Now the dust was evenly mixed with the air, an
emulsion of dust and air. Houses were shut tight, and cloth wedged around doors and windows, but the dust
came in so thinly that it could not be seen in the air, and it settled like pollen on the chairs and tables, on the
dishes. The people brushed it from their shoulders. Little lines of dust lay at the door sills.

Which choice best describes the function of the third sentence in the overall structure of the text?

A) It highlights the pervasiveness of the dust by describing the futile efforts people made to keep the dust
out of their homes.
B) It describes the physical qualities of the dust that made it such a nuisance.
C) It provides a transition between an explanation of the people’s efforts to block out the dust to a
description of the dust itself.
D) It supports the idea that, despite people’s efforts, light could not penetrate the dusty air well.

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9. David Packard and Bill Hewlett founded their company, Hewlett-Packard, in a Palo Alto, California garage. Their
first product, the HP 200A Audio Oscillator, rapidly became a popular piece of test equipment for __________
it was outfitting twelve specially equipped theatres to show the movie Fantasia in 1940, Walt Disney Pictures
ordered eight of the 200B model to test recording equipment and speaker systems.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) engineers because
B) engineers. Because
C) engineers. As though
D) engineers as though

10. While researching a topic, a student has taken the following notes:

• Acid rain results from sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides being emitted into the atmosphere.
• The sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals in the air to form
sulfuric and nitric acids.
• These acids are carried to the ground in precipitation.
• Some of the sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides that cause acid rain are from natural sources such as
volcanoes.
• The major sources of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere are the burning of fossil
fuels by electric power generators; vehicles and heavy equipment; and manufacturing, oil refineries,
and other industries.

The student wants to summarize the steps in the production of acid rain. Which choice most effectively
uses relevant information from the notes to accomplish this goal?

A) Acid rain is the result of manufacturing, vehicles, and other processes that burn fossil fuels releasing
sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides into the air.
B) Sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides released into the air, sometimes through natural processes like
volcano eruptions, react with substances in the air to form sulfuric and nitric acids.
C) When nitrogen oxides and sulfur dioxide react with oxygen, water, and other substances, they form
acids that cause acid rain.
D) Nitrogen oxides and sulfur dioxide created primarily from the burning of fossil fuels react with
chemicals in the air to form acids that fall from the sky with precipitation.

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