School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering (SMME)

Vehicle Design Performance

ME-492

Dr. Mian Ashfaq Ali

Chapter 4 Outline
Aerodynamics
▪ Mechanics of Air Flow Around a Vehicle ➢ Rolling Resistance
▪ Pressure Distribution on a Vehicle ▪ Factor Affecting Rolling Resistance

▪ Aerodynamic Forces ▪ Typical Coefficients

▪ Drag Components ➢ Total Road Loads

▪ Fuel Economy Effects
▪ Aerodynamic Aids
▪ Drag
▪ Side Force
▪ Lift Force
▪ Pitching Moment
▪ Yawing Moment
▪ Rolling Moment
▪ Crosswind Sensitivity

2
Aerodynamics

➢ Factors that impact the fuel economy

1. Mass of Vehicle
2. Engine Efficiency
3. Aerodynamic drag

• Initial Design were a statement of styling only.

• 1970 drive towards fuel efficient aerodynamic designs, triggered by fuel crises
• Initial focus on drag reduction, but soon it became apparent that lift and side
forces are of great importance in terms of vehicle stability.

3
 Aerodynamics
➢ Aerodynamic forces
▪ Interacts with vehicle causing
• Drag
• Lift (or download)
• Lateral Forces
• Moments in roll, pitch and yaw
• Noise
▪ Arises from two sources
• Form or pressure drag
• Viscous friction (Skin Friction)
▪ Produced impact on
• Fuel economy
• Handling
• Noise, Vibration and Harshness (NVH)
4
 The importance of CD on fuel economy
1
D= CD  v 2 A
2
Power = Force  Velocity
Power = f (v 3 )

• The importance of aerodynamic drag on fuel economy can be appreciated when one
considers the relationship between the power required to overcome mechanical
(rolling) resistance and aerodynamic drag as a function of vehicle speed.
• At low speed the mechanical loss is significant but at high speed the aerodynamic
effect is dominant and increases dramatically with speed.

This graph is for a car

having value of CD=0.34

5
1.4 Forces; Aerodynamic Force
1
D= CD  v 2 A
2
C D = Drag Coefficient
 = Air Density
v = Vehicle Forward Velocity against the air
A = Vehicle Frontal Area

Drag coefficient can be determined experimentally in wind tunnel test or can be

estimated from coast-down test provided the rolling resistance of tires is known. The
drag coefficient is an important vehicle design parameter from energy consumption
and fuel economy point of view. A good designed passenger car has a value around 0.3.

6
 Aerodynamics - Mechanics of Air Flow Around a Vehicle
➢ Flow over the body of a car is governed by Bernoulli’s Equation

𝑷𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒄 + 𝑷𝒅𝒚𝒏𝒂𝒎𝒊𝒄 = 𝑷𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍

𝟏 𝟐
𝑷𝑺 + ρ𝑽 = 𝑷𝒕
𝟐
Where
ρ = Density of Air
V = Velocity of Air Fig. 4.1 Streamtubes flowing over an aerodynamic body

➢ Streamlines: Visualizing the vehicle as stationary and the air moving (as in wind
tunnel), the air streams along lines, appropriately called “streamlines”.
➢ Streamtube: A bundle of streamlines forms a streamtube.
➢ The static pressure Pstatic is simply the ambient or barometric pressure Patm at the
distance from the vehicle.
➢ The dynamic pressure Pdynamic is produced by the relative velocity, which is constant
for all stream lines approaching the vehicle.
➢ Total pressure is Pt is same for all stream lines. 7
Aerodynamics - Mechanics of Air Flow Around a Vehicle
➢ Streamlines on the bumper of car:
▪ As flow approaches the vehicle, streamlines split, some going above the
vehicle and others below.
▪ By inference, one streamline must go straight to the body and stagnate and
relative velocity has gone to zero.
▪ With velocity term zero, the total pressure at that point on the vehicle will
be static pressure.

