3.

1 Computers and their

component
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3.1 – Parts of the computer

A computer system is made up of 4 main parts:

• Input ( Keyboard, mouse, Scanner, Microphone, touchpad, sensor)

To enter data and instructions into a computer system

• Processor

To execute instructions
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To process data

To produce results/output

• Output ( Display unit, printer, plotter, cutter, speaker)

To display results of processing in human readable form

• Storage ( Primary, Secondary, off line storage)

• To store data during processing

• To store data for future use

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Embedded Systems

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Computer storage
Computer system consists of PRIMARY and SECONDARY storage

Features of primary storage (ROM, RAM, Cache memory)

• has limited storage capacity
• Stores data temporarily – it is volatile
• Can be directly accessed by the CPU
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Features of secondary storage (HDD, SSD, Optical disk)
• have larger storage capacity
• provides permanent storage

What are offline storage devices?

• They are secondary storage devices that can be easily plugged in and out of the computer
• They are portable storage devices
• They are used to make backups and transfer files from one computer to another.

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DifferencesROM
between ROM and RAM RAM
Read only Memory Random Access Memory
Its content cannot be modified (read only) It content can be altered
Non volatile storage – provides permanent Is volatile – its content disappears when power
storage goes off

Stores boot program or BIOS Stores programs and data currently in use by
CPU
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Note : The more RAM, the faster the computer
As the RAM gets filled with data, access to data stored in it becomes slower because the processor
has to continually access the secondary data storage devices to overwrite old data on
RAM with new data.

By increasing the RAM size, the number of times this has to be done is considerably reduced, thus
making the computer operate more quickly

Activity
1. A printer has both ROM and RAM. State the purpose of ROM and RAM in the Printer. [4]
2. A robot vacuum cleaner has ROM and RAM. State the purpose of Rom and RAM in this device. [4]

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SRAM v/s DRAM

SRAM DRAM

• Static RAM • Dynamic RAM

• Constructed using Flip Flops • Constructed using capacitors and transistors

• Each flip flop stores one bit of information • Capacitors hold 1 bit of information 1 or 0
• Expensive to produce • Less complex to design and expensive
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• No need to be refreshed to retain data • Has to be continually refreshed to retain
data – due to leakage of electricity in
memory cells(capacitors)
• Has faster access time than DRAM- hence • Slower than SRAM
used in cache memory
• Has less storage capacity than DRAM • Has larger storage capacity – because it can
store more bits per chip
• Consumes less energy than DRAM since it is • Consumes more power than SRAM because
accessed at high frequency info. Is stored in capacitors.

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PROM EPROM
• A PROM chip that can be programmed • An EPROM chip that can erased and
only once reprogrammed
• It is made up of a matrix of fuses • It can be erased (Using UV light) and
• It can be altered only once reused
• It requires a PROM writer to be • Data cannot be overwritten – it has be
programmed/write instructions in it to erased before new data can be
written to it.
• Not expensive • It is more expensive than PROM
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• The storage stability is affected by
• It is not affected by radiation and radiation and electronic noise
electronic noise
• It has higher storage endurance • It has lower storage endurance

Mostly used in Mobile phones and RFID tags

EEPROM stands for Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory.
It is a memory chip that we can erase and reprogram using electrical charge.
It consists of a collection of floating gate transistors.
The flash memory is a type of EEPROM which has a higher density and lower number
of write cycles.
It is used in many applications including computers, microcontrollers, smart cards, etc.
to store data, erase and to reprogram. 8
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Embedded Systems
Embedded systems are dedicated computer systems designed for specific uses
Washing machine, Digital camera, Burglar alarm systems/ ATM

Parts of embedded system:

• Input : buttons / Switch / sensors
• Processor : Microprocessor / micro chip
• Output : Lights/ LED / buzzer /
• Storage : ROM / RAM
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Benefits:
• Designed for a specific / limited use
• Easier to design
• Easier to program
• It provides better performance since it is designed for a specific use
• Consumes little power die to its specific use

Drawbacks:
• Difficult to upgrade
• Not scalable
• It is not versatile as a PC
• Hardware is limited – uses limited or specific hardware
• It is difficult to transfer data from one system to another.

