CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION TO POWER ELECTRONICS

1.1. Introduction

Power Electronics is a subject that deals with electrical systems rated at power level rather than
signal level. The era of modern power electronics started with invention of SCR (silicon-controlled
rectifier) by bell laboratories in 1956. Since then, many new power semiconductor devices are
emerged.

Power electronics combines power, electronics, and control. Control deals with the steady-state
and dynamic characteristics of closed-loop systems. Power deals with the static and rotating power
equipment for the generation, transmission, and distribution of electric energy. Electronics deal
with the solid-state devices and circuits for signal processing to meet the desired control objectives.
Power electronics may be defined as the application of solid-state electronics for the control and
conversion of electric power. There is more than one way to define power electronics. One could
also define power electronics as the art of converting electrical energy from one form to another
in an efficient, clean, compact, and robust manner for the energy utilization to meet the desired
needs. c is shown in Figure 1.1.

Figure 1.1. Relationship of power electronics to power, electronics, and control

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The arrow points to the direction of the current flow from anode (A) to cathode (K). It can be
turned on and OFF by a signal to the gate terminal (G). Without any gate signal, it normally
remains in the OFF-state, behaves as an open circuit, and can withstand a voltage across the
terminals A and K. The main application of power electronics is in converter systems like AC-AC,
AC-DC, DC-DC, and DC-AC. With the emergence of power electronic devices like SCR, IGBT,
MOSFET, BJT, GTO etc…, the conventional converters (controllers) like thyratrons, mercury arc
rectifiers, electromechanical rectifiers, magnetic amplifiers, and rheostatic controllers have been
replaced by power electronic controllers using power semiconductor devices. The use of power
semiconductor devices in conjunction with microprocessors and micro controllers further
enhanced the control capabilities of the converter systems.

1.1.1. Power Electronics Versus Linear Electronics

In any power conversion process such as that shown by the block diagram in Figure 1.2, a small
power loss and hence a high energy efficiency is important because of two reasons: the cost of the
wasted energy and the difficulty in removing the heat generated due to dissipated energy. Other
important considerations are reduction in size, weight, and cost.

Figure 1.2. Basic block diagram of power electronics

The above objectives in most systems cannot be met by linear electronics where the semiconductor
devices are operated in their linear (active) region and a line-frequency transformer is used for
electrical isolation. As an example, consider the DC power supply of Figure 1.3 to provide a
regulated output voltage Vo to a load. The utility input may be typically at 120 or 240V and the
output voltage may be, for example, 5V. The output is required to be electrically isolated from the
utility input. In the linear power supply, a line-frequency transformer is used to provide electrical
isolation and for stepping down the line voltage. The rectifier converts the AC output of the
transformer low-voltage winding into DC. The filter capacitor reduces the ripple in the DC voltage
Vd. Figure l.4 shows the Vd waveform, which depends on the utility voltage magnitude (normally
in a ± 10% range around its nominal value). The transformer turns ratio must be chosen such that

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the minimum of the input voltage Vd is greater than the desired output Vo for the range of the input
voltage waveforms shown in Figure l.4, the transistor is controlled to absorb the voltage difference
between Vd and Vo, thus providing a regulated output. The transistor operates in its active region
as an adjustable resistor, resulting in a low energy efficiency. The line-frequency transformer is
relatively large and heavy.

Figure 1.3. Linear DC power supply

Figure 1.4. Unregulated output voltage Vd wave form

In power electronics, the above voltage regulation and the electrical isolation are achieved, for
example, by means of a circuit shown in Figure 1.5. In this system, the utility input is rectified into
a DC voltage Vd, without a line-frequency transformer. By operating the transistor as a switch (in
a switch mode, either fully on or fully OFF) at some high switching frequency f., for example at
300kHz, the DC voltage Vd is converted into an AC voltage at the switching frequency. This allows
a high-frequency transformer to be used for stepping down the voltage and for providing the
electrical isolation. In order to simplify this circuit for analysis, we will begin with the DC voltage
Vd as the DC input and omit the transformer, resulting in an equivalent circuit shown in Figure l.6.

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 Figure 1.5. Switched mode power supply

Figure 1.6. Simplified switched mode power supply

1.2. Types of Power Semiconductors

Based on (i) turn ON & turn OFF characteristics (ii) Gate signal requirement and (iii) Degree of
controllability, the power semiconductor devices are classified as under the following condtions.