V=0
Pt = Ps

Fig. 4.2 Pressure and Velocity Gradients in

8
the air flow over a body
Aerodynamics - Mechanics of Air Flow Around a Vehicle
➢ Streamlines flowing above the hood of car:
▪ Streamlines turn up in the upward direction the curvature is concave
upward.
▪ At a distance well above the vehicle, where streamlines are still straight,
Ps = Patm.
▪ To turn the airflow, Ps in the region must be higher than Patm and if Ps is
higher then the velocity must decrease to obey Bernoulli’s Equation.

Fig. 4.2 Pressure and Velocity Gradients in

the air flow over a body 9
Aerodynamics - Mechanics of Air Flow Around a Vehicle
➢ Important to note that:
▪ In the absence of friction, the air would simply flow up over the
roof and down the back side of the vehicle, exchanging pressure
for velocity as it did at the front. In that case, the pressure forces
on the back side of the vehicle would exactly balance those on the
front, and there would be no drag produce.
▪ From experience however, we know that drag is produce

10
Aerodynamics - Mechanics of Air Flow Around a Vehicle
Two sources of drag:
1) Friction of the air on the surface of the vehicle. (It is called
Friction Drag)
2) The way the friction alters the flow over the object which in turn
cause the pressure gradient between the front and rear of object.
(It is called Form Drag)

11
Aerodynamics - Mechanics of Air Flow Around a Vehicle
➢ Boundary Layers in the flow over an object:
▪ Approaching the body, all air is travelling at uniform velocity.
▪ As air flows past the body, the air contacting the surface drops to zero
velocity due to friction on the surface.
▪ Thus a velocity profile develops near the surface, and for some distance
, δ , the velocity is less than that of the main flow.
▪ The region of reduced velocity is known as the “boundary layer”.
▪ Boundary layer begins with zero thickness and grows with distance along
the body.

Fig. 4.3 Development of a Boundary Layer 12

Aerodynamics - Mechanics of Air Flow Around a Vehicle
➢ Boundary Layers in the flow over an object:
▪ In case of flow over a car , the surface is typically curved, leading to various
pressure gradients along the wing.
▪ A favorable pressure gradient (δP/δx < 0; i.e. pressure is decreasing) is seen
at the leading-edge of the wing.
▪ The trailing edge is submerged in adverse pressure gradients (δP/δx>0; i.e.
pressure is increasing).
▪ If the adverse pressure gradient is too strong, the boundary layer can
separate as the flow fails to follow the curved surface anymore.

13
 Aerodynamics - Pressure Distribution on a Vehicle
➢ Pressure Distribution along the centerline of a car:
▪ Negative pressure is developed at the front edge of the hood.
▪ The adverse pressure gradient in this region has the potential to stall
the boundary layer flow creating drag.
▪ High pressure is experienced Near the base of the windshield and cowl
accompanied by lower velocities in this region.
▪ This is the ideal location for inducing air for climate control system. The
lower velocities avoid the wipers from aerodynamic forces.

Fig. 4.6 Pressure distribution along the

centerline of a car
Aerodynamics - Pressure Distribution on a Vehicle
➢ Pressure Distribution along the centerline of a car:
▪ The pressure again goes negative over the roof line as the air flow tries to
follow the roof contour.
▪ The pressure remains low down over the backlite and on the trunk due to
continuing curvature and in this area flow separation is most likely.
▪ The flow along the sides of car is drawn up into the low pressure region in
the rear area, combining with flow over the roof to form vortices trailing
off back of the vehicle.
▪ The general patter of air flow over the top and sides of the car is shown in
figure.
▪ Theoretically, the ideal shape from aerodynamic point of view is the
teardrop rear shape e.g. Kamm-back
Aerodynamics - Aerodynamic Forces
Direction Force Moment
Longitudinal (x-axis, Drag Rolling
Positive Rearward) Moment
Lateral (y-axis, positive Sideforce Pitching
to the right) Moment
Vertical (z-axis, positive Lift Yawing
upward) Moment

The origin for force measurement is in the

ground plane at the mid-wheelbase and mid-
track position.
Fig 4.10 Aerodynamics forces and
moments acting on a car
 Aerodynamics - Pressure Distribution on a Vehicle
➢ Aerodynamic Lift and Drag forces with different vehicle styles

▪ The size of separation area affects the drag directly.

