CERT

C TIFICA
ATE IN
N
NAV
VAL ARCHIT
TECT
TURE

MODULE
E1

Introdu
uction to Nava
al Archittecture
e

A
AUTHOR
RS

David Aldwinc
A h.D., C.Eng., F
ckle, B..Sc., Ph FRINA..

Erric Tupp
per, BS
Sc., C.E
Eng

Welcome to the free tria

al of Module 1 of
o Certificate in
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ecture

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a

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 CONTENTS

Page No.

GENERAL. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

1. DEFINING NAVAL ARCHITECTURE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

1.1 What is Naval Architecture?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

1.2 History and Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3 Recent Developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.4 Principal Areas of Knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.5 The Role of the Naval Architect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.6 Relationship to Other Engineering Disciplines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.7 The Approach in this Course . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.8 Worked Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.9 Self-assessment Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

2. SOME BASIC TOOLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

2.1 Definitions – GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

2.2 Defining a Ship’s Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.2.1 Defining the Length of a Ship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.2.2 Defining the Transverse Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.2.3 Freeboard and Load Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.2.4 Coefficients of Fineness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.2.5 Curve of Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.3 Displacement and Weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.3.1 The Deadweight Coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.3.2 The Deadweight Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.4 Tonnage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.4.1 Gross Tonnage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.4.2 Net Tonnage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Certificate in Naval Architecture 2014 1-1

Contents Module 1

2.5 Nomenclature and Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

2.6 Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

3. AREAS, VOLUMES AND MOMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

3.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.2 Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.3 Volumes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.4 Moments of Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.4.1 Second Moments of Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.4.2 Moments of Volume. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.5 The Centre of Buoyancy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.6 The Centre of Gravity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.7 The Transverse Metacentre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

4. APPROXIMATE INTEGRATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

4.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4.2 Simpson’s Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4.3 Tchebycheff’s Rules. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
4.4 Spreadsheets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4.5 The Table of Offsets and Displacement Sheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

ANSWERS TO SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

WORKED EXAMPLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

ANNEX A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

A.1 Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
A.2 Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

BIBLIOGRAPHY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Some useful websites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

1-2 Certificate in Naval Architecture 2014

Module 1 Contents

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Certificate in Naval Architecture 2014 1-3

 GENERAL

Ships are arguably among the most complex of modern engineering projects. They
represent the largest man-made mobile structures. Their design, building, maintenance
and operation, in all of which naval architects play a major role or exert considerable
influence, are fascinating activities. A wide range of knowledge and an ability to think
clearly and innovatively are required.

Ships are vital to any country’s economic success as they still carry some 95% of the
world’s trade. They vary considerably in shape, size, speed and layout. This variation
depends upon their intended role and reflects the different requirements of the owner/
operator and the use to which the ship is to be put. The style of a ship for carrying oil in
bulk will differ considerably from that of a cruise liner carrying some 2,000 people. A ship
intended to operate in ice will require a much stronger structure than a ship operating in
the tropics. However, the design of all ships must obey the basic rules of naval architecture
if they are to be run safely and economically. It is these basic rules that this course
covers.

Ships are much slower than aircraft but need to stay at sea for very long
periods – sometimes weeks, or even months, at a time – often with many people on board.
Some ships are effectively floating towns with shops, power generation and all the
trappings of modern civilisation. Further, ships, apart from submarines, have to operate
at the interface between water and air both of which can become very rough. In addition
to being economic in use a ship must be safe and must have as small an impact upon its
environment as possible.

Over the years, with experience and improving technology, ships have become more
efficient and many specialist categories have evolved, suited to specific tasks such as
servicing off-shore rigs, carrying liquefied natural gas, or providing a holiday environment
for large numbers of people. This process has accelerated in recent years due to the
increasing use of computers; first for individual calculations and then in comprehensive
computer-aided design and manufacture (CAD/CAM) packages; in simulations of ship
layouts and operations and in aiding a master in running the ship.

All these topics will be addressed in more detail in this and the other modules of this
course. The student will gain a broad appreciation of naval architectural principles and
how they are applied to individual designs. The course will also cover the regulation,
national and international, of ships, their design and operation.

As with other engineering disciplines, ships and naval architecture are developing all the
while. Apart from checking that the latest regulations are being used, students should
keep abreast of what is going on in the maritime field. This can best be done by joining
one of the learned societies such as The Royal Institution of Naval Architects (RINA) or
the US Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers (SNAME). This will provide
access to useful journals and technical conferences which help with the student’s
continuing professional development.

1-4 Certificate in Naval Architecture 2014

1. DEFINING NAVAL ARCHITECTURE

LEARNING OUTCOMES

When you have completed this chapter you will have a broad understanding of:

• what naval architecture involves;

• how it developed;

• the roles of the naval architect; and

• the approach adopted for this course.

1.1 WHAT IS NAVAL ARCHITECTURE?

This question has been debated over many years and there are still many views as to the
best answer. Probably the most comprehensive answer to the question is provided by
Ferreiro (2007). He defines naval architecture as

“The branch of engineering concerned with the application of ship theory within the design
and construction process, with the purpose of predicting the characteristics and
performance of the ship before it is built.”

Ship theory he defines as

“The science explaining the physical behaviour of a ship, through the use of fundamental
mathematics or empirically derived data.”

Until the advent of the physical understanding brought about by theoretical developments
in mathematics, ship design remained a craft where skills were passed down from one
generation to another and learning was by trial and error. This is the “art” of the artisan.
The importance of such acquired knowledge is illustrated by the fact that in 1666 Samuel
Pepys records in his diary a meeting with a Mr. Deane who explained to him his method
of “casting the draught of water which a ship will draw before-hand: which is a secret the
King and all admire in him”.

Over the years, by applying the latest mathematical and scientific theories, the naval
architect was able to produce more efficient and safer designs, but up until the mid-twentieth
century progress was largely a gradual development of existing, proven, designs. The
arrival of the computer made more rapid progress possible. Finite element analysis (FEA)
and computational fluid dynamics (CFD) methods opened the way to being able to produce
radically different design configurations with confidence. Hydrodynamic, structural and
materials research provided much greater knowledge to assist in developing the theories.

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Defining Naval Architecture Module 1

Over the years there has been much debate on whether naval architecture is an “Art” or a
“Science”. Indeed, the first chapter in Rawson and Tupper (2001) is entitled “Art or
science?”. They felt that it would be wrong to say that the art and craft of early years has
been totally replaced by science and that the real answer is that it is both. Although naval
architecture is increasingly based on science there is still a significant element of art in
creating a great design that is beautiful and efficient. In this sense it parallels the architecture
of land-based structures. The aspect of beauty, admittedly not possessed by all ships,
parallels the art of the traditional artist. Efficiency comes from the art of blending so many
diverse factors into an acceptable and efficient whole. Both aspects require creativity;
which is the hallmark of the successful artist. It is this less tangible input which is the mark
of a good naval architect, as opposed to a merely proficient one, and which makes naval
architecture such a fascinating and demanding study.

1.2 HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT

From very early times humans found that the easiest way of getting round (by coast) or
through (by rivers) a country was by water. Indeed, it was the only way of getting from
island to island or from an island to the mainland. Perhaps they noted the trunk of a tree
floating down a river and they would soon have discovered that lashing several trunks
together gave a platform on which goods could be carried. They would have found that
hollowing out a large trunk and shaping the outer surface created a canoe (as it would now
be termed) in which faster travel was possible together with a degree of control over
direction. Hence early man ventured on to the water. Where trees were not plentiful these
early people would have used other materials to create their water going craft – the coracle,
for instance.

On dug-out tree trunks, planks were fitted to the upper edges to increase the depth; from
which the clinker or lap strake construction of the wooden Viking long ships and their
descendants evolved.

Over the years the early people would have found, by trial and error, how to load a raft
more safely, how a rudder could assist in manoeuvring and so on. As tools improved, and
means of joining timber were developed, bigger craft could be built. The development over
the years leading to the Greek triremes is a good example. Some craft were for commercial
purposes, others for fighting. Groups of people soon learnt that control of the water gave
them great influence over their neighbours. The great Venetian empire was based on sea
power and the Venetians developed systems for building ships quickly in their arsenal.
Later Lord Nelson, by his victories at sea, gave Britain a commanding position for
developing its sea trade by which, in due course, the goods from the Industrial Revolution
were distributed worldwide.

As human knowledge of mathematics and science improved, craft could be produced with
greater chance of success. Humans came to understand what made one form safer, less
resistant to motion and more successful than another. Then developments of new materials
led to larger, stronger, ships. Things accelerated with the Industrial Revolution and even
more after World War II with modern technology and the computer.