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Activity
Classify the following statements as being properties of ROM or RAM

a. temporary memory device

b. data stored cannot be altered
c. volatile memory
d. used to store data, files, programs, part of OS currently in use
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e. permanent memory device
f. non-volatile memory device
g. can be increased in size to improve operational speed of a computer
h. Sometimes used to store BIOS and other data needed at start up
i. can be written to and read from

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PROM / EPROM /EEPROM
PROM : Programmable Read Only Memory.
• It is a computer memory chip that can be programmed only ONCE.
• After programming the PROM, the information we write to it becomes permanent.
• It is not possible to erase or delete that written data. – it has to be removed or discarded if the program in it has to be updated.
• The PROM chip was commonly used in earlier computers’ BIOS systems.
EPROM : Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory.
• It can be erase and reprogram
• Not need to replace the chip if the device is to be reprogrammed
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• It is possible to erase and write to it by exposing the memory chip to ultraviolet light.
EPROM is used more commonly than PROM because it can be modified or reprogram.

EEPROM : Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory.

• It is a memory chip that can be erases and reprogram using electrical charge.
• It consists of a collection of floating gate transistors.
• The flash memory is a type of EEPROM which has a higher density and lower number of write cycles.
• EEPROM is a replacement of both PROM and EPROM.
• It is used in many applications including computers, microcontrollers, smart cards, etc. to store data, erase and to reprogram.

PROM is a Read Only Memory (ROM) that can be modified only once by a user while EPROM is a programmable ROM that can be
erased and reused. EEPROM, on the other hand, is a user-modifiable ROM that can be erased and reprogrammed repeatedly through a
normal electrical voltage. Thus, this is the main difference between PROM EPROM and EEPROM.
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Hardware Devices

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Microphone

An input device used to capture and enter sound into a computer system
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When a microphone picks up sound, a diaphragm vibrates producing an electric signal.
This signal goes to a sound card and is converted into digital values and stored in the
computer

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How microphone works?
When a microphone picks up sound, a diaphragm vibrates producing an electric signal.
This signal goes to a sound card and is converted into digital values and stored in the computer

1. When you speak, sound waves created by your voice carry energy toward the microphone.
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2. Inside the microphone, the diaphragm moves back and forth when the sound waves hit it.
3. The coil, attached to the diaphragm, moves back and forth as well.
4. The permanent magnet produces a magnetic field that cuts through the coil.
As the coil moves back and forth through the magnetic field, an electric current flows through it.
5. The electric current flows out from the microphone to an amplifier or sound recording device.

Sound is thus converted into electricity – the latter can be saved for later use or amplified to be played
louder
The electric current output from the microphone can also be sent to a computer where a sound card
converts the current into a digital signal which can then be stored in the computer as a digital sound
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Speakers
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How speakers work?
1. Speakers take an electrical signal and translates it into physical vibrations to create sound waves
2. Digital sound stored on a computer is passed through a DAC and converted into an electric current
3. The current is then passed though an amplifier to create a stronger current to be able to drive a
loud speaker.
4. An electric current in the coil creates an electro-magnetic field ( temporary magnet)
5. Changes in the audio signal causes the direction of the electric current to change
6. The direction of the current determines the polarity of the electro-magnet
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7. The electro-magnet is repelled by or attracted to the permanent magnet
i. Causing the coil to vibrate
ii. The movement of the coil causes the cone / diaphragm to vibrate
8. That vibration is transmitted to the air in front of the cone / diaphragm as sound waves
9. The amount of movement will determine the frequency and amplitude (loudness) of the sound
wave produced

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Speakers
1. Speakers take an electrical signal and translates it into physical vibrations to create sound waves
2. An electric current in the coil creates an electro-magnetic field
3. Changes in the audio signal causes the direction of the electric current to change
4. By changing the direction of the current changes the direction of the polarity of the electro-magnet
5. The electro-magnet is repelled by or attracted to the permanent magnet, thus causing the coil to
vibrate
6. The movement of the coil causes the cone / diaphragm to vibrate
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7. That vibration is transmitted to the air in front of the cone / diaphragm as sound waves
8. The amount of movement will determine the frequency and amplitude of the sound wave
produced

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Laser printer
Laser printer uses the principle of static electricity to print.
Static electricity is simply an electrical charge built up on an insulated object, such as a balloon or your body.
Since oppositely charged atoms are attracted to each other, objects with opposite static electricity fields cling
together.
Laser printers use dry powder ink rather than liquid ink and make use of the properties of static electricity to produce
the text and images. Unlike inkjet
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How Laser printer works

