Geography Notes

Climate is the average weather conditions of a place over a long period. Weather is the state of the
atmosphere of a place, for a short period. Deviation from regular weather patterns leads to extreme
weather or extreme climate. Extreme weather is a deviation of weather in terms of intensity from the
range that has been seen in the past.

 Hurricanes are giant, spiralling tropical cyclones. They include strong winds of over 252 kilometres
per hour. They produce heavy rains. Intense heating of sea surfaces, strong convective uplift of air
and high moisture content in air cause them.
 Flooding happens when there is heavy rainfall in a short time. River waters flow beyond the natural
or artificial levees onto the land.
 Tornadoes are vertical funnels of rapidly spinning air.They are formed due to extremely low air
pressure, and strong convective uplift of air aided by jet streams in the upper troposphere. The tip
of the tornado always reaches the surface of the Earth, hence it attains its peculiar funnel shape.
Tornadoes are accompanied by cumulo-nimbus clouds, strong wind, rain, and sometimes hail. They
move at speeds of about 16 to 32 kilometres per hour, and their winds speed can reach up to 402
kilometres per hour.
 Lightning is seen during thunderstorms. Each lightning bolt can contain up to one billion volts of
electricity. Lightning is caused in cumulo-nimbus clouds due to the discharge of static electricity,
during a thunderstorm.
 Hailstorms are a form of precipitation, consisting of lumps of ice of different shapes. These are
produced from cumulo-nimbus clouds during a thunderstorm. Raindrops are carried upward by the
thunderstorm in extremely cold areas of the atmosphere , where hails are formed.
 Dust storms happen when very strong winds are produced due to enormous pressure differences
between two areas. They carry a huge amount of dust.
 Blizzards are snowfalls They include heavy snow over a long period, in freezing temperatures. They
are commonly experienced in Russia, Northeastern Asia, Northern Europe, Canada, Northern
United States, Antarctica.

Climate change is a change in the average climatic conditions of an area. An area can become colder or
warmer, wetter, or drier over time. Our Earth is experiencing climatic changes for the last thousands of
years. Reasons that cause climate changes include the movement of tectonic plates, changes in the
Earth's orbit, human activities, and atmospheric changes.

Plate Tectonics: The movement of continents over millions of years caused by tectonic plate movement
may affect climate changes. The changing position of the continents changes wind flow and ocean current
around the globe. These changes affect the temperature and precipitation patterns of the continents and
oceans.

Orbital Changes:

Changes in the shape of Earth’s orbit: Earth’s orbit changes from elliptical to circular shape and that
affects Earth’s distance from the Sun. Earth’s distance from the Sun causes climate changes on the
Earth. Climatic changes due to changes in the shape of Earth’s orbit take place over 100000 years.
ii. Changes in the Earth's tilt: Increase or decrease in the tilt of Earth's axis results in changes in
temperature patterns on Earth’s surface, as well as its spinning speed.

iii. The wobble of the Earth on its axis: The wobble of Earth on its axis changes the direction of Earth’s
tilt and that can change the occurrence of seasons. These changes occur in cycles of 26000 years.

Human Activities : The Amount of carbon dioxide is increasing due to pollution from domestic,
agriculture, transport and industrial releases into the atmosphere. Deforestation and the burning of trees
also release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. An increase in carbon dioxide concentrations in the
atmosphere is leading to global warming. Carbon dioxide molecules retain heat resulting in an increase in
the temperature of the atmosphere. Global warming refers to a rise in temperatures around Earth.

Volcanic Activity : Large volcanic eruptions can influence climates around the world. Sulfur and ash from
volcanic eruptions can decrease temperatures by reflecting sunlight back into space.

Main threats of Climatic changes include rising sea levels, ecosystem collapse and frequent weather
changes and severe weather. Climatic changes affect the whole pattern of weather. It may bring heavy
rains or long periods of no rains. Climatic changes also affect crops and vegetation of an area. An area
with forests may change into deserts and deserts may change to grasslands or forests.

a. Rise in temperature due to global warming increase the temperature of the polar regions and the
oceans. It also cause melting ice cover at the poles and rise in sea level.

b. The warming of the atmosphere affects weather patterns, causing more frequent and severe storms
and droughts across the globe. Higher temperatures are affecting the length of seasons and in some
places have already crossed safe levels for survival of ecosystems and humans.

c. The impact of global warming will become more severe if we don't act to stop greenhouse gas emissions.

Effects of climatic changes on life in general

 Climatic changes can affect growing patterns of crops, plants and foods.
 This change leads to a change in life style of people.
 This can lead to migration, a change in economic activities and settlements in new areas may
emerge consequently.

Global Warming: A gradual increase in average global temperature is called global warming. Global
temperatures have increased approximately 1°C over the last 100 years. Over the last three decades,
human activities have increased the volume of greenhouse gases in the air and that has increased the
impact of the greenhouse effect. Due to the increase in Greenhouse gases in air, the climate of the Earth
is becoming warmer. If current trends continue mean global temperatures will probably increase 2° to 6°C
by 2100AD.Some scientists have predicted an increase in global temperature from 2°C to 4°C during this
century.

Consequences of global warming

 Will lead to an increase in evaporation. Increased evaporation could cause some areas to become
drier. Some plants and animals would not be able to survive in these dry conditions.
 May damage the crops. However, an increase in temperature due to global warming might improve
conditions for crops in colder, northern regions.
  Could also cause ice at the poles to melt. This rise in sea levels would cause flooding around
coastlines and submerge of low-lying islands and coastal settlements.