Archimedes understood some 2,000 years ago that a floating body displaced its own
weight of water and during the seventeenth century various mathematicians, including
Newton, developed theories which would later aid the would-be naval architect. However,
it is generally accepted that naval architecture, as such, dates from the middle of the

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Module 1 Defining Naval Architecture

eighteenth century with Paul Bouguer. He is regarded as “the Father of Naval Architecture”.
Before his Traité du Navire designers had no rules to guide them in creating a ship with
specific characteristics and behaviour. Unfortunately, his work was not widely known and
it was not until the later work of Bernoulli, Euler, Chapman and others, that really useful
advances were made. Initially this was mainly in mainland Europe but come the latter part
of the nineteenth century knowledge in Britain developed rapidly with the work of such
great figures as Scott Russell, Rankine and the two Froudes.

William Froude put model testing firmly on the map. He showed how models could be used
to predict full-scale resistance and power requirements, explaining why a ship which was
geometrically similar to a good model would not necessarily be good at the larger scale. In
1905 R.E. Froude laid the foundations for the study of ship motions in irregular seas when
he wrote in the context of regular wave experiments:

“Irregular waves such as those commonly met with at sea – are only a
compound of a number of regular systems (individually of a comparatively
small magnitude) of various periods, ranging through the whole gamut (so
to speak) represented by our diagrams and more. And the effect of such a
compound wave series on the models would be more or less a compound
of the effects proper to the individual units composing it.”

Unfortunately the mathematics of the day were not up to dealing with this problem. That
had to await the early 1950s when St Denis and Pierson (1953) introduced a new theory
of sea wave behaviour and its effects on ship responses. The approach then developed,
using strip theory and response amplitude operators, has since been overtaken by more
advanced analysis methods although the theory used is still essentially based on the
Froude concept.

Dissemination of knowledge was greatly facilitated by the advent of printing. Ferreiro

(2007) points out that by 1700 only two books on naval architecture had been published.
Both of these were in French, but by 1800 there were almost three dozen books in eight
languages. Today the internet provides access to a wealth of information but it must be
used with care and its accuracy checked against other sources.

1.3 RECENT DEVELOPMENTS

Huge changes in the practice of naval architecture have occurred over the last 50 years or
so with the advent of the computer and other technological developments. For one thing,
we now have a better understanding of the environment in which a ship operates. Satellites
can record wave heights and profiles and, as a result, we know that the freak waves
mariners have reported over many years, and for which they were often scorned, really do
exist. The meeting of a high “wall of water” is not a myth. Also, they occur more frequently
than oceanographers thought possible, leading to improved theories on wave generation.
The computer’s ability to handle large calculations quickly enables new mathematical
treatments to be applied to the design of a ship. To quote a few (some terms may be
unfamiliar but they will be explained during the course):

• Rather than representing a ship’s hull in two dimensions using a lines plan and a
table of offsets it can be represented in three dimensions using curved surface
elements. The shape so derived can be faired mathematically and fed directly into
other programs such as those establishing the ship’s hydrostatic and stability

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Defining Naval Architecture Module 1

characteristics. It can also be fed directly into computer controlled production

processes.

• Hydrodynamic forces and the ship responses involved in propelling, turning a ship,
and in its response to waves, can be studied using CFD. Structural responses can
be established using FEA. These advanced methods allow the designer to dispense
with many of the simplifying assumptions needed to make problems tractable when
“manual” methods of computation were used. In ship motions, for instance, it is
possible to allow for the interaction between the various responses and non-linear
effects can be studied. The structure can be analysed “globally” and then its more
detailed features studied on a local basis. The ship’s structural responses to irregular
waves can be treated as the dynamic problem it is, rather than by the earlier quasi-
static methods in which a ship is balanced on a standard wave form. Having said that,
the course describes many of the earlier, simpler, analyses carried out as they often
provide a clearer picture of what is happening physically for someone without
advanced mathematical knowledge.

• Using three-dimensional computer-generated models allows a designer to decide

the runs of cables and pipes throughout the hull in a way which avoids conflict and
ensures there is adequate space for operation, repair and replacement. In a good
program the computer will check automatically for things such as these and highlight
any potential problems. Other features such as the normal movements of people and
supplies about the ship and evacuation routes can be studied. This gives the designer
more control over the final product but requires a knowledge of shipyard processes.

• Many more design concepts can be studied rapidly in the early design phase to find
the design that best suits an owner’s requirements.

• For complex topics, for which previously a designer could only afford to carry out a
few calculations – on situations judged to be “worst case scenarios” – the computer
can churn out hundreds of calculations on different possible incidents. Damaged
stability after a ship takes on water is an example where the designer is freed from
the deterministic approach – study of a prescribed extent of underwater damage –
and can use probabilistic methods. These are more realistic in view of the random
nature of collisions at sea, and allow the many different types of ship to be considered
on their own merits.

• Modern statistical methods can be used, together with data from operations, to
establish the probability of certain things happening and their severity when they do.
A risk analysis can then be conducted using the likelihood of an incident occurring,
its consequences and the benefits of taking action to reduce the frequency of
occurrence or to reduce the consequences. No ship can be entirely safe – if any
proof was needed, the Titanic provided it – and improved safety comes at a cost in
money and, sometimes, reduced ship efficiency. Carrying out a risk analysis allows
considered judgements to be made balancing up all the factors involved.

Although these new computer-based tools are very powerful they must be used with care.
It is not so much the problem of “garbage in, garbage out” (although that old adage still
applies) but rather ensuring the program is really suited to the problem in hand; are the
boundary conditions the same as those assumed in the software?; what are the simplifying
assumptions made? It is still necessary for the naval architect to use common sense and

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Module 1 Defining Naval Architecture

consider whether the answer provided by the computer is a reasonable one. If it isn’t,
further investigation is needed. In FEA, for instance, the size of the mesh must be chosen
wisely. A very fine mesh will lead to infinite stress at the end of a crack but how is this to
be interpreted in a real ship structure? Fatigue tests on typical structural elements are
needed to show what can be tolerated – and the best mesh size to use in analysis of such
elements.

Even with advanced programs the real world must be considered. Could results be affected
by tolerances and imperfections in manufacture? The fatigue strength of a structure may
be seriously degraded by weld defects. An operator may use the ship in a way not foreseen
in design. So some margin must be allowed to cover these factors. It is this kind of
imponderable that makes naval architecture so interesting and which partly accounts for
why it can still be regarded an art as well as a science. It also illustrates the potential
benefits of naval architects spending periods at sea to experience that “real world”.

1.4 PRINCIPAL AREAS OF KNOWLEDGE

As touched on above, the principal areas of knowledge involved in naval architecture are
applied mathematics, statics, hydrodynamics, structures and materials. Some students
may have come across these allied topics in previous courses. This course attempts to
bring them together and show how they input to the work of the naval architect. Also
important are a knowledge of manufacturing processes and of human factors in its
broadest sense.

Mathematics is key as it underpins the theories developed for, and applied to, the others
listed. First it gave researchers a guide as to the parameters to be considered in the
behaviour of ships. The importance of fluid viscosity to the resistance of ships is an
example. Then as experimental data (model or full scale) became available the mathematical
theories could be improved. For instance, mathematics provided the equations of motion
for a ship manoeuvring and model experiments provided the value of the coefficients in the
equations. These equations could then be input to analogue computers to simulate the
motions. Later the theories were developed so that digital computers could be used to
calculate the motions for a given form.

1.5 THE ROLE OF THE NAVAL ARCHITECT

In what follows the term “ship” is used in the broadest sense of a floating structure. This
may be a displacement vessel (weight supported by the displaced water), high-speed craft
(with the weight of the craft partly supported by dynamic forces arising from the craft’s high
forward speed), surface effect ship (where the vessel rides above the water surface
supported on a cushion of air); and yacht or off-shore structure. The roles of naval architects
are very varied and interesting. The main activities in which they are likely to be involved
are listed below. Marine structures such as harbours and jetties are the responsibility of the
civil engineer.

Ship design. In this the naval architect leads the discussions with the “customer” and then
co-ordinates the work of the various disciplines involved in creating the design in response
to the finally agreed requirements. The naval architect would normally act as the project
manager. To do this requires a broad knowledge of all the other disciplines involved.

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Defining Naval Architecture Module 1

Materials’ Technology. Theory and practice of metallurgy, plastics engineering, glass

technology and wood technology.

Building. As a designer in ensuring the detailed design is developed in accord with the
general design intent and that this is reflected in the vessel as built. Also taking the lead in
trials conducted to prove acceptability of the finished ship. Such activities require frequent
visits to the ship. The naval architect employed by a builder will ensure that the ship is
constructed and fitted out in accordance with the design specifications and drawings and
set up the trials to demonstrate this.