(a) Diodes: these are uncontrolled rectifying devices. Their ON & OFF state are controlled by
power supply.
(b) Thyristors: ON state can be obtained by gate signal. But to turn OFF, a power
(commutation) circuit is required.

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 (c) Controllable switches: ON state & OFF state can be controllable using gate signal.

Summary of power electronics devices capabilities are given below in Figure 1.7 and Figure 1.8.

Figure 1.7. Power electronics device capabilities

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 Figure 1.8. Classifications of power semiconductor devices

Table 1.1. shows few power semiconductor switches along with their symbols and maximum
ratings.

Table 1.1. Power electronic device symbols, ratings, and types

Device Symbol Maximum
Type
ratings

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 Diode 5000 V, 5000 A

Uncontrolled
switches
1 kHz

SCR (silicon-controlled 7000 V, 5000 A

rectifier) 1 kHz

LASCR (light activated 6000 V, 3000 A

SCR) 1 kHz

ASCR/RCT 2500 V, 400 A

(Asymmetrical SCR) 2 kHz
(Reverse conduction
thyristor)

GTO (gate-turn off 5000 V, 3000 A

Thyristors

thyristor) 2 kHz

SITH (static induction 2500 V, 500 A

thyristor) 100 kHz

MCT (MOS controlled 1200 V, 40 A

thyristor) 20 kHz

Triac 1200 V, 1000 A

0.5 kHz

BJT (bipolar junction 1400 V, 400 A

transistor) 10 kHz
Controlled Switches

MOSFET (metal-oxide 1000 V, 50 A

semiconductor field 100 kHz
effect transistor)

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 SIT (static induction 1200 V, 300 A
transistor) 100 kHz

IGBT (insulated gate 1200 V, 500 A

bipolar transistor) 50 kHz

1.3. Types of Power Electronic Converters

For the control of electric power or power conditioning, the conversion of electric power from one
form to another is necessary and the switching characteristics of the power devices permit these
conversions. The static power converters perform these functions of power conversions. A
converter may be considered as a switching matrix, in which one or more switches are turned on
and connected to the supply source in order to obtain the desired output voltage or current. The
power electronics circuits can be classified into six types: Diode rectifiers, DC–DC converters (DC
choppers), DC–AC converters (inverters), AC–DC converters (controlled rectifiers), AC–AC
converters (AC voltage controllers), and Static switches.

The switching devices in the following converters are used to illustrate the basic principles only.
The switching action of a converter can be performed by more than one device. The choice of a
particular device depends on the voltage, current, and speed requirements of the converter.

1.3.1. Diode Rectifiers

A diode rectifier converts AC voltage into fixed DC voltage. This is an uncontrolled converter. A
diode conducts when its anode voltage is higher than the cathode voltage, and it offers a very small
voltage drop, ideally zero voltage, but typically 0.7V. A diode behaves as an open circuit when its
cathode voltage is higher than the anode voltage, and it offers a very high resistance, ideally infinite
resistance, but typically 10 kΩ. The output voltage is a pulsating dc, but it is distorted. The input
may be either single phase or three phase based on power requirement. The average output voltage
can be calculated from Vo (AVG) = 2Vm/π. The input voltage Vi to the rectifier could be either
single phase or three phase.

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 Figure 1.9. Single-phase diode rectifier circuit

These are used in electric traction, battery charging, electroplating, electrochemical processing,
power supplies, welding and UPS (uninterruptible Power Supply) and contains harmonics.

1.3.2. AC to DC Converters (Phase Controlled Rectifiers)

These converts AC voltage (single phase or three phase) in to variable (controllable) DC Voltage.
A single-phase converter with two natural commutated thyristors is shown in Figure 1.10. A
thyristor normally remains in an off-state and can be turned on by applying a gate pulse of
approximately 10 V with a duration 100μs. When thyristor T1 is turned on at a delay angle of ωt =
α, the supply voltage appears across load and thyristor T1 is turned off automatically when its
current falls to zero at ωt = π. When thyristor T2 is turned on at a delay angle of ωt = π + α, the
negative part of the supply voltage appears the across the load in the positive direction and thyristor
T2 is turned off automatically when its current falls to zero at ωt = 2π.

