Electrical Installation

Calculations

Now in its 10th edition, Electrical Installation Calculations: Basic has been up-
dated to include any changes required to bring it in line with the 18th edition
of the IET electrical wiring regulations (BS7671:2018).

Electrical calculations required for exams can prove difficult to master, but for
more than 40 years, this book series has proved very helpful to students and
professional electrical engineers studying for electrical qualifications. It covers
all the calculations required for Level 2 electrical qualifications, along with
other useful calculations that may be used in the electrical industry but may
not feature in the syllabus of some exams.

Although the calculations in this book are referred to as ‘basic’, they form the
foundation of all calculations carried out in the electrical industry, which have
been set out simply with worked examples along with additional questions
and answers. Key terms are explained in a glossary, which can be used to assist
with the reader’s understanding.

Christopher Kitcher has been working in the electrical industry for 60 years,
many of which have been spent working on site. The last 20 years have entailed
teaching and training at various colleges and companies. He is the author of
Electricians' On-Site Companion (Routledge, 2017), Practical Guide to Inspec-
tion, Testing and Certification of Electrical Installations (Routledge, 2018), and
Electrical Installation Calculations: Advanced (Routledge, 2022).
Electrical Installation
Calculations
Basic

Christopher Kitcher and A.J. Watkins

Tenth Edition
Cover image: iStock
Tenth edition published 2022
by Routledge
4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

© 2022 Christopher Kitcher and A.J. Watkins

The right of Christopher Kitcher and A.J. Watkins to be identified as
authors of this work has been asserted in accordance with sections
77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or
reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical,
or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including
photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or
retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks
or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and
explanation without intent to infringe.
First edition published 1957
Ninth edition published by Routledge 2014
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
A catalog record has been requested for this book
ISBN: 978-1-032-19341-0 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-032-19340-3 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-25873-5 (ebk)
DOI: 10.4324/9781003258735
Typeset in Rotis Sans Serif
by codeMantra
Contents

Preface ix
1 Use of Calculators 1
2 Simple Transposition of Formulae 3
3 SI Units 5
SI Derived Units (Used in Book 1 & 2) 6

SI Unit Prefixes 7

4 Conductor Colour Identification 9

5 Circuit Calculations 11
Ohm’s Law 11

Resistors in Series 14

Resistors in Parallel 17

Calculation of Total Resistance of Resistors in Parallel 20

Resistances in Parallel Using Product over Sum Method 21

Series and Parallel Resistors 25

6 Voltage Drop 29

Conductor Resistance and Voltage Drop Using Ohm’s Law 29

Voltage Drop Using Tables From BS 7671 32

7 Areas, Perimeters and Volume 33

Calculation of Perimeters 33

Areas and Perimeters 34

Volumes 36
CONTENTS

8 Space Factors 41

Calculation 41

9 Coulombs and Current Flow 53

10 Internal Resistance 55
Resistivity 55

11 Power in a d.c. and Purely Resistive a.c. Circuit 67

Method 1 67

Method 2 71

Method 3 73

Mechanics 78

Mass, Force and Weight 80

Efficiency 92

12 Power Factor 99

kVA, kVAr and kW 99

13 Transformers 103

Transformer Calculations 103

Transformer Current 105

14 Electromagnetic Effect 107

Magnetic Flux and Flux Density 107

Force on a Current Carrying Conductor Within a Magnetic Field 108

15 Induced e.m.f. 111

16 Self-Inductance 113
17 Mutual Inductance 115
18 Cable Selection 121
Disconnection Times for Fuses 125

Disconnection Times for Circuit Breakers 126

vi
 CONTENTS

Fusing Factors, Fault Current and Overload 127

Short Circuit Current 128

19 Earth Fault Loop Impedance 129

Earth Fault Loop Impedance Ze 129

Earth Fault Loop Impedance Zs 130

20 Material Costs, Discounts and Value Added Tax 135

21 Electrostatics 141
The Parallel Plate Capacitor 141

Series Arrangement of Capacitors 142

Parallel Arrangement of Capacitors 144

22 Formulae 147
23 Electronic Symbols 153
24 Glossary 169
25 Answers to Exercises 173
Exercise 1 173

Exercise 2 173

Exercise 3 174

Exercise 4 175

Exercise 5 177

Exercise 6 177

Exercise 7 178

Exercise 8 179

Exercise 9 179

Exercise 10 181

Exercise 11 183

Exercise 12 184

vii
CONTENTS

Exercise 13 184

Exercise 14 186

Exercise 15 186

26 Additional Questions and Answers 189

Answers 205

viii
 Preface

Being able to carry out mathematical calculations is a vital part of electrical instal-
lation courses and indeed electrical installation work.

The structure of electrical installation courses continually changes as do the course

titles and numbers; however, electrical science remains the same and, like it or not,
anyone wanting to become an electrician will need to have a good understanding of
how to carry out electrical calculations.

The calculations which need to be performed vary from those which an electrician
needs almost on a daily basis, such as cable calculation or the amount of energy
required to run a particular piece of equipment, to more complex calculations such
as those required for electromagnetism.

This book will show you how to carry out these calculations as simply as possible
using electronic calculator methods. These methods will be useful both in the class-
room and the workplace. It is not necessary for you to have a deep understanding of
how the mathematical functions are performed