Maintenance. As a manager in a shipyard responsible for co-ordinating the repair,

modernisation and conversion of ships. Such changes may have been specified by a naval
architect working for the owner/operator either as a member of staff or as a consultant or
by the shipyard’s naval architect in liaison with the owner.

Surveying. As a surveyor, overseeing the construction, modernisation or repair of a ship

on behalf of an owner, an insurance company or classification society.

Operations. Advising owners and masters on how to get the best from the ship and help
resolve problems arising in service.

Research. Carrying out research into hydrodynamics, structures, materials or human

factors. This may be at a dedicated research establishment or at university.

At university. Some naval architects spend a career in academia tutoring and carrying out
research or move between academia and industry.

Insurance matters. Naval architects may be called upon to help settle disputes concerning
loss or damage to a ship or its contents. They can be called as expert witnesses because
of their specialist knowledge.

Disposal of ship. Advising on special precautions needed in breaking up a

ship – due, say, to the presence of hazardous substances.

It will be clear from the above that a naval architect’s career is likely to involve a variety of
interesting experiences with a great deal of responsibility. Upon his, or her, decisions the
safety of a ship, and the people on board, will depend. Large sums of money are involved
with many projects costing hundreds of millions of pounds. Except for some small craft
there are no prototypes. The consequences of error are great.

The lives of a number of influential people in the profession are outlined in Walker (2010),
giving an idea of their interesting and varied careers.

1.6 RELATIONSHIP TO OTHER ENGINEERING DISCIPLINES

To produce an efficient design, or to ensure that construction goes as planned, a naval

architect must work closely with many engineering disciplines. He, or she, will also have to
liaise closely with financial staff to ensure the cost implications of the design are clearly
understood. In every case he, or she, must have an adequate understanding of the other
disciplines to be able to communicate satisfactorily. Those in the main engineering
disciplines involved are the following:

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• Marine engineers for the main machinery and various machinery items fitted in the
ship. Apart from the space, weight and cost of items, each will have its own
characteristics which must be compatible with other ship features. Thus the main
machinery must produce the right power at shaft revolutions suited to the propeller
characteristics. There will be air supplies, exhausts, seatings, pipework and cabling
to be run through the ship.

• Electrical engineers who are responsible for the ship’s generators and the multitude
of power supplies to be run through the ship.

• Electronic engineers for the sensors and control systems which are becoming more
and more complex and extensive.

• Materials experts for an understanding of the properties, characteristics and methods

of working and joining the various constructional materials, including alloys and
composites. Also there are fittings made from different materials all of which must
survive in the corrosive environment of the oceans.

• The paint technologists for the various coatings – internal and external – which must
protect the hull and not leach out dangerous chemicals into the sea, fuel or ballast
water.

• Human factors and ergonomic practitioners.

• Computer IT professions.

In addition, the naval architect will need to work closely with financial and contracts staff to
ensure they understand the design intent and its importance for cost and in contract
negotiations. Contracts may contain penalty clauses setting out the consequences of not
achieving key requirements such as delivery date or speed.

1.7 THE APPROACH IN THIS COURSE

From what has been written above, it will be appreciated that our ability to carry out
complex calculations is improving and the actual practice of naval architecture is changing
accordingly. However, the aim of this course is to provide an understanding of the basic
concepts of the subject. For that reason the older ways of doing things will often be invoked.
This is not because they are better – they most definitely are not – but because they are
often more “transparent”. They provide a better “feel” for what is happening than the more
complex modern approaches can (at least not without a lot of study and background
knowledge). For such a wide ranging subject it is only possible to give an outline of what
is involved. This, however, will provide a “skeleton” to which deeper studies can be
added.

This is a distance learning course which means that students will lack day-to-day contact
with other students and tutors. Students should use the Forum and chat room on the LMA
website to seek guidance if they are uncertain of any point in the modules. They should
also use them to get to know the other students and discuss what they hope to achieve
and how they are progressing. Students can benefit greatly from such interaction.

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1.8 WORKED EXAMPLES

Where calculations are involved, and to illustrate topics discussed in the main text, worked
examples are included at the end of a module. They are to help the student understand the
principles involved and the arithmetic is kept as simple as possible so that the student does
not “lose sight of the wood for the trees”.

1.9 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

A number of self-assessment questions are posed during each module. These are to
provide students with a chance to review what they have been learning. In some instances
these questions involve calculations and then the answers are provided within the question.
In case the student finds difficulty in answering such questions worked solutions are
provided at the end of the module. In most cases the questions are descriptive and then
the material for the answers will be found within the main text. Students are encouraged to
put their answers to such questions on the LMA website so that they can compare with,
and hopefully learn from, other students.

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2. SOME BASIC TOOLS

Learning Outcomes

When you have completed this chapter you will have a broad understanding of:

• the means of defining a ship’s form;

• the nomenclature used in naval architecture;

• internationally approved notation and units; and

• the concepts of displacement, deadweight and tonnage.

2.1 DEFINITIONS – GENERAL

At first this module may seem simple but somewhat dull. However, it provides important
background knowledge which students (particularly those new to the maritime field) need
to absorb if they are to become naval architects and be able to communicate effectively
with others.

With any engineering product, particularly one as complex as a ship, precision is necessary
in defining its shape and characteristics. This is to ensure the end product accords with the
designer’s intent and to make communication with others clear and unambiguous. In
common with most disciplines, an internationally recognised terminology has grown up
over the years to aid this definition. Some of the terms will be unfamiliar to those coming
new to shipping. Others will be familiar from everyday usage but they may have a special
and very precise meaning in naval architecture. The student will find the GLOSSARY OF
TERMS provided as part of the course material, useful for quick reference but terms will
be described in more detail in the appropriate module where their significance will become
apparent. As an example of the need for precision it is not enough to refer to the right hand
side of a ship. This can be interpreted in different ways – particularly in spaces within a
ship. To refer to the starboard side of the ship is unambiguous. Some important definitions
of features defining a ship’s geometry are outlined below.

2.2 DEFINING A SHIP’S GEOMETRY

A ship’s hull is three-dimensional and, as is usually the case, it is assumed here to be

symmetrical about its middle line, or centreline, plane which is the vertical plane running
along the length of the ship between the bow (the front end of the ship) and the stern (the
rear end). The same general principles apply to asymmetric hulls but the definition becomes
more complex. The shape is defined by its intersections with three mutually orthogonal
planes, that is three planes at right angles to each other. The intersections with horizontal
planes, known as waterplanes whether below or above water, are known as waterlines.

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Those above water define the hull shape above the waterline at which the ship floats. The
intersections with the athwartships planes (that is vertical planes going across the ship)
define the transverse sections of the hull and planes parallel to the middle line plane lead
to what are termed bow and buttock lines, which help the designer visualise the flow of
water over the hull and into the propellers and rudders. The three sets of curves resulting
are shown in a lines plan. These curves can be used to help fair the hull form. The form
below and above the water must be fair for appearance and to reduce resistance. The hull
is fair when all the individual lines are fair and mutually compatible. That is, the distances
from the centreline plane are the same in each view. The external hull shape can be
defined by these distances (called offsets) of the hull surface from the centreline plane at
each transverse section and waterplane. In tabular form these are known as a table of
offsets. Each offset is normal to the centreline plane. With modern computer systems the
form is defined digitally, perhaps using curved patches. This digital form is faired
mathematically and can be used as the input to design calculations and for passing the
form to the shipbuilder.

2.2.1 Defining the Length of a Ship

Figure 2.1
Ship Length

There are five lengths commonly used to define the length of a ship. Three are shown in
Figure 2.1 and they are defined below with their common abbreviations.

• The length overall, LOA. This is the distance between the extreme ends of the ship.
It will determine whether a ship can be accommodated in a given dock or berth.

• The length on the waterline, LWL. This will vary with the draughts at which a ship
is floating. Unless otherwise specified, it should be taken as the length on the design
waterline.

• The length between perpendiculars, LBP. The fore perpendicular is a vertical

line intersecting the bow with the design waterline. The after perpendicular is a
vertical line through some convenient definable point aft, usually through the rudder
stock. The point midway between the perpendiculars is termed amidships. This
length covers the main body of the hull and any extensions fore and aft are often
treated separately when carrying out calculations.

• Scantling length. Used in classification society Rules to determine the required

scantlings. Scantling length is the length between perpendiculars but not less than
96% of LWL, nor need it be more than 97% of LWL.

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• Subdivision length. A length used in damage stability calculations carried out in

accordance with IMO standards. It is basically the ship length embracing the buoyant
hull and the reserve of buoyancy.