The average output voltage can be found from Vo (AVG) = (1 + cos α)Vm/π. At a delay angle of
α = 0, this converter operates as a diode rectifier, as shown in Figure 1.9. The average value of
the output voltage Vo can be controlled by varying the conduction time of thyristors or firing delay
angle, α. The input could be a single- or three-phase source. These converters are also known as
controlled rectifiers. The turn OFF of the thyristor device can be obtained by nature of the AC
voltage in case of rectifiers. Hence, these are also called as line commutated or naturally
commutated AC to DC converters. These are used in control of DC drives, excitation systems,
chemical industries, etc.

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 Figure 1.10. Single phase-controlled rectifier

1.3.3. DC to DC Converters (DC choppers)

A DC chopper converts fixed DC voltage to a variable (controllable) DC voltage. As natural or

line commutation is not possible in choppers, for low power application controllable switches
(IGBT, MOSFET etc.) are used. For high power applications SCRs are used. A DC–DC converter
is also known as a chopper, or switching regulator, and a transistor chopper is shown in Figure
1.11. When transistor Q1 is turned on by applying a gate voltage VGE, the DC supply is connected
to the load and the instantaneous output voltage is Vo = +Vs.

Figure 1.11. DC-DC converter circuit

When transistor Q1 is turned off by removing the gate voltage VGE, the DC supply is disconnected
from the load and the instantaneous output voltage is Vo = 0. The average output voltage becomes
Vo (AVG) = t1Vs/T =δVs. Therefore, the average output voltage can be varied by controlling the

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duty cycle. The average output voltage Vo is controlled by varying the conduction time t, of
transistor Q1. If T is the chopping period, then t1 = δT. δ is known as the duty cycle of the chopper.
Choppers are used in DC drives, subway cars, trolley trucks, battery driven vehicles, etc.

1.3.4. DC to AC Converters (Inverters)

An inverter converts fixed DC voltage to variable AC voltage with variable frequency (both are
controllable). A DC–AC converter is also known as an inverter. A single-phase transistor inverter
is shown in Figure 1.12. When MOSFETs M1 and M2 are turned on by applying gate voltages, the
DC supply voltage Vs appears across the load and the instantaneous output voltage is Vo = +Vs.
Similarly, when MOSFETs M3 and M4 are turned on by applying gate voltages, the DC supply
voltage VS appears across the load in the opposite direction. That is, the instantaneous output
voltage is Vo = −Vs. If transistors M1 and M2 conduct for one half of a period and M3 and M4
conduct for the other half, the output voltage is of the alternating form.

Figure 1.12. DC-AC converters

The rms value of the output voltage becomes Vo(rms) = VS. However, the output voltage contains
harmonics which could be filtered out before supplying to the load. In case inverters also line or
natural commutation is not possible. These are used in induction motor drives, synchronous motor
drives, induction heating, UPS, HVDC transmission systems, etc.

1.3.5. AC to AC converters

These convert fixed AC voltage to variable (controllable) AC voltage. There are two types of
regulators. These converters are used to obtain a variable AC output voltage Vo from a fixed AC
source and a single-phase converter with a TRIAC is shown in Figure 1.13. A TRIAC allows a

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current flow in both directions. It can be turned on by applying gate voltages at ωt = α for a current
flow in the positive direction, and also at ωt = π + α for a current flow in the negative direction.
The output voltage is controlled by varying the conduction time of a TRIAC or firing delay angle,
α. These types of converters are also known as AC voltage controllers.

Figure 1.13. AC-AC converter (TRIAC)

AC voltage controllers (AC voltage regulators): These convert fixed AC voltage to variable AC
voltage without change of frequency. In these converters two thyristors are connected in anti
parallel or TRIACs are used. Turn OFF of the devices can be obtained by natural or line
commutation. This method of controlling is very cheap but it introduces more harmonics in the
supply system. These are used in lighting control, speed control of fans, pumps, etc.

Cycloconverters: These convert fixed AC voltage to variable AC voltage with variable frequency
(both are controllable). For AC motors control using inverters, both rectifier and inverters are
required as our supply system is AC. First AC is converted in to DC, and DC is converted to AC
of variable voltage and variable frequency. But using cycloconverter, it can be obtained by single
stage conversion. It requires forced commutation and is very complex in circuitry.