The data from the document is sent to a printer driver that ensures that the data is in a format that the
chosen printer can understand. The printer is checked to see if it is ready for printing process. IF printer is
ready the file to be printed is sent to a printer buffer.
The printing drum is given a given a positive charge and as it rotates, a laser beam removes the positive
charge in certain areas and this leaves negatively charged areas which exactly match the text/images of
the page to be printed. The drum is then coated with positively charged TONER (powdered ink) and since
the toner is positively charged, the toner only sticks to the negatively charged parts of the drum
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A higher negatively charged sheet of paper is then rolled over the drum and the toner on the drum now
sticks to the paper to produce an exact copy of the page sent to the printer
To prevent the paper sticking to the drum, the electric charge on the paper is removed after one rotation
of the drum and finally goes through a fuser which is a set of heated rollers to permanently fix the toner
to the paper. Lastly a discharge lamp removes all the electric charge from the drum making it ready to
print the next page

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How Laser printer works

1. The data from the document is sent to a printer driver

2. The printer driver ensures that the data is in a format that the chosen printer can understand
3. Handshaking is performed to see it printer is ready for printing
4. The data is then sent to the printer buffer
5. Printing drum being is given a given a positive charge;
6. As the drum rotates, a laser beam removes the positive charge in certain areas and this leaves
negatively charged areas which exactly match the text/images of the page to be printed
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7. The drum is then coated with positively charged TONER (powdered ink); since the toner is
positively charged, the toner only sticks to the negatively charged parts of the drum
8. A higher negatively charged sheet of paper is then rolled over the drum
9. The toner on the drum now sticks to the paper to produce an exact copy of the page sent to the
printer
10. To prevent the paper sticking to the drum, the electric charge on the paper is removed after one
rotation of the drum
11. The paper finally goes through a fuser which is a set of heated rollers; the heat melts the ink so
that it fixes permanently to the paper
12. Finally a discharge lamp removes all the electric charge from the drum making it ready to print the
next page

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3D Printer

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3D printer
A 3D printer is an output device used to build up a 3D model one layer at a time, from the bottom
upward, by repeatedly printing over the same area in a method known as fused depositional modeling
(FDM)
Technology used :
• Additive manufacturing process ( building layer by layer)
• substractive method involves carving the object from a solid block of material ( plastic, marble,
resine)
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It takes a combination of top-of-the-line software, powder-like materials and precision tools to create a
three-dimensional object from scratch.

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How 3D printing works – using molten plastic
1. Design is made in 3D on Computer Aided Design package
2. Print command is issued
3. File/Design is sent to the printer driver
4. Printer driver formats the data in a form understood to the 3D printer
5. The software splits the object into slices
6. The data about the slices is sent to the printer buffer
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7. The solid plastic is melted and transferred to the nozzle
8. A stepper motor moves the nozzle into position
9. The nozzle extrudes the molten plastic to produce the slice /layer
10. The previous two steps are repeated until the layer is complete
11. A fan cools the layer
12. The tiny layers stick together to form a solid object.
13. The steps are repeated for each subsequent layer until the entire object is printed.

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3D printing Process
Step 1: CAD – Produce a 3-D model using computer-aided design (CAD) software.

Step 2: Conversion to STL – Convert the CAD drawing to the STL format. STL, which is an acronym
for standard tessellation language, is a file format developed for 3D Systems in 1987

Step 3: Transfer to AM Machine and STL File Manipulation – A user copies the STL file to the computer
that controls the 3-D printer. There, the user can designate the size and orientation for printing.
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Step 4: Machine Setup – Each machine has its own requirements for how to prepare for a new print
job.

Step 5: Build – Let the machine do its thing; the build process is mostly automatic.

Step 6: Removal – Remove the printed object (or multiple objects in some cases) from the machine.

Step 7: Postprocessing – Many 3-D printers will require some amount of post-processing for the
printed object. This could include brushing off any remaining powder or bathing the printed object to
remove water-soluble supports.

Step 8: Application – Make use of the newly printed object or objects.