Another feature of the middle line plane of a ship is that the upper deck often rises towards
the ends of the ship to make the ship drier in waves. See Figure 2.2. This is known as
sheer. Also the bow, the forward end of the superstructure and masts are usually inclined
to the vertical. This is known as rake.

Figure 2.2
The Middle Line Plane

2.2.2 Defining the Transverse Section

Figure 2.3
The Transverse Section

Figure 2.3 shows typical cross sections of a ship near amidships and near the bow. The
main dimensions are the width, or beam, and depth of the hull. Unless otherwise qualified
the beam is the maximum width of the ship at any point along its length. For many purposes
the figure quoted is the width on the design waterline at amidships, the midpoint between
the perpendiculars. The extreme beam is generally greater and usually occurs at the
upper deck and a little aft of amidships. The depth of the ship is the vertical distance
between the keel and the upper deck of the main hull. If moulded beam or depth is referred
to, the dimensions will be to the inside of the plating. Such dimensions are useful in helping
to define the internal volumes of a ship. Apart from defining the overall size of the ship the
external dimensions help determine its behaviour in hydrodynamic terms.

Other features to be noted in Figure 2.3 are as follows:

• The upper or weather deck is curved transversely to facilitate the drainage of water
to the sides. The amount by which the centre of the deck is above the side is known

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as the camber. Other decks, unlikely to have large quantities of water on them, are
not cambered. This makes the construction and fitting out of the ship easier.

• The beam at the upper deck may be less than that at the waterline. If so, the
difference is known as the tumble home. This makes it easier to protect the side of
the ship with fenders when coming alongside a pier. Conversely, if the beam at deck
is greater than at the waterline the ship is said to have flare. Nearly all ships have
flare towards the bow as an aid to reducing wetness in waves. As the bow comes
down into the water the flare pushes the water and spray outwards.

• The bottom of the hull may rise from the keel to the turn of bilge, which is the outer
lower corner of the hull cross section. This rise is termed the rise of floor.

The height of the deck at side above the waterline is known as the freeboard. The greater
the freeboard, the greater will be the volume of hull above the water. Assuming this volume
is watertight, or mainly so, it represents a reserve of buoyancy should the ship take on
extra weights or lose buoyancy due to partial flooding of the hull. A good freeboard makes
the ship safer and that is why Plimsoll fought so hard to establish minimum freeboards for
ships (see later modules).

2.2.3 Freeboard and Load Lines

All assigned load lines must be marked amidships on each side of the ship, together with
the deck line. Ships intended for the carriage of timber deck cargo are assigned a smaller
freeboard as the deck cargo provides buoyancy if it is submerged, provided the wood deck
cargo is effectively secured to the ship’s structure.

Freeboard is important in determining the ability of a ship to survive the entry of water after
damage. The rules governing the allocation of freeboard were set out in an international
Load Line Convention. The first such Convention, adopted in 1930, was based on the
principle of reserve buoyancy, although it was recognised then that the freeboard should
also ensure adequate stability and avoid excessive stress on the ship’s hull as a result of
overloading. In the 1966 convention, provisions are made for determining the freeboard of
ships by subdivision and damage stability calculations. The regulations take into account
the potential hazards present in different zones and different seasons. An annex contains
additional safety measures concerning doors, freeing ports, hatchways and other items.
The main purpose of these is to ensure the watertight integrity of ships’ hulls below the
freeboard deck.

The rules specify how freeboard is to be calculated and set out minimum standards of clo-
sure of watertight boundaries, hatch covers, ventilators, crew protection and so on.

The result is a load line which is painted boldly on the ship’s side and is as shown in Figure
2.4. The intention is to provide a clear visual check that a ship is not overladen.

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Figure 2.4
Load Line Markings

Because density of water affects the reserve of buoyancy and weather conditions vary with
season and ocean area, different markings are needed for Winter North Atlantic (WNA),
Winter (W), Summer (S), Tropical (T), Fresh (F) and Tropical Fresh (TF). The letters either
side of the circle represent the classifying authority, in this case Lloyd’s Register.

2.2.4 Coefficients of Fineness

The overall dimensions of length, breadth and draught define a ship’s overall size and
determine whether it can use a given dry dock, negotiate a canal or be accommodated in a
given port. A table of offsets accurately defines the three-dimensional shape of the hull.
However, neither set of data provides an immediate feel for the general shape of a hull – neither
how full nor how fine it is. There are commonly used coefficients which can provide this feel
and they are known as coefficients of fineness. They are defined as follows (Figure 2.5).

Figure 2.5
Coefficients of Fineness

• Block coefficient, CB = V/LBT

• Waterplane coefficient, CWP = AW/LB
• Midship area coefficient, CM = AM/BT
• Horizontal (or Longitudinal) prismatic coefficient, CP = V/AML
• Vertical prismatic coefficient, CVP = V/AWT

where V is the volume of displacement, AW is the waterplane area, AM is the underwater

area of the midship section, and L, B and T are the length, beam and draught.

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In comparing values of these coefficients between ships it is important that consistent

definitions of L, B and T are used. Apart from the waterplane coefficient, where length on
waterline is used, length is usually taken as between perpendiculars. B is usually the
maximum beam on the waterline. T is usually taken as the mean draught between
perpendiculars. Also, usually, L, B and T will be measurements of the external hull. See
worked example 1 at the end of this module.

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTION 1

A ship has a length of 158 m, a beam of 17 m and a draught of 6.75 m with a

displacement of 10,000 tonnes and an immersed midship section area of 104 m2.
Assuming a water density of 1.025 tonnes/m3, show that the following values
apply:

• Block coefficient = 0.538

• Longitudinal prismatic coefficient = 0.594

• Midship area coefficient = 0.906

2.2.5 Curve of Areas

Another curve which gives a feel for the general hull shape is the curve of areas. See
Figure 2.6. This is a plot of immersed hull sectional area at each point along the length of
the ship. The area under this curve represents the volume of displacement and its centroid
defines the longitudinal centre of buoyancy (See the next chapter). It is often used in design
for obtaining a first approximation to the underwater form for a new design.

Figure 2.6
Curve of Areas

Large ships often have a constant cross section for a distance fore and aft of amidships. This is
known as a parallel middle body and it makes construction somewhat easier and increases
cargo volume. Over its length the curve of areas will be flat as shown in Figure 2.6.

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2.3 DISPLACEMENT AND WEIGHT

Another broad measure of a ship’s size is its displacement. This is the weight of water
which it displaces and will vary with the condition of the ship. Since it is a weight, a
displacement will be in units of force. The deep displacement or load displacement is
the weight of the ship in the fully loaded condition. The light displacement is essentially
the weight of the hull and machinery – the “fixed” weight. For operational purposes an
owner/operator will be interested in an average sea-going displacement which will be
somewhere between the two. The deadweight is the weight of goods that a merchant ship
can carry and includes cargo, fuel, stores and crew and effects. The weight of the cargo
alone is sometimes referred to as the cargo deadweight. The lightweight corresponds to
the light displacement. Thus deadweight plus lightweight is the load displacement.

2.3.1 The Deadweight Coefficient

An overall measure of the ability to carry things is given by the ratio of the deadweight to
deep displacement and this is termed the deadweight coefficient or ratio. It can be used in
early design by reference to a similar ship already in service. Typical figures would be 0.60
for a container ship, 0.82 for a bulk carrier and 0.86 for a large tanker.

2.3.2 The Deadweight Scale

As an aid to a ship’s master a deadweight scale is often provided. It shows the draught,
deadweight and displacement in tonnes, the TPC and MCT (These measures are discussed
in Module 2). These are given for salt and fresh water relative to load line markings.

2.4 TONNAGE

In spite of the term used, a ship’s tonnage refers to its volume not its weight. The measurement
of a ship’s size by this method dates back many centuries when a standard size of barrel
– a “tun” – was used. An owner was interested in how many barrels a ship could carry and
this became the measure of its size. They are now closely defined by regulation.

2.4.1 Gross Tonnage

The gross tonnage (GT) is the measure of a ship’s internal capacity. It is given by

• GT = K1V, where V is the total volume of all enclosed spaces in cubic metres; and

• K1 = 0.2 + 0.02 log10V

2.4.2 Net Tonnage

The net tonnage (NT) is intended as a measure of the earning capacity of a ship. It is given by

• NT = K2Vc(4d/3D)2 + K3(N1 + N2/10), where

• K2 = 0.2 + 0.02 log10Vc

• Vc = total volume of all cargo spaces in cubic metres

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• d = moulded draught amidships, m

• D = moulded depth amidships, m

• K3 = 1.25(1 + GT/10,000)
• N1 = number of passengers in cabins with not more than eight berths

• N2 = number of passengers not included in N1

There are a number of restrictions on the above factors:

• (4d/3D)2 must not be taken as greater than unity

• K2Vc(4d/3D)2 must not be taken as less than 0.25 GT

• NT must not be taken as less than 0.30 GT

• If N1 + N2 is less than 13, N1 and N2 shall be taken as zero

• d is the assigned summer load line draught or, for passenger ships, the deepest
subdivision load line draught
• V and Vc are calculated to the inside of shell plating and are to include
appendages.