1.3.6. Static Switches

The power semiconductor devices can be operating as static switches or contactors. Static switches
posses many advantages over mechanical and electromagnetic circuit breakers. Figure 1.14. shows
the replacement of electromechanical switches with static switches using TRIAC AC-AC
converter circuit.

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 Figure 1.14. Static switch and electromechanical switches.

Table 1.2 summarizes the conversion types, their functions, and their symbols.

Table 1.2 Conversion Types and Symbols

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A number of conversion stages are often cascaded to produce the desired output, as shown in
Figure 1.15. Mains 1 supplies the normal AC supply to the load through the static bypass. The
AC–DC converter charges the standby battery from mains 2. The DC–AC converter supplies the
emergency power to the load through an isolating transformer. Mains 1 and mains 2 are normally
connected to the same AC supply.

Figure 1.15. Block diagram of an uninterruptible power supply (UPS).

1.4. Applications of Power Electronics

Power Electronics have already found an important place in modern technology and are now used
in a great variety of high-power products, including heat controls, light controls, motor controls,
power supplies, vehicle propulsion systems, and high voltage direct current systems.

Computer System: Figure 1.16 below shows the distributed architecture typically used in
computers in which the incoming AC voltage from the utility is converted in to DC voltages, for
example at 24V.

Figure 1.16. Block diagram of power distribution in computer system

Cell Operated Equipment: Many devices such as cell phones operate from low battery voltages
with one or two battery cells as inputs. Figure 1.17. above shows the DC-DC converter needed in
cell operated equipment.

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 Figure 1.17. Cell operated devices and boost converter

Induction heating and electric welding: Induction heating and electric welding shown by their
block diagrams are other important industrial applications of Power electronics for flexible
productions.

Figure 1.18. Induction heating

Figure 1.19. Electric welding

Electric motor driven systems: Traditionally, motor driven systems run at a nearly constant speed
and their output, for example, flow rate in a pump is controlled by wasting a portion of the input
energy across a throttling valve.

Figure 1.20. (a) constant speed application (b) Adjustable speed drive

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Lighting: Fluorescent lights are more efficient than incandescent lights by a factor of three to four.
The efficiency of fluorescent lights can be further improved by using high-frequency power
electronic ballasts that supply 30kHz to 40kHz to the light bulb, as shown by the block diagram
below, further increasing the efficiency by approximately 15percent.

Figure 1.21. Controlling of fluorescent lamps using power electronics converters

Renewable Energy: In photovoltaic systems, solar cells produce DC that requires a power
electronics interface to transfer power into the utility system as shown below.

Figure 1.22. Converting of DC voltages in to AC voltage using Power electronics

Wind Power System: Figure below shows the need of power electronics in wind-electric systems
to interface variable frequency AC to the line-frequency AC voltages of the utility grid.

Figure 1.23. Applications of AC- AC converters using power electronics

Air-Conditioning System (Drive application): Power converter may be any one of the four
converters.

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 Figure 1.24. Air conditioning drive system

With the increasing energy demands around the world, there is a new era of renewable energy.
Power electronics is an integral part of renewable energy for its transmission, distribution, and
storage. The research and development for energy-efficient automobiles will also lead to increased
applications and development of power electronics. Various applications of power electronics are
shown in the diagram given below.

Figure 1.25. Power electronics systems in different applications

The list above is however not exhaustive, no boundaries can be marked for the applications of
power electronics. The ratings of power electronics devices range from few watts in lamp or fan

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to several hundred megawatts in HVDC applications. It is believed that in future all the power
consumed in utilities will pass through power electronic devices only. Advantages and
disadvantages of power electronic devices is mentioned in Table 1.3.

Table 1.3. Power electronics system advantages and disadvantages

Advantages Disadvantages
• Highest efficiency, • Tendency to generate harmonics,
• Fast operation, • Results in poor power factor when using as
• Suitable for variable power supply, rectifier,
• Highest reliability, • Sometimes regeneration is difficulty,
• No moving parts, • Heat dissipation problem at high power levels,
• Low cost, compact in size, and less • No filed serviceable parts,
weight. • No overloading capacity.

Figure 1.26 shows power versus frequency ranges of power semiconductor devices for various
applications.

Figure 1.26. Applications and frequency range of power devices

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