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Magnetic Hard Disk

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Hard disk
• Hard disks were invented in the 1950’s.
• A magnetic storage medium that records data by magnetizing a thin film of ferromagnetic material on a
metallic disk called platters.
• Data is stored as magnetised bits on tracks and sectors of the magnetic layer.
• It uses magnetisation to read / write data on the disk surface by altering the electrical property of the
sectors
• Platters are coated with a thin film of magnetic material
• The platters are fixed in a central rotating shaft (3000- 7000 rpm).
• Read , write heads are found on access mechanism . The read write heads glide ( do not touch) over the
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recording surfaces.
• Recording surfaces are organised as tracks, sectors, clusters and blocks.

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How reading and writing takes place on a magnetic hard disk?

• The hard disk has one or more platters made of aluminum or glass
• Each surface of the platter/disk is ferrous-oxide which is capable of
being magnetised
• The surface of the platter/disk is divided into concentric tracks and
sectors (during disk formatting)
• One track in one sector is the basic unit of storage called a block and
occupies a fixed number of bytes.
• The data is encoded as a magnetic pattern for each block.
• Note: Large files may be stored in scattered in different sectors-
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hence requires different positioning of the RW heads.
• The platters/disks are mounted on a central spindle that rotates at
very high speed 7000 RPM
• Each recording surface of the disk has a read/write head mounted
on an arm (Access mechanism) positioned just above the recording
surface
• Latency is defined as the time it takes for a specific block of data on
a data track to rotate around to the read-write head.
• Electronic circuits control the movement of the arm (Access
mechanism) and hence position the read write heads on the
required tracks and sectors.
• When writing to disk, a variation in the current in the head produces
a variation in magnetic field on the disk
• When reading from disk, a variation in magnetic field produces a
variation in current through the head
• Data read from the hard disk is then transferred to a buffer before
being processed by the CPU.

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How is a file retrieved from a hard disk?
1. The application program executes a statement to read a file.
2. Application program passes file read request to the operating system.
3. The operating system begins to spin the hard disk, if it is not currently spinning.
4. In the relevant directory file( FAT) , the operating system looks up the track and sector where the
file begins (Seek time).
5. The access mechanism moves forward and backward to position the head on the correct track.
6. The hard disk drive waits for the correct sector to arrive under the head – Relational latency.
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7. The head reads the first cluster of sectors from disk and writes data into the disk buffer.
8. While the file continues, the head reads successive clusters of sectors from the disk and writes data
into the disk buffer.
9. When the hard disk drive has read the file, it generates an interrupt.
10. The operating system transfers the contents of the disk buffer to the application program’s data
memory.

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•The recording surfaces are organised as tracks and sectors

(created during disk formatting) (sectors are grouped in
clusters)
•To read or write data, the access mechanism positions the
read write heads on the relevant track (50 times per
second)
•The recording surface is then magnetised to write data
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onto it.
•The write mechanisms make use of the electricity flowing
through a coil in the write head that produces a magnetic
field.
•Electrical pulses are sent to the write head, with different
patterns of positive and negative currents.
•The current in the coil of the write head induces a
magnetic field across the gap between the head and the
magnetic disk platter, which in turn magnetizes a small area
on the recording medium.

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How is data read from a hard disk.

• The location of the file is obtained from the FAT – file

allocation table
• The access mechanism moves forward and backwards to
position the read write heads on correct track/cylinder
• The Central rotating shaft rotates the disks to position
the required Sector under the read write head. The time
spent is this activity is called the Latency time.
• Once the read write head is over the correct track No
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and sector No. data is read from the clusters and
transferred to the main memory via the IDE/SATA cable
and sent to the main memory and buffers.
• Seek Time defines the amount of time it takes a hard
drive’s read/write head to find the physical location of a
piece of data on the disk.
• Access Time is the interval between the time a request
for data is made by the system and the time the data is
available from the drive.
• Access time includes the actual seek time, rotational
latency, and command processing overhead time.
• Note : Large Files may be stored in more than one track
or cylinder or platter
• Some files may be fragmented / scattered thereby
increasing Access time.
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Seek Time is measured defines the amount of time it takes a hard drive’s read/write head to find the
physical location of a piece of data on the disk.
Latency is the average time for the sector being accessed to rotate into position under a head, after a
completed seek.
A drive’s average access time is the interval between the time a request for data is made by the system
and the time the data is available from the drive. Access time includes the actual seek time, rotational
latency, and command processing overhead time.
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Flash Memory
•A type of EEPROM ( Erasable and Electronically programmable ROM)
•A semi conductor technology with no moving parts.
•Flash memory is known as a solid state storage device, meaning there are no moving parts -- everything is
electronic instead of mechanical.
•It has a grid of columns and rows with a cell that has two transistors at each intersection.
•The circuits consist of arrays of transistors acting as memory cells.
•Stores data as 1’s and 0’s on Transistors ( a mini electronic circuit.)
•Flash drives have a second gate ( electronic circuit) called a floating gate the allows it to store data
permanently. Thus flash drives can store data off line.
•Types of flash Drives : NAND Flash and NOR Flash
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•NAND flash :
•a type of non-volatile storage technology that does not require power to retain data.
•Has limited life cycle – its performance decreases over time.