GT and NT are stated as dimensionless numbers. The word “ton” is no longer used in this
context. Reference should be made to the legislation concerning these measures, as they
are statutory, to ensure correct interpretation of the terms used. Harbour and canal dues
are based on the measurements.

2.5 NOMENCLATURE AND NOTATION

As with any other engineering discipline, naval architects use some special terms to refer
to different ship features and capabilities. These ensure that communications with others
can be unambiguous. The student will have already noticed some of this special language
(jargon if you will) in what has gone before. It is important that students are familiar with
this language which enables one word to convey what would otherwise require many
words to explain. To aid communication of ideas through mathematical equations a
standard notation is adopted in this course. It is based on that used by the international
community in technical papers. Examples of this notation are given in Annex A but others
will be introduced during the course. A full notation (For example, that adopted by the
International Towing Tank Conference which can be found on the internet) uses many
subscripts and superscripts. In this course these are only used where necessary to make
the meaning clear. Where the same notation is used for different quantities (e.g. the use of
L for length and lift force) the context will show which is intended in any specific case.

2.6 UNITS

The units used during the course are those most commonly used internationally and they
are based on the Système International d’Unités (SI) system of units. The basic units
and a number of derived units are given in Annex A with their symbols. These units are
used generally in engineering and are not limited to naval architecture.

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3. AREAS, VOLUMES AND MOMENTS

Learning Outcomes

When you have completed this chapter you will have a broad understanding of:

• how to find areas of plane figures and the volumes of three-dimensional

objects;

• their moments about fixed axes; and

• the concepts of centres of buoyancy and gravity.

3.1 GENERAL

By now students will appreciate that to define a ship’s main geometric features, it is
necessary to calculate a number of areas and volumes. These are needed also to calculate
the weight of decks and bulkheads or to calculate the volume of tanks carrying liquids.
These areas or volumes may be symmetrical about a central line or plane, in which case
the value of half can be calculated and the answer doubled to give the total area or volume.
This device can simplify the arithmetic of the calculation.

Although students may be familiar with these concepts from other fields they are included
here because of their importance in simple naval architectural calculations. Whilst a naval
architect is likely to use computer programs for most of the calculations needed, these
fundamentals provide an insight to the principles involved and therefore a feel for the
subject which computer programs cannot give.

3.2 AREAS

Take a shape as shown in Figure 3.1. A general shape is shown although ship type shapes
will be more regular. The shaded element is a narrow sliver dx in width.

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Figure 3.1
Area

The area of the shaded element is (y2 – y1)dx.

The area within the curve is obtained by summing all the elements between the extreme
values of x. For summation, the symbol Σ is used in equations.

Area = Σ(y2 – y1)dx the sum being over the distance x1 to x2.

This is simply a convenient mathematical way of saying that the total area is the sum of
the areas of all elements such as that shown shaded in the figure.

Now consider a typical ship waterplane. Generally, it will be symmetrical about the
centreline of the ship. One half of such a waterplane can be represented by a series of
ordinates, y, normal to the centreline as shown in Figure 3.2.

Figure 3.2
Waterplane

Following the general area calculation above, the area defined by all the ordinates will be
given by the summation of a large number of elements similar to the shaded one. If
ordinates for one side of the ship (half-ordinates) are used the area obtained must be
doubled to give the total waterplane area.

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3.3 VOLUMES

The volume of a three-dimensional body can be calculated in the same way, except that in
this case a number of slices are taken through the body. If the area of a slice is A and its
thickness is dx, then the volume of the disc, represented by the slice, is Adx and the total
volume of the body is given by:

Volume = ΣAdx,

where the summation is carried out over the range of x occupied by the body.

Again, this is merely stating that the total volume of a body will be the sum of the volumes
of a large number of thin slices taken though the body.

3.4 MOMENTS OF AREA

Besides the area of a plane figure, it is necessary to establish its centroid. If the plane area
were a uniform steel plate, say, the centroid would be the centre of gravity of the plate. The
position of the centroid must be defined by its distance from two reference axes. To find the
centroid requires the first moment of area about the two principal axes, Ox and Oy.

Referring again to Figure 3.1, the distances (or levers) for the shaded area are x from Oy
and (y2 – y1)/2 from Ox. That is, the lever is the distance from the axis to the centre of the
area. Hence, the first moments of area will be

About Ox Moment = Σ{(y2 + y1)(y2 – y1)/2}dx

About Oy Moment = Σ(y2 – y1)xdx

For the half waterplane in Figure 3.2, y1 = 0 and y2 = y and, therefore, the first moments
of area for the half waterplane are as follows:

About Ox = Σy(y/2)dx = (1/2)Σy2dx

About Oy = Σyxdx

The centroid of the waterplane can be found by dividing the total moment about each axis
by the area. For a waterplane, this centroid is known as the centre of flotation (CF). For
a symmetrical waterplane, the CF will lie on the centreline. For most ship forms, the CF will
lie aft of amidships.

It should be noted that a first moment of area will have units (metres3). This is the same as
a volume but the two concepts are quite different.

3.4.1 Second Moments of Area

The second moment or, as it is often called, the inertia of a waterplane is needed in
calculations to establish how stable a ship is, as will be seen in a later module. The second

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moment of area is obtained by multiplying the small area elements by the square of the
lever. Referring again to Figure 3.1 the area shown in solid black is da = dxdy.

The second moment of element of the area about Ox is then given by da(y)2 and the
second moment of the shaded strip about Ox is:

Second moment of strip = ∑y2da

= ∑y2dxdy

= (1/3)∑y3dx summed for values of y between y1 and y2

= (1/3)∑(y23 – y13)dx

The second moment of the element of area about Oy is then given by: Second moment =
x2da = x2dxdy and the second moment of the shaded strip is:

Second moment = ∑x2dxdy summed for values of y between y1 and y2

= ∑x2(y2 – y1)dx

The second moments of the total area within the curved boundary in Figure 3.1 is found
by integrating over the range x = x1 to x2.

If a waterplane (See Figure 3.2) is defined by its half ordinates, y, then in the above
expressions y2 = y and y1 = –y and the second moments of the total waterplane are are
given by:

About Ox = (1/3)∑(y3 –[–y]3)dx = ∑(2/3)y3dx, and

About Oy =∑x2(y –[–y])dx = 2x2ydx

The summation is carried out over the length of the ship.

In dealing with second moments what is known as the parallel axes theorem is useful.
This states that the minimum second moment of area of a plane figure will be about an
axis through its centroid of area. In the case of the waterplane this will be an axis
through the CF. Then the minimum second moment of area about an axis parallel to Oy
but through the CF is given by:

Second moment about Oy – area(distance between Oy and the CF)2.

For a symmetrical waterplane Ox passes through the CF so the amount of the

adjustment is zero. This is not generally true for the second moment about the Oy axis
as in ship type calculations Oy usually goes through amidships and the CF typically is
aft of this.

If the student finds this concept of summation difficult a text book on integral calculus
should be consulted.

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3.4.2 Moments of Volume

Moments of volume can be calculated in a similar way to the moments of area. If the slice,
area A, defining the cross-section of the three-dimensional body is distance x from the
y-axis, the moment of the slice about the y-axis will be:

Moment of slice = Axdx

The total moment of the body about Oy = ΣAxdx

The centroid of the volume is obtained by dividing the total moment by the total volume. In
general, to define the centroid position, three distances are needed – those from three
orthogonal axes – since we are dealing with a three-dimensional body.

Having learnt how to calculate volumes and their moments about fixed axes we can now
consider three important points for determining the stability of a ship. These are the centres
through which buoyancy and weight forces act and what is known as the metacentre.
Stability is discussed in Module 2.

3.5 THE CENTRE OF BUOYANCY

Assuming the water in which the ship is floating is uniform, the centre of buoyancy (CB)
will be at the centre of volume of the water displaced, that is of the underwater hull form.
In calculating the CB position this underwater volume is divided into a number of sections
for each of which the volume and its centre are calculated by dividing the moment of each
section by its volume. The moments about three orthogonal axes are taken. By summing
the volumes the total volume of displacement is found. By summing the moments and
dividing the result by the total volume the position of the CB is found relative to the three
axes. Its position will need to be quoted above the keel, off the centreline and the distance
fore and aft from amidships.