Greenhouse Effect

Gases of the atmosphere that trap heat are called Greenhouse gases. The Greenhouse effect refers to
the role of carbon dioxide, methane and water vapour in maintaining the atmospheric temperature in a
range. As these gases don't let the air temperature drop or rise above a certain level, without the
Greenhouse effect, our planet would have been 30°C colder than it is today. An increase in the volume of
these gases result in increase in the air temperature averages. Methane, carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide and
water vapour are termed greenhouse gases.

 Carbon dioxide: This gas is produced in the atmosphere by the use of fossil fuels and the burning
of forests.
 Chloro-flucro-carbons: These gases are used as coolants and propellant gases for spray cans and
manufacturing of plastic.
 Methane: This gas is discharged into the atmosphere by rotting rubbish and from rice fields. It is
also produced in large quantities by bacteria living in the digestive tracts of cattle. A Methane
molecule is 20 times more efficient in trapping heat than a molecule of carbon dioxide.
 Nitrous oxide: This is produced in agricultural activity and by the use of some nitrogen-based
fertilisers. Some types of coal when burnt discharge it.

Relationship between extreme weather and climate change

Extreme weather events, like heat waves, droughts, and heavy precipitation are directly linked to climate
changes. The impact of global warming is being felt everywhere.

 Oceans are getting warmer and tropical storms are becoming more stronger.
 In 2020, Atlantic hurricane season included a record-breaking 30 tropical storms with 6 major
hurricanes.
 The United States saw an unprecedented 22 weather and climate disasters that caused at least a
billion dollars damage in 2020.
 Extreme heat waves have caused tens of thousands of deaths around the world in recent years.
 Antarctica has lost nearly four trillion metric tons of ice since the 1990s. If burning fossil fuels at
current pace continues, it will cause sea levels to rise several meters in the next 50 to 150 years
wreaking havoc on coastal communities worldwide.

Climatic Patterns of Karachi (Pakistan) and New York (USA)

Karachi has extremely hot summers, arid and windy winters. It is mostly clear around the year. Annual
temperature typically varies from 18°C to 30°C and is rarely below 10°C or above 38°C.The hot season
lasts for 3 to 4 months. The hottest month of the year in Karachi is June, with an average high
temperature of 34°C and low of 28°C. July is the wettest month. The cool season lasts from December
to February. The coldest month of the year is January with an average low temperature of 14°C and
high of 26°C.

New York City has humid subtropical climate .Some parts of the city transitioning into a humid
continental climate. This gives the city cool, wet winters and hot, humid summers with plentiful rainfall
 all year round. The city receives frequent, heavy rainfall, which averages 49.9 inches (1,267 mm)
annually, with spring being the wettest season and February being the driest month. The city also
receives snow, primarily in winter, but sometimes in the late autumn and early spring as well. The wind
is seldom strong in New York City but can occasionally be noticeable. This is especially true in the
autumn and winter seasons when extra-tropical depressions often bring strong winds.

Effects of Climate on Lifestyles of People of Coastal Areas and River Plains

The lifestyle of coastal areas: The coast is the area where land meets the sea or ocean. The climate
remains moderate in coastal areas. People prefer to live in coastal areas because of the suitable climate.
Approximately 60% of worlds population lives in the 500km of a diameter of coastal areas. People adapt
dress, food and activities according to their climate. In the coastal areas, most of the people are
associated with fishing, import and export.

ii. Lifestyle in River Plains : People prefer to live on river plains because of the fertile soil that supports
agriculture and livestock farming. On river plains people are mostly engaged in agricultural activities, and
livestock farming and many forms of industries develop there due to the availability of a variety of raw
materials. Plains located in the interiors of the continents have high variations in summer and winter
temperatures. People dress according to climate. Plain areas have efficient transport networks. Fertile
plain areas are thickly populated, because of the availability of economic activities in form of agriculture,
transport, industry and trade.

i. Lifestyle of people of Polar Regions: People wear thick clothes and eat warm food to protect
themselves from the cold. Their clothing is heavy, warm, and sometimes made of animal skins. Their
preferred food is meat. Polar regions are not densely populated. The people are associated with nomadic
life. They rear herds of reindeer. Polar areas usually do not have a very active economy.

ii. Lifestyle of people of Tropical Region: The tropical zone is located between the Tropic of Cancer and
the Tropic of Capricorn in both of the hemispheres. This region has an average monthly temperature of at
least 18°C, even during the coldest month of the year. This is warmer than the average temperature of
the warmest month in the polar zone. Tropical areas receive vertical solar radiation most of the year, due
to which this region is hot and wet.

i. Tropical rainforest: Tropical rainforest is not densely populated due to excessive heat and humidity.
People live in scattered villages situated along the rivers. They are engaged in wood cutting, fishing,
rubber plantation and agriculture. People inhabiting the tropical rainforest region mostly pursue primary
economic activities. In the Amazon Basin, the Indian tribes collect wild rubber while Pygmies in the Congo
Basin hunt and collect wild fruits. In the jungles of Malaysia, the Orang Asli, who are the oldest
indigenous people, make cane products and sell them to people in villages. Large parts of the rainforests
have been cleared for permanent agricultural farms, known as Estates. Examples of this can be found in
Malaysia in the form of modern rubber and oil palm estates.

ii. Deserts: Large parts of deserts are barren due to the non-availability of water. Most the people lead a
nomadic life in which they rear animals such as camels, horses, sheep and goats. Nomads of Arabia and
Syria are called Beduins.