•NOR flash :
•NOR flash memory supports one-byte random access, which allows machine instructions to be retrieved and
run directly from the chip, in the same way that a traditional computer will retrieve instructions directly from
main memory
•NOR flash is faster, but it's also more expensive and takes longer to erase and write new data . Mostly used in
Mobile phones.
•Note : Before writing data to a block , existing data has to be erased.
•A whole block of memory call can be erased in one go i.e in a flash.

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Advantage's and disadvantages of flash Memory
benefit
– faster start up speed (no “spin-up” required)
– no moving parts (so more robust)
– very fast read write seek (latency) times
– doesn’t require additional read/write hardware devices (just plugs into USB)
– can store data indefinitely provided that it is periodically refreshed
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drawback
– vulnerable to magnetic fields and electrostatic charges
– limited write cycles
– more vulnerable to corruption if used as primary source of saving files
– because it is small, very easy to lose

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Flash Memory
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Drawback of SSD
The main drawback is the unknown longevity of the technology
It has limited life and write cycle compared to magnetic hard disk
This is why SSD are not used on servers because of the huge number of write operations that take
place every day.

Note it is not possible to overwrite existing data on a flash drive. Existing/Old data has to be erased
before new data can be written at the same location
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Optical Disk

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Optical Disks
CD ROM
• recording surface is coated /sandwiched between a substrate and a protective outer coating.
•Reflective surface is manufactured with indentations called Lands and Pits
•Laser beam is used to read and write data
•Light is reflected of the pits and lands.
•The light reflected off the pits is in a different phase compared to the light reflected off the lands. This difference in
phases is detected by photodiode detectors
•The microprocessor in the CD drive converts the change in phases into 1’s and 0’s.
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CD-RW
The reflective material is a special alloy ( combination of metals)
During the Burn process ( Write process),
Reflective material absorbs the laser beam
Heat is generated…
Reflective material become liquid…then reverts to either Crystalline or an amorphous solid form when it cools .
(This depends on the intensity of the laser beam).
When data is read, laser light is reflected only from the crystalline and not the amorphous solid. This reflection
Is turned into 1’s and 0’s.
Note:
•The disc spins in a spiral path starting from the centre of the disk to the periphery of the disk.
•Storage capacity depends on bit density
•Bit density depends on wavelength of light – shorter wavelength has better focus, thus higher bit density

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DDV RW v/s DVD RAM

DVD RW DVD RAM

• uses a single spiral track • uses several concentric tracks

• Reading and Writing cannot take place • allows simultaneous read/write
simultaneous operations
• requires special packet reading/writing • requires no special read/write
software software
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• in order to write new data to the disc • –makes use of sectors to store data
the existing data must be completely
erased
• performance degrades/becomes • repeatedly read, write and erase/100
unreliable after 1000 record/erase 000 record/erase cycles possible
cycles

• single sided, 4.7 Gb capacity • single or double sided, 4.7 Gb capacity

per side

• – disc rotates at different speeds • – disc rotates at a constant speed

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Touch Screen

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A resistive touch screen monitor is composed

of a glass panel and a film screen, each
covered with a thin metallic layer, separated
by a narrow gap.
When a user touches the screen, the two
metallic layers make contact, resulting in
electrical flow.
The point of contact is detected by this change
in voltage.!
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Advantages:!
• Can be activated with virtually any object (finger, stylus, gloved hand, pen, etc.)!
• Has tactile feel!
• Lowest cost touch technology!
• Low power consumption!
• Resistant to surface contaminants and liquids (dust, oil, grease, moisture)! ! !