It should be noted that a ship’s buoyancy and the point through which it acts are dependent
only on the geometry of its underwater form. Initially the complete hull shape, up to the
desired waterline, is used and then allowance can be made for any internal volumes open
to the sea such as valve inlets. Appendages such as bilge keels and shaft brackets must
also be allowed for.

The weight of the water displaced, and hence the weight of ship it can support, is dependent
on the density of the water. The density of water depends upon temperature and salinity
(See Module 3) but, for standard calculations, it is usual to take the following figures:

• Fresh water: density = 1.000 tonne per cubic metre (36 cubic feet/ton)

• Salt water: density = 1.025 tonnes per cubic metre (35 cubic feet/ton)

The figures in parenthesis are the corresponding preferred units in the Imperial system.

For all practical purposes, water is incompressible so density does not change with
pressure, that is with depth of water.

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Areas, Volumes and Moments Module 1

3.6 THE CENTRE OF GRAVITY

To determine the centre of gravity (CG) of a ship the sum of all the individual weights
comprising that ship (hull, machinery, equipment and fittings and so on) is found and then
the sum of all their moments about the three orthogonal axes used previously in finding
CB. This is not an easy task because of the multitude of equipment and fittings involved
and the amount of cabling and piping. In the early stages a designer must use figures
based on past experience and include margins to allow for error, or for what may be fitted
later. Because of this uncertainty new ships are subject to what is known as an inclining
experiment to determine the CG position as completed. This is discussed in Module 2.

3.7 THE TRANSVERSE METACENTRE

If a ship is heeled about a fore and aft axis, at constant displacement, the line of action of
the buoyancy force will be normal to the heeled waterline and lines at successive angles
of heel will intersect the centreline plane in a point known as the metacentre. For small
angles of heel the metacentre can be taken as a fixed point on the centreline of the ship.
For most ships this will be so up to about ten degrees of heel. The metacentre is of great
importance to a ship’s initial stability and the concept is developed in Module 2.

1-26 Certificate in Naval Architecture 2014

4. APPROXIMATE INTEGRATION

Learning Outcomes

When you have completed this chapter you will have an understanding of and be
able to apply:

• approximate calculation methods;

• the use of spreadsheets in simple calculations; and

• the concept of a displacement sheet.

4.1 GENERAL

The summation of small elements to produce a total area, volume or moment is known as
integration. In practice it is convenient, particularly for manual calculations, to use
approximate methods of integration – that is summation – which have been developed. The
most common of these are Simpson’s rules, which use evenly spaced ordinates to define
a fair curve with an ordinate at each end of the curve.

4.2 SIMPSON’S RULES

Figure 4.1
Simpson’s First Rule

These rules state that:

for three ordinates, y1, y2 and y3 (one at each end and one in the middle)
(Figure 4.1) the area is:

Area = h(y1 + 4y2 + y3)/3 where h is the spacing between ordinates, that is the curve
extends over a distance 2h;

Certificate in Naval Architecture 2014 1-27

Approximate Integration Module 1

for four ordinates, the area is:

Area = 3h(y1 + 3y2 + 3y3 + y4)/8 the area extending over a length 3h;

when there are three ordinates, y1, y2 and y3 , the area between y1 and y2 is:

Area = h(5y1+ 8y2 – y3)/12.

While the validity of these rules can be established mathematically, this is not appropriate
for this module and the student is asked to accept that this is possible, or refer to a standard
text. The numbers 1,4,1 or 1,3,3,1 and so on by which the ordinates (the y values) are
multiplied in these formulae are known as Simpson’s multipliers (SM). The value of the
constant multiplying “h” can be checked by applying the appropriate formula to a simple
rectangle. Thus, if the rectangle is T high and 2L long (the interval “h” being L), the area is
2LT and the multiplying factor is c where (for the 1,4,1 rule)

2LT = cL(T + 4T + T) = 6cLT and hence c = 1/3.

Figure 4.2
5,8,-1 Rule

In the same way, applying the 5,8,-1 rule to half the rectangle (Figure 4.2):

LT = cL(5T + 8T – T) = 12 cLT and c = 1/12.

With the first two rules, the moments about an axis parallel to the ordinates can be obtained
by multiplying each ordinate by a lever representing its distance from the axis about which
moments are needed. In the case of a waterplane, this is usually amidships. For a
symmetrical waterplane, first moments are not needed about a fore and aft axis as the
centroid will lie on the centreline.

Unlike the first two rules, the third cannot be used for moments. The corresponding moment
rule states that when there are three ordinates, y1, y2 and y3, the moment of the area
between y1 and y2 about y1 is

Moment = h2(3y1 + 10y2 – y3)/24.

It will sometimes be necessary to combine two of the Simpson rules depending upon the
number of ordinates. This can be done by separate calculations. Often ship type curves,
for example waterlines, have greater curvature towards the ends and it is desirable to
introduce intermediate ordinates to define them more accurately. This can be done by

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Module 1 Approximate Integration

adjusting the multipliers to suit. Often also, in practice, the ordinates define the hull between
the perpendiculars (see later) and there will be a small area of waterplane aft of the
aftermost ordinate. In such cases, the main area and moment are calculated and then
additions made for the small additional area.

Clearly the more ordinates used to define a curve the more accurately the area will be
calculated. The 1, 4, 1 and 1, 3, 3, 1 rules can be extended to any odd or even number of
ordinates by successive applications. Thus, for seven ordinates:

• Area between y1 and y3 = h(y1 + 4y2 + y3)/3

• Area between y3 and y5 = h(y3 + 4y4 + y5)/3

• Area between y5 and y7 = h(y5 + 4y6 + y7)/3

• Thus the total area is h(y1 + 4y2 + 2y3 + 4y4 + 2y5 + 4y6 + y7)/3.

It is important that if there is a discontinuity in the curve that an ordinate be arranged to be

at that point.

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTION 2

Extend the 1,3,3,1 Simpson rule to cover 10 ordinates and show that it can be
used in cases where the number of intervals between ordinates can be divided by
three.

For three ordinates apply the 5,8,-1 rule to the area between the first two ordinates
and then to the area between the second and third ordinate to show that the total
area is in accord with the 1,4,1 rule.

In the same way two different rules can be combined as long as care is taken over the
multiplying factors.

For application of Simpson’s rules and the concepts of areas and moments see worked
examples 2 and 3 at the end of this module.

4.3 TCHEBYCHEFF’S RULES

Another set of rules useful in manual calculations are the Tchebycheff’s rules. In these the
area under a curve is defined by ordinates with unequal spacing but with the advantage
that the multiplier for all the ordinates is unity. The spacing of the ordinates can be
established mathematically but the student is asked to accept this is so.

Thus for an area to be defined by three ordinates:

Area = (2h/3)(y1 + y2 + y3), where 2h is the base length.

In the general case of n ordinates the multiplier will be 2h/n.

Certificate in Naval Architecture 2014 1-29

Approximate Integration Module 1

The more the ordinates used to define a curve the greater the accuracy and the table
below gives the ordinate spacing with the centre of the base length being at the origin.
Thus for curves defined by an odd number of ordinates one ordinate will be on the
y-axis.

Number of Spacing each side of origin as a factor of

ordinates the half length, h

3 0 0.7071
4 0.1876 0.7947
5 0 0.3745 0.8325
6 0.2666 0.4225 0.8663
7 0 0.3239 0.5297 0.8839
8 0.1027 0.4062 0.5938 0.8973
9 0 0.1679 0.5288 0.6010 0.9116
10 0.0838 0.3127 0.5000 0.6873 0.9163

Although the student is unlikely to use these rules in these days of computers, they do give
an understanding of the basic principles involved. They can be useful in producing simple
spreadsheets as discussed below.

4.4 SPREADSHEETS

Most students will be familiar with the use of computer spreadsheets, probably in terms of
Microsoft Excel. They are very useful in carrying out simple calculations and their use is
illustrated in worked example 4 at the end of this module. Their great advantage is that
having created a template for a specific calculation it can be used repeatedly for similar
calculations. The possibility of error is reduced to that of inputting wrong data for the new
calculation.

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTION 3

A curve is defined by the following ordinates, y, spaced 3 m apart:

X 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21

y 1.2 1.5 1.7 1.8 1.8 1.7 1.6 1.4

By applying Simpson’s 1,3,3,1 rule to the area from x = 0 to x = 9 and the 1,4,1
rule to the remaining area, show that the total area between the curve and the
x-axis is 34.38 m2.