▪ The extent to which the flow is turned down at rear affects
the lift at the rear.
▪ Flow control that minimizes the separation area general
results in more aerodynamic lift at the rear because of the
pressure reduction as the flow is pulled downward.
 Aerodynamics - Pressure Distribution on a Vehicle
➢ Effect of separation point on dirt deposition at the rear

▪ The high degree of turbulence in the separation zone entrains

moisture and dirt kicked up from the roadway by the tires.
▪ Separation at the rear edge of roof line strongly depends on the
shape at that location and backlite angle.

❑ The sharp edge at the roof line promotes

separation at this point.
❑ Well defined separation boundary helps
minimizing aerodynamic buffeting.
❑ Inclusion of backlite in separation area
promotes dirt deposition on the window.

❑ Separation region is well defined by the

sharp contours at the end of the deck,
helping to stabilize the separation zone
and minimize buffeting.
❑ Only the tail region is exposed to road
dirt with this design.
Aerodynamics Drag: An old newspaper advert
emphasizing the aerodynamic design

19
 Aerodynamics - Drag Components
➢ Major Sources of Drag on a Passenger Car Drag Coefficient Typical
▪ Drag is the most important aerodynamic Component Value
force and overall total drag derives from Forebody 0.05
contribution of many sources. Afterbody 0.14
▪ Approximately 65% of the drag arises from Underbody 0.06
the body. Skin Friction 0.025
▪ Major contributor is the Afterbody because Total Body Drag 0.275
of the drag produced by the separation zone Wheels and wheel wells 0.09
at the rear. Drip Rails 0.01
▪ Slope angles up to 15 degrees consistently Window Recesses 0.01
reduce drag. External Mirrors 0.01
Total Protuberance Drag 0.12

Cooling System 0.025

Total Internal Drag 0.025
Overall Total Drag 0.42
Vehicle of the 1980s
Cars 0.30-0.35
Vans 0.33-0.35
Pickup Trucks 0.42-0.46
Fig 4.12 Influence of rear end inclination on drag
 Aerodynamics - Drag Components
➢ Influence of Front End Design on Drag
▪ Forebody drag is influenced by design of
the front end and windshield angle.
▪ The roundness of the front end establishes
the area over which the dynamic pressure
can act to induce drag.
▪ Figure shows the influence of the height of
front edge of the vehicle.
▪ The location of this point determines the
location of streamline flowing to the
stagnation point.
▪ Minimum drag is obtained when the
stagnation point is kept low on the frontal
profile of the vehicle.
▪ A rounded low hood line can yield
reductions of 5 to 15% in the overall drag
coefficient.
Fig 4.13 Influence of front end design on drag
 Aerodynamics - Drag Components
➢ Influence of windshield angle on drag
▪ The windshield establishes the flow
direction as it approaches the horizontal
roof.
▪ Angle of windshield has a direct influence
on drag.
▪ Shallow angles reduce drag but complicate
vehicle design by allowing increased solar
heating loads and placing more critical
demands on the manufacturer.
▪ The windshield angle is increased from the
nominal angle of 28 degrees.
▪ With a shallow angle, the wind speed will
be higher, adding to the aerodynamics
loads on the windshield wipers.
➢ Influence of underbody on drag
▪ Suspensions, exhaust systems and other
protruding components on the underbody
are responsible for drag.
▪ Recognize fix for minimizing underbody
drag is the use of a smooth underbody Fig 4.13 Influence of windshield on drag
panel.
 Aerodynamics - Drag Components
➢ Air flow Recirculation in a wheel well:
▪ The wheels and wheel wells are a major
contributor.
▪ Significant drag develops at the wheels
because of the turbulent, recirculating flow
in the cavities.
▪ The sharp edges of the wheel cutout
provide opportunities to induce flow in the
horizontal plane, while the rotating wheel
tends to induce circulation in the vertical
plane.
▪ The improvement is aerodynamic shielding
of the wheels and wheel well areas. Fig 4.15 Airflow circulation in a wheel well
▪ Decreasing the clearance between the
underside and the ground and minimizing
the wheel cavity decreases the total
aerodynamic drag contribution from the
wheel.
 Aerodynamics - Drag Components
➢ Air flow pattern inside a typical engine
component:
▪ Cooling system is the major
contributor to drag.
▪ Airflow passing through the radiator
impacts on the engine and the
firewall, exerting its dynamic
pressure as drag on the vehicle.
▪ Airflow pattern inside a typical
engine compartment may be very
chaotic due to the lack of
aerodynamic treatment in this area.
▪ Flow management in the cooling
Fig 4.15 Airflow inside a typical engine compartment
system can affect the drag
coefficient by as much as 0.025.
▪ In order to reduce drag on modern
cars, cooling inlet size is held to the
practical minimum.
 Aerodynamics - Aerodynamic Aids
➢ Bumper Spoilers:
▪ Aerodynamic surfaces extending downward from the bumper to block and
redirect the shear flow.
▪ Contributes pressure drag and with a shallow depth the reduction in
underbody drag is more significant.
▪ The increasing pressure drag outweighs further reduction in underbody drag as
spoiler depth is increased and overall drag increases.

➢ Air Dams:
▪ Flow-blocking surfaces installed at the perimeter of the radiator to improve flow through
the radiator at lower vehicle speeds.
▪ The improvement derives from the decreased pressure behind the radiator/fan.
▪ Drag may be reduced by reduction of pressure on the firewall.
 Aerodynamics - Aerodynamic Aids
➢ Deck Lid Spoilers:
▪ By deflecting the air upward, the pressure
is increased on the rear deck creating a
down force at the most advantageous
point on the vehicle to reduce rear lift.
▪ The spoilers also serve to stabilize the
vortices in the separation flow, thus
reducing aerodynamic buffeting.
▪ In general, deck lid spoilers tend to
increase drag. Fig 4.15 Influence of a spoiler on flow over the rear

➢ Window and Pillar Treatments:

▪ Drip rails and offsets between windows and pillars on a car body are always sources of
drag.
▪ Disturbance to the air flow in these regions may cause small separation zones.
▪ The disturbance to the air in the high-velocity air stream causes momentum loss which
creates drag.
▪ Smooth contours are important not only for drag reduction, but also for reduction of
aerodynamic noise.
 Aerodynamics - Aerodynamic Aids
➢ Optimization:
▪ The development of automotive aerodynamics has been described
as occurring in three stages.

1. Adaption of streamlined shapes from other disciplines (e.g.,

ship-building) at the turn of the century.

2. Application of the knowledge of fluid mechanics from aircraft

aero-dynamics around the 1930s.

3. Current efforts to optimize the numerous details of the

design to obtain good air flow characteristics.
 Aerodynamics - Aerodynamic Aids
➢ Optimization - Example:
▪ Figure 4.19 shows an example of
optimization.
▪ The sketches show minor modifications in
detail such as change in air dam (A), hood
line (B), A – pillar shape (C) and D-pillar
shape (D and E).
▪ The graph illustrates the magnitude of
drag reduction obtained from various
combinations of these changes.
▪ Overall drag reduction of 21 % is
achieved by combination of A, B, C, D and
E.
Overall Overall
Combination Drag Combination Drag
Reduction Reduction
A 4% A+B+C+D 19 %

A+B 13 % A+B+C+D+E 21 %

A+B+C 17 %

Fig 4.19 Optimization of body detail

 Aerodynamics - Drag
➢ Drag:
▪ Aerodynamic drag is characterized by the equation:
1
𝐷𝐴 = ρ 𝑉 2 𝐶𝐷 𝐴
2
Where
CD = Aerodynamic drag coefficient
A = Frontal area of vehicle
ρ = Air Density
➢ Air Density
▪ The air density is variable depending on temperature, pressure and humidity
conditions.
▪ At standard conditions (59oF and 29.92 inches of Hg), the density is 0.076 lb/ft3 and
in terms of mass density the value is 0.00236 lb-sec2/ft4.
▪ Density at other conditions can be estimated by the following equation:

𝑃𝑟 288.16 in Metric System

ρ = 1.225
101.325 273.16 + 𝑇𝑟
Where
Pr = Aerodynamic pressure in kiloPascals
Tr = Frontal area of vehicle
 Aerodynamics - Drag
➢ Drag Coefficient:
▪ The drag coefficient is determined from the following equation
𝐷𝐴 𝐷𝑟𝑎𝑔 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝐶𝐷 = =
1 2𝐴 𝐷𝑦𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
ρ 𝑉
2

Fig 4.20 Drag Coefficient of Various Bodies

Aerodynamics - Drag
 Aerodynamics - Drag
➢ Drag Coefficient:
▪ A vehicle driving along a road experiences atmospheric winds in
addition to the wind component arising from its speed.
▪ The atmospheric wind will be random in direction with respect to the
vehicle’s direction of travel.
▪ The relative wind seen by the vehicle will consist of large component
due to its speed, plus a smaller atmospheric wind component in any
direction
▪ When the atmospheric wind blows toward the vehicle a “headwind” is
present and the total velocity is given by:

𝑉 = 𝑉𝑉 + 𝑉𝑊

Where

Vv = Vehicle Speed
VW = Wind Speed
Fig 4.21 Relative wind seen by a motor vehicle on the road
 Aerodynamics – Side Force
▪ The lateral wind components will also impose a
side force on the vehicle attempting to change its
direction of travel.
▪ In strong crosswinds, the side force is typically
greater than the drag force, such that the angle
of overall wind force is much greater than the
relative wind angle.
▪ Under steady state wind conditions, the side
force imposed on a vehicle in a cross wind is
given by:
1
𝑆𝐴 = ρ 𝑉 2 𝐶𝑆 𝐴 Fig 4.24 Side force coefficient as a function
2
of yaw angle for typical vehicles
Where
SA = Side Force ▪ Figure shows typical characteristic of
V = Total Wind Velocity CS as a function of wide angle.
Cs = Side force coefficient (function of
relative wind angle) ▪ The side force coefficient is zero at
A = Frontal Area zero relative wind angle, and grows
nearly linearly with the angle for the
first 20 to 40 degrees.
 Aerodynamics – Lift Force
▪ The pressure differential from the top to the bottom of the vehicle causes
a lift force.
▪ The lift force is measured at the centerline of the vehicle at the center of
the wheelbase.
1
𝐿𝐴 = ρ 𝑉 2 𝐶𝐿 𝐴
2
▪ Lift force is dependent on the overall shape
of the vehicle.
▪ At zero wind angle, lift coefficients normally
fall in the range of 0.3 to 0.5 for modern
passenger cars.
▪ Under crosswind conditions, the coefficient
may increase dramatically reaching values
of 1 or more.
▪ Lift at the rear of the vehicle reduces https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e21
stability. ZjwZGjiQ
▪ Lift can be decreased by use of underbody
pans, spoilers and a change in angle of
attack of the body.
 Aerodynamics – Pitching Moment
▪ The pitching moment acts to transfer
weight between the front and rear
axles.
▪ Pitching moment arises from the fact
that the drag does not act at the
ground plane and the lifting force may
not act exactly at the center of the
wheelbase.
▪ Pitching moment is described by the
equation:
1
𝑃𝑀 = ρ 𝑉 2 𝐶𝑃𝑀 𝐴 𝐿 Fig 4.25 Variation of Pitching Moment
2 Coefficient with Body Pitch Angle
Where
▪ Figure 4.25 shows how the pitching moment
PM = Pitching moment
coefficient varies with body pitch angle on
CPM = Pitching moment coefficient
several vehicle.
A = Frontal Area
L = Wheelbase ▪ Modern cars have a pitching moment in the
range of 0.05 to 0.2 and it is quite sensitive to
the angle of attack on the vehicle.
 Aerodynamics – Yawing Moment
▪ The lateral force caused by a side wind
does not normally act at the mid-
wheelbase position and a yawing
moment is YM is produced.
▪ The yawing moment is quantified by the
equation.
1
𝑌𝑀 = ρ 𝑉 2 𝐶𝑌𝑀 𝐴 𝐿
2

Where
YM = Yawing moment
CYM = Yawing moment coefficient Fig 4.26 Yawing Moment Coefficients
A = Frontal Area for typical vehicles
L = Wheelbase
▪ Figure 4.26 shows the coefficient for some
typical vehicles.
▪ The yawing moment coefficient varies with
wind direction, starting at zero with zero
relative wind angle and growing linearly upto
20 degree angle.
 Aerodynamics – Yawing Moment
▪ The lateral force caused by a side wind acts at an elevated point on
the vehicle and rolling moment RM is produced.
▪ The rolling moment is quantified by the equation.
1
𝑅𝑀 = ρ 𝑉 2 𝐶𝑅𝑀 𝐴 𝐿
2
Where
RM = Rolling moment
CRM = Rolling moment coefficient
A = Frontal Area
L = Wheelbase
▪ The rolling moment coefficient is sensitive to wind direction much
like the yawing moment coefficient.
▪ The coefficient is quite linear over the first 20 degrees of relative
wind angle.
 Aerodynamics – Crosswind Sensitivity
▪ Crosswind sensitivity: It refers to the lateral and yawing response of a vehicle in
the presence of transverse wind disturbance which affect the driver’s ability to
hold the vehicle in position and on course.

• Aerodynamic Properties
• Vehicle dynamic properties (weight distribution, tire properties and
suspensions)
• Steering system characteristics (compliances, friction and torque assist)
• Driver closed-loop steering behavior and preferences

• The factor of primary importance in this case is center of pressure (CP)

location and its relative distance ahead of the vehicle neutral steer point.

The neutral steer point (NSP) is the point on the vehicle at which a lateral force produces
equal sideslip angles at both front and rear axles. (No rotation)

Reading Assignment: Cross Wind Sensitivity

 Rolling Resistance
▪ The other major vehicle resistance force on level ground is the rolling resistance of
the tires.
▪ There are at least seven mechanisms responsible for rolling resistance.
1. Energy loss due to deflection of the tire sidewall near the contact area.
2. Energy loss due to deflection of the thread elements.
3. Scrubbing in the contact patch.
4. Tire slip in the longitudinal and lateral directions.
5. Deflection of the road surface.
6. Air drag on the inside and outside of the tire.
7. Energy loss on bumps.
▪ Considering the vehicle as a whole, the
total rolling resistance is the sum of the
resistances from all the wheels:
𝑅𝑥 = 𝑅𝑥𝑓 + 𝑅𝑥𝑟 = 𝑓𝑟 𝑊

Where
Rxf = Rolling moment
Rxr = Rolling moment coefficient
fr = Frontal Area
W = Wheelbase
 Rolling Resistance – Typical Coefficients
▪ Studies on the rolling loss characteristics of solid rubber tires led to an
equation for the form:

𝑅𝑥 𝑊 ℎ𝑡
𝑓𝑟 = =𝐶
𝑊 𝐷 𝑤
Where
Rx = Rolling resistance force
W = Weight on the wheel
C = Constant reflecting loss and elastic characteristics of the tire material
D = Outside diameter
ht = Tire section weight
w = Tire section width

▪ Formulation shows that rolling resistance is seen to be load sensitive,

increasing linearly with load.
▪ Larger tires reduce rolling resistance, as do low aspect ratios (h/w).
▪ The accuracy of a calculation is naturally limited by the influence of
factors that are neglected.
 Rolling Resistance – Typical Coefficients
▪ At the most elementary level, the rolling resistance coefficient may be
estimated as a constant.
▪ The table below lists some typical values that might be used in that case.

Vehicle Type Concrete Surface Sand

Medium Hard
Passenger cars 0.015 0.08 0.30
Heavy Trucks 0.012 0.06 0.25
Tractors 0.02 0.04 0.20

▪ At lower speeds the coefficient rises approximately linearly with speed.

The equations have been developed which include a linear speed
dependence, such as below:
𝑉
𝑓𝑟 = 0.01 (1 + )
100
Where
V = Speed in mph
 Rolling Resistance – Typical Coefficients
▪ At the University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute, similar
equations for estimating rolling resistance of heavy truck tires of both the
radial and bias-ply types were developed.
𝑓𝑟 = 0.0041 + 0.000041 𝑉 𝐶ℎ 𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑇𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑠

𝑓𝑟 = 0.0066 + 0.000046 𝑉 𝐶ℎ 𝐵𝑖𝑎𝑠 − 𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑡𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑠

Where

V = Speed in mph
Ch = Road surface coefficient
= 1.0 for smooth concrete
= 1.2 for worn concrete, brick, cold blacktop
= 1.5 for hot blacktop

▪ Rolling resistance is clearly a minimum on hard, smooth, dry surfaces.

▪ A worn-out road almost doubles rolling resistance.
▪ On wet surfaces, higher rolling resistance is observed probably due to the cooler
operating temperature of the tire which reduces its flexibility.
 Total Road Loads
▪ The summation of the rolling resistance and
aerodynamics forces (and grade forces, if
present) constitutes the propulsion load for
the vehicle, and is normally referred to as
“road load”.
▪ The road load force is given by:
𝟏
𝑹𝑹𝑳 = 𝒇𝒓 𝑾 + 𝝆 𝑽𝟐 𝑪𝑫 𝑨 + 𝑾 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
𝟐
▪ Figure 3.5 shows the sum of these forces
for a typical large vehicle. Fig 4.35 Road load plot for a typical passenger car
▪ The road load power is computed by
following equation:
𝑉
𝐻𝑃𝑅𝐿 = 𝑅𝑅𝐿
550
1 𝑉
= 𝑓𝑟 𝑊 + ρ 𝑉 2 𝐶𝐷 𝐴 + 𝑊 sin 𝜃
2 550
▪ At high speeds, a small increase in speed
results in a large increase in vehicle
power required, with an associated
penalty to fuel economy.
Fig 4.36 Road load power plot for a typical passenger car
 Total Road Loads – Fuel Economy Effects
▪ Aerodynamic and rolling resistance forces are of particular interest
for their effect on fuel consumption.
▪ Aerodynamic Drag is the most important of aerodynamic properties.
▪ Figure 4.37 shows an estimate of where the energy is used in EPA
driving cycles and in steady highway driving.

Fig 4.37 Subdivision of work of a compact car in driving cycles

Term Project Presentations
1. New Car Assessment Program NCAP Global and Local
2. Safety Features in a modern passenger car
3. Pakistan Automotive Development Policy (2018-2021)
4. Automotive Regulations in Pakistan
5. Pakistani Market for imported Cars and Taxes
6. Local Automotive Industry view point on Imported Cars and New Auto Policy
7. Vehicle Emissions Testing Stations (VETS) in Pakistan
8. Driver Training Program in Pakistan vs Global
9. Emission Standards Euro I, II, III, IV
10. Pakistan Highways and Motorways
11. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) USA
12. Global Vision for Electric Vehicle
13. Wheel Alignments and Balancing and its Dynamic Effects
14. Automotive Venders in Pakistan and their capabilities
15. Electric Vehicle and its Prospects in Pakistan
16. Details of different Crash Testing Procedures for NCAP
17. TAX regimes in Pakistani Automotive Market.
18. Racing Cars An Example of State of the Art Engineering
19. Modern Car Aerodynamics and testing procedures
20. Any New Topic of your choice. Needed Approval from instructor 46
Aerodynamics

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RXRr0aRW6Jg Porsche Adaptive Aerodynamics

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TKH1DyV9vNU Sports car spoiler comparison

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JxpRweWb_Bo Porche Panamera Spoiler on Test

Run
Aerdynamics
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E9ZSAX56m0E Wind Tunnel Aerodynamics

https://twitter.com/i/status/1286780645818208257 Mercedes Areodynamic

47
 Boimimetics

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iMtXqTmfta0 Biomimetics

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d_FEaFgJyfA Owl Aerodynamics

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Videos

https://www.facebook.com/watch/?v=362674537877766 snow friction

https://www.facebook.com/watch/?v=186462708648622 Accident Servival

https://twitter.com/i/status/1355907575817134081 Tesla Acceleration

https://twitter.com/i/status/1181665309905870849 Leapord Tail for Stability

https://twitter.com/i/status/1181062851621982208 Weight Distribution Change & Stability

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