! Disadvantages:!
• Lower image clarity compared to other touch technologies! !
• Outer polyester film is vulnerable to damage from scratching, poking and sharp
objects!
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 © Mr Bob Beechook

In a surface capacitive touch screen monitor, a

transparent electrode layer is placed on top of a
glass panel, and covered by a protective cover.
When an exposed finger touches the monitor screen,
it reacts to the static electrical
capacity of the human body; some of the electrical
charge transfers from the screen to the user.
This decrease in capacitance is detected by sensors
located at the four corners of the screen, allowing
the controller to determine the touch point.
© Mr Bob Beechook

© Mr Bob Beechook
Capacitive touch screens can only be activated by the
touch of human skin or a stylus holding an electrical
charge. !

Advantages:!
• Better image clarity than Resistive Touch!
• Durable screen!
• Excellent resistance to surface contaminants and liquids (dust, oil, grease, water
droplets)!
• High scratch resistance! ! !
! Disadvantages:!
• Requires bare finger or capacitive stylus for activation!
• Sensitivity to EMI/RFI!
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© Mr Bob Beechook Tel 5753 07 51
 © Mr Bob Beechook

infrared monitors use IR emitters and receivers

to create an invisible grid of light beams across
the screen.
This ensures the best possible image quality.
When an object interrupts the invisible
infrared light beam, the sensors are able to
locate the touch point.!
© Mr Bob Beechook

© Mr Bob Beechook
Advantages:!
• Highest image clarity and light transmission of all touch technologies!
• Unlimited “touch-life”!
• Impervious to surface scratches! !

! Disadvantages:!
• Accidental activation may occur because the infrared beams are actually above the glass
surface!
• Dust, oil, or grease buildup on screen or frame could impede light beam causing malfunction!
• Sensitive to water, snow, rain!
• May be sensitive to ambient light interference!
• Higher cost!
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© Mr Bob Beechook Tel 5753 07 51
 © Mr Bob Beechook
Projected Capacitive is similar to Surface Capacitive,
but it offers two primary advantages: in addition to a
bare finger, it can also be activated with surgical
gloves or thin cotton gloves; and it enables multi-
touch activation (simultaneous input from two
fingers).

A projected capacitive is composed of a sheet of

glass with embedded transparent electrode films
and an IC chip, which creates a three dimensional
electrostatic field.
© Mr Bob Beechook

© Mr Bob Beechook
When a finger comes into contact with the screen,
the ratios of the electrical currents change and the
computer is able to detect the touch points.
Advantages:!
• Excellent image clarity!
• More resistant to scratching than Surface Capacitive!
• Resistant to surface contaminants and liquids (dust, oil, grease, moisture)! !
• Multi-touch (two-touch)! !

! Disadvantages:!
• Sensitive to EMI/RFI!
• Must be activated via exposed finger, or thin surgical or cotton gloves! !
!!
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© Mr Bob Beechook Tel 5753 07 51
© Mr Bob Beechook © Mr Bob Beechook

© Mr Bob Beechook
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© Mr Bob Beechook Tel 5753 07 51
 © Mr Bob Beechook
Virtual Headset
A virtual reality headset is a head-mounted device that provides virtual reality for the wearer.
It is most used for games, simulation, training
Components:
• stereoscopic head-mounted display (providing separate images for each eye) – to give 3D effect of
image
• stereo surround sound – to give the user the feeling that sound is coming from different angles – to
give 3D sound effects
© Mr Bob Beechook

© Mr Bob Beechook
• head motion tracking – to give panoramic or 360 degree view
• eye tracking sensors – to adjust the display as the user moves his eyes…the direction in which he is
looking
• gaming controllers.
• HDMI – to transmit images to the display

Constraints:
Requires good or powerful GPU – graphics processing unit
Must have low latency - the time it takes from a change in input to have a visual effect

Application : Medical training, Military training, Fighting Techniques, Gaming, Virtual tours
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 © Mr Bob Beechook
Buffers
Different devices or parts of the computer work at different speeds causing a problem of speed
mismatch.

Buffers are temporary storage areas used to store data being transferred from one device (area) to
another so as to reduce speed mismatch between devices.

Printers have buffers – to store files waiting to be printed and to reduce speed mismatch between the
© Mr Bob Beechook

© Mr Bob Beechook
slow printer and the fast CPU
Buffering is also used in video/Bit streaming so that playback is not affected by poor or slow
connection.

Double buffering is the technique of using two buffers to reduce speed mismatch
When one buffer is being emptied/used, the other buffer is being refilled so that there is a constant
flow/access/transfer of data.

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© Mr Bob Beechook Tel 5753 07 51
© Mr Bob Beechook © Mr Bob Beechook

© Mr Bob Beechook
Monitoring and Control System

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 © Mr Bob Beechook

Process control system

Process control system refers to the use of computer technology to control
industrial processes.
They are time critical systems. Any delay can have serious consequences.

Monitoring systems collect and provide real time data to its users for analysis and
decision making purposes. Eg Data logging systems
© Mr Bob Beechook

© Mr Bob Beechook
Monitoring systems are integrated in process control systems in many applications
eg. Racing cars, Automatic navigation systems

Monitoring system: - computer system takes information from the sensors

compares the data with stored values – the system may warn/inform the user of
status either by read outs or alarms
Control system: - computer system takes information from the sensors - compares
the data with stored values – and sends signals to devices to open/close, on/off
etc. - output from system can affect next input

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© Mr Bob Beechook Tel 5753 07 51
 © Mr Bob Beechook
Monitoring v/s control Systems

Control Systems Monitoring Systems

• A system that makes use of computer • A system that collects and provides
technology to control industrial real time data to its users for analysis
processes. and decision making purposes.

• They are time critical systems. • Also called Data logging systems
© Mr Bob Beechook

© Mr Bob Beechook
• Data is collected and processed in real • Data can be processed online or at a
time or immediately later time.

• The output of the system affects the • System does not take immediate
next input (uses feedback mechanism) action(s) based on data collected

• Any delay can have serious

consequences.

• E.g Traffic management system,

• Burglar alarm system

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 © Mr Bob Beechook
Parts of a Monitoring system

Sensors : to collect analog data

AD converter : to digitise data collected by sensors
Storage device : to store data collected
Transponders : to transmit data collected to remote terminals/servers

Parts of a Control System system

© Mr Bob Beechook

© Mr Bob Beechook
• Sensors : to collect analog data
• AD converter : to digitise data collected by sensors
• Storage device : to store data collected
• Transponders : to transmit data collected to remote terminals/servers
• Microprocessor : to analyse data collected
• DA Conveters : to convert digital signals from computer to analog form
• Actuators : to control analog devices- it reacts to signals received from a
microprocessor

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 © Mr Bob Beechook

Components of Monitoring and Process control systems

© Mr Bob Beechook

© Mr Bob Beechook
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 © Mr Bob Beechook

Analog Data
Data that varies over time
Represent physical quantities
Is not understood by the computers
Has to be digitised using Ad converters
© Mr Bob Beechook

© Mr Bob Beechook
Feedback Mechanism
Process control makes use of feedback
Feedback is the technique of using the output of a system to modify its input so as to keep the system
stable.

E.g Water tank

Water level sensor monitors level of water.
When Maximum level of water is recorded
Control signals are sent to close the input valve so that there is no overflow.

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© Mr Bob Beechook © Mr Bob Beechook

© Mr Bob Beechook
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© Mr Bob Beechook Tel 5753 07 51
 © Mr Bob Beechook
How Process control systems work
1. Sensors X capture relevant data
2. Data captured is digitized using AD converters and sent to the microprocessor
3. Microprocessor samples data received from sensors and compares them with stored/required values
4. Microprocessor sends appropriate control signals via DA converters and Actuators
5. System continually monitors the condition(s) until it is switched off
* Feedback is used to keep the system stable.
© Mr Bob Beechook

© Mr Bob Beechook
Example Security Lights

1. Movement or IR sensors monitor any movement inside the building

2. Data captured is digitized using AD converters and sent to the microprocessor
3. Microprocessor samples data received from IR sensors and compares them with stored/required values
4. IF movement is detected and lights are OFF, Microprocessor sends appropriate control signals via DA converters
and Actuators to switch on the security lights
5. The lights remain ON for some time or until no further movement is detected after some time
6. IF lights are already ON, no action is taken
7. System continually monitors the movement in the builsing until it is switched off

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