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Module 1 Approximate Integration

4.5 THE TABLE OF OFFSETS AND DISPLACEMENT SHEET

As discussed earlier, the external hull of the ship is a three-dimensional envelope which
can be defined by the distance of that envelope from the centreline plane at a large number
of points, the distances being known as offsets. It is the intersections of the waterplanes
and transverse sections with each other, which are used as the offsets to define the hull.
They can be arranged in tabular form each column defining a waterplane and each row
defining a transverse section. The transverse sections are usually taken at regular intervals
so that offsets are uniformly spaced along the length of the ship. However, due to the
relatively rapid changes in shape which can occur right forward and right aft, additional
sections (and offsets) may be introduced in these regions to provide greater accuracy.
Also, waterplanes are usually equally spaced so that offsets are equally spaced in the
depth of the ship, but an additional waterplane may be introduced low down to help define
the turn of the bilge (that is, the lower outboard corners of the hull) more accurately.
Waterplanes are drawn for the full depth of the hull so as to define the hull shape above
and below the waterplane at which the ship is intended to float. It is important that the
upper part of the hull, which is normally out of the water, should also be fair. This will aid
construction, appearance, and reduce air resistance and wave impact.

For finding the volume of displacement up to the design waterline, Simpson’s rules can be
applied to the corresponding offsets to find the area of each waterplane and each
transverse section up to that waterline. The total volume can be found in two ways – by
applying Simpson’s rules to the waterplanes or to the sections. This is done in what is
known as a displacement sheet. The fact that the volumes found by the two methods (the
two numbers shown in the bottom right-hand corner of the displacement sheet) should be
the same is a useful check on accuracy. By taking moments as well, the displacement
sheet can be used to determine the position of the centre of buoyancy.

The process is illustrated in worked example 5 for the volume of displacement using a
simplified set of data. It represents an example of using Simpson’s rules and can be set
out as a standard spreadsheet. Offsets are from the centreline plane and therefore
represent half of the hull.

Certificate in Naval Architecture 2014 1-31

 ANSWERS TO
SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

QUESTION 1

The volume of displacement of the ship = 10,000/1.025 = 9,756 m3

Hence the block coefficient = 9,756/(158 x 17 x 6.75)= 0.538

The longitudinal prismatic coefficient = 9,756/(158 x 104) = 0.594

The midship area coefficient = 104/(17 x 6.75) = 0.906

QUESTION 2

With ten ordinates, say, y1, y2, y3, y4, y5, y6, y7, y8, y9 and y10 distance h apart:

The area between y1 and y4 is given by (3h/8)[y1 + 3y2 + 3y3 + y4]

The area between y4 and y7 is given by (3h/8)[y4 + 3y5 + 3y6 + y7]

The area between y7 and y10 is given by (3h/8)[y7 + 3y8 + 3y9 + y10]

Thus, the total area between y1 and y10 is given by:

(3h/8)[y1 + 3y2 + 3y3 + 2y4 + 3y5 + 3y6 + 2y7 + 3y8 + 3y9 + y10].

It will be seen that the 1,3,3,1 rule can be applied in this way when the number of intervals
between ordinates is divisible by three. Another way of looking at this is that, as the number
of ordinates is one greater than the number of intervals, the 1,3,3,1 rule can be applied
when the number of ordinates less one is divisible by three.

Now applying the 5,8,-1 rule to three ordinates:

The area between y1 and y2 is given by (h/12)[5y1 + 8y2 – y3]

The area between y2 and y3 is given by (h/12)[– y1 + 8y2 + 5y3]

Thus, the total area between y1 and y3 is (h/12)[4y1 + 16y2 + 4y3]

= (h/3)[y1 + 4y2 + y3]

That is, the rule leads to the same answer as the 1,4,1 rule.

1-32 Certificate in Naval Architecture 2014

Module 1 Answers to Self-Assessment Questions

QUESTION 3

Construct a table as shown below.

x y SM F(A) SM F(A)

0 1.2 1 1.2
3 1.5 3 4.5
6 1.7 3 5.1
9 1.8 1 1.8 1 1.8
12 1.8 4 7.2
15 1.7 2 3.4
18 1.6 4 6.4
21 1.4 1 1.4

Totals 12.6 20.2

The area from x = 0 to x = 9 is 3 (3/8) (12.6) = 14.18 m2

The area from x = 9 to x = 21 is 3 (1/3) (20.2) = 20.2 m2

The total area is 34.38 m2

Certificate in Naval Architecture 2014 1-33

 WORKED EXAMPLES

These examples illustrate some of the points raised in the sections above.

EXAMPLE 1

A ship of length 160 m and beam 20 m floats at a mean draught of 7.5 m in water of density
1.025 tonnes/m3. Assuming its block coefficient is 0.5 and its waterplane coefficient of
fineness is 0.6, calculate the ship’s volume of displacement and her approximate draught
when it enters water of 1.015 tonnes/m3.

SOLUTION

The volume of the circumscribing rectangular solid = 160 x 20 x 7.5 = 24,000 m3

Volume of displacement = 0.5 x 24,000 = 12,000 m3

Hence displacement = 12,000 x 1.025 = 12,300 tonnes

The waterplane area = 160 x 20 x 0.6 = 1,920 m2

In the less dense water the ship must displace more water to support its weight.

New volume of displacement in the less dense water = 12,300/1.015 = 12,118 m3

The ship will sink lower in the water to provide the added volume needed

Added volume = 12,118 – 12,000 = 118 m3

If the ship sinks evenly, sinkage = 118/1,920 = 6.15 cm

The new draught is approximately 7.56 m.

EXAMPLE 2

Calculate the area between the curve defined by the ordinates below and the straight line
forming the x-axis. Find the first and second moments of the area about the baseline Ox
and about the first ordinate (Oy).

X (metres) 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Y (metres) 2 3 4 4.5 4 3 2

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Module 1 Worked Examples

SOLUTION

Calculations are best carried out in tabular form as below:

Lever Lever Lever Lever

From From From From
X y SM F(A) Oy F(M)y Oy F(I)y Ox F(M)x Ox F(I)x

0 2.0 1 2 0 0 0 0 1.00 2.0 1.00 2.0

2 3.0 4 12 2 24 2 48 1.50 18.0 1.50 27.0
4 4.0 2 8 4 32 4 128 2.00 16.0 2.00 32.0
6 4.5 4 18 6 108 6 648 2.25 40.5 2.25 91.1
8 4.0 2 8 8 64 8 512 2.00 16.0 2.00 32.0
10 3.0 4 12 10 120 10 1,200 1.50 18.0 1.50 27.0
12 2.0 1 2 12 24 12 288 1.00 2.0 1.00 2.0

Total 62 372 2,824 112.5 213.1

In this table:
SM = Simpson multiplier
F(A) = Function of area. The term “function” is a shorthand way of saying that the numbers
in the column are related to the area.
F(M)x and F(M)y = Functions of first moment of area about Ox and Oy
F(I)x and F(I)y = Functions of second moment (or inertia) of area about Ox and Oy
Applying the first (1,4,1) Simpson rule:
Area under the curve = 2 x 62 x 1/3 = 124/3 = 41.33 m2
In this the figure 2 is the ordinate spacing (that is h = 2), the 62 is the sum of the F(A)
values and the 1/3 is the Simpson multiplier. Similarly:
First moment of area about Oy = 2 x 372 x 1/3 = 248 m3
First moment of area about Ox = 2 x 112.5 x 1/3 = 75 m3
Second moment of area about Oy = 2 x 2,824 x 1/3 = 1,883 m4
Second moment of area about Ox = 2 x 213.1 x 1/3 = 142.1 m4
The position of the centroid, relative to the axes, is as follows:
From Oy = 248/41.33 = 6 m
From Ox = 75/41.33 = 1.81 m.

It should be noted that since the multipliers for both area and moment are the same the position
of the centroid can be found by dividing the sum of F(M) by the sum of F(A). In this case:
From Oy = 372/62 = 6 m
From Ox = 112.5/62 = 1.81 m.

Certificate in Naval Architecture 2014 1-35

Worked Examples Module 1

EXAMPLE 3

Using a spreadsheet, calculate the area and the centre of flotation of the waterplane
defined by the following half ordinates. The ordinates are 10 m apart and are numbered
from the bow.

Ordinate 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Value 0.10 4.44 9.10 12.48 14.00 14.50 14.22 13.54 12.02 8.00 0.10

SOLUTION

1 A B C D E F
2 Station Half Ord SM F (Area) Lever F (Moment)
3 1 0.10 1 0.10 5 0.50
4 2 4.44 4 17.76 4 71.04
5 3 9.10 2 18.20 3 54.60
6 4 12.48 4 49.92 2 99.84
7 5 14.00 2 28.00 1 28.00
8 6 14.50 4 58.00 0 0.00
9 7 14.22 2 28.44 −1 −28.44
10 8 13.54 4 54.16 −2 −108.32
11 9 12.02 2 24.04 −3 −72.12
12 10 8.00 4 32.00 −4 −128.00
13 11 0.10 1 0.10 −5 −0.50
14
15 Totals 310.72 −83.40
16
17
18 Area 2,071.46
19 First moment −5,560.00
20 CF from −2.684
midships

In constructing this table, columns A, B, C and E would be filled in manually on the Excel
sheet. The figure in cell D3 is obtained from the formula “=B3*C3” (without the quotes).
Other cells in column D follow. The figure in cell F3 is obtained from the formula “=D3*E3”
and the other cells in column F follow. It should be noted that the letters A, B, C and so on
at the top of the table and the numbers down the left-hand side will not be printed out by
the computer.

Once a template has been produced it can be used for other sets of ordinates without the
need to repeat all the formulae.

1-36 Certificate in Naval Architecture 2014

Module 1 Worked Examples

Referring to the table:

The total area = 2 x 10 x 310.72 x 1/3 = 2,071.5 m2

where the 2 is for the two sides of the ship and the 10 is the ordinate spacing.

The first moment about amidships = 2 x 10 x 10 x (−83.40) x 1/3 = −5,560 m3.

The second 10 has been introduced because the arithmetic has been simplified by using
1, 2, 3 and so on for the levers rather than 10, 20, 30 and so on.

The negative sign indicates that the CF is aft of amidships.

Centre of flotation from amidships = −5,560/2,071.5 = −2.68 m.

From symmetry the CF will be on the centreline.

The calculations of area, first moment and CF position can be included in the Excel
template by nominating an appropriate cell and the corresponding formula. Cells D18, F19
and F20 have been used in the example.
Because ordinates are used to define the main hull there will often be a small area of
waterplane aft of the last ordinate. Suppose, in this case, this is a small area of 10 m2 total
(5 m2 on each side of the centreline), with centroid 3 m aft of the last ordinate. Then:

Total waterplane area = 2,071.5 + 10 = 2,081.5 m2

The centroid of the small area aft of amidships = 5 x 10 + 3 = 53 m

Total moment of waterplane aft of amidships = 5,560 + 10 x 53 = 6,090 m3

The CF of total WP aft of amidships = 6,090/2,081.5 = 2.93 m

EXAMPLE 4

This example illustrates the concept of a displacement sheet, using Simpson’s first rule, to
find the volume of displacement of a hull defined by the following offsets:

Waterline ↓ 5 4 3 2 1
Section ↓
1 0.00 0.00 0.05 0.05 0.05
2 0.25 0.82 1.38 1.82 2.22
3 0.95 2.35 3.33 4.05 4.55
4 2.25 4.30 5.32 5.90 6.24
5 3.62 5.90 6.65 6.90 7.00
6 4.50 6.62 7.10 7.25 7.26
7 3.95 6.20 6.82 7.04 7.11
8 2.75 4.85 5.95 6.51 6.77
9 1.50 3.02 4.32 5.35 6.01
10 0.47 1.08 1.85 2.85 4.00
11 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05

Certificate in Naval Architecture 2014 1-37

Worked Examples Module 1

DISPLACEMENT SHEET
WATERLINE 5 4 3 2 1
SECTION
SM 1 4 2 4 1
SM
1 1 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05
0.00 0.00 0.10 0.20 0.05 0.35 0.35
2 4 0.25 1.00 0.82 3.28 1.38 5.52 1.82 7.28 2.22 8.88
0.25 3.28 2.76 7.28 2.22 15.79 63.16
3 2 0.95 1.90 2.35 4.70 3.33 6.66 4.05 8.10 4.55 9.10
0.95 9.40 6.66 16.20 4.55 37.76 75.52
4 4 2.25 9.00 4.30 17.20 5.32 21.28 5.90 23.60 6.24 24.96
2.25 17.20 10.64 23.60 6.24 59.93 239.72
5 2 3.62 7.24 5.90 11.80 6.65 13.30 6.90 13.80 7.00 14.00
3.62 23.60 13.30 27.60 7.00 75.12 150.24
6 4 4.50 18.00 6.62 26.48 7.10 28.40 7.25 29.00 7.26 29.04
4.50 26.48 14.20 29.00 7.26 81.44 325.76
7 2 3.95 7.90 6.20 12.40 6.82 13.64 7.04 14.08 7.11 14.22
3.95 24.80 13.64 28.16 7.11 77.66 155.32
8 4 2.75 11.00 4.85 19.40 5.95 23.80 6.51 26.04 6.77 27.08
2.75 19.40 11.90 26.04 6.77 66.86 267.44
9 2 1.50 3.00 3.02 6.04 4.32 8.64 5.35 10.70 6.01 12.02
1.50 12.08 8.64 21.40 6.01 49.63 99.26
10 4 0.47 1.88 1.08 4.32 1.85 7.40 2.85 11.40 4.00 16.00
0.47 4.32 3.70 11.40 4.00 23.89 95.56
11 1 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05
0.05 0.20 0.10 0.20 0.05 0.60 0.60

60.97 105.67 128.74 144.10 155.40 1472.93

60.97 422.68 257.48 576.40 155.40 1472.93

In this case, the summations are 1,472.93 and they agree as is necessary as a confirmation
of accuracy. Thus if the waterplanes are 1 m apart and the sections are 3 m apart:

Total volume of displacement = 2 x (1/3) x 1 x (1/3) x 3 x 1,472.93 m3

= 982 m3

In the above, the 2 is a doubling up for the two sides of the ship. The two factors of (1/3)
come from the Simpson’s rule which have been applied twice.

1-38 Certificate in Naval Architecture 2014

 ANNEX A

A.1 NOTATION

The notation used by the international maritime community, and which will be found in
technical papers includes the following:

A Area in general

B Breadth in general

D, d Diameter in general

E Modulus of elasticity, Young’s modulus

F Force in general

g Acceleration due to gravity

h Height in general

L Length in general, lift force

m Mass

M Bending moment in general, moment in general

p Pressure intensity

P Power in general

Q Torque

S Wetted area

t Time in general, thickness

T Draught

W Weight in general, external load

α Angular acceleration

β Drift angle

σ Stress

ρ Mass density

Δ Displacement force

η Efficiency in general

Certificate in Naval Architecture 2014 1-39

Annex A Module 1

A.2 UNITS

The basic units used in the SI system, together with the symbols used, are as follows:

Length metre m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Electric current ampere A
Thermodynamic temperature kelvin K
Amount of substance mole mol
Luminous intensity candela cd

The more important derived units with their notation (with the corresponding Imperial units
in parentheses) are as follows:

Force newton (N) N = kgm/s2 (1 lbf = 4.448 N)

Work, energy joule (J) J = Nm (1 calorie = 4.187 J)
Power watt (W) W = J/s (1 horse power = 745.7
W)
Frequency hertz (Hz) Hz = s–1
Pressure, stress pascal (Pa) Pa = N/m2

The Imperial units are included here as many older technical papers and reference works
use them.

Some other useful equivalents between Imperial and SI units are as follows:

Length 1 foot = 0.3048 m; 1 mile = 1609.34 m; 1 nautical mile (UK) = 1853.18 m

Area 1 square foot = 0.0929 m2

Volume 1 cubic foot = 0.02832 m3

Velocity 1 foot per second = 0.3048 m/s

In SI units the gravitational acceleration, g, is 9.80665 m/s2 (32.174 ft/s2).

Those requiring more detail on notation and units can refer to a standard text such as
Rawson and Tupper (2001).

1-40 Certificate in Naval Architecture 2014

 BIBLIOGRAPHY

FURTHER READING

Rawson, K.J. and Tupper, E.C.: Basic Ship Theory (5th edn, Oxford, Butterworth-
Heinemann, 2001).

Tupper, E.C.: Introduction to Naval Architecture (4th edn, Oxford, Butterworth-Heinemann,

2013). 5th edition.

Ferreiro, L.D.: Ships and Science (Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press, 2007).

Walker, F.M.: Ships and Shipbuilders (Seaforth Publishing, 2010).

St. Denis, M. and Pierson, W.J. (1953) On the motions of ships in confused seas.
Transactions SNAME.

SOME USEFUL WEBSITES

• Royal Institution of Naval Architects www.rina.org.uk
• Society of Naval Architects and Marine www.sname.org
Engineers, USA
• Institute of Marine Engineering, Science and www.imarest.org.uk
Technology
• The Nautical Institute www.nautinst.org

Certificate in Naval Architecture 2014 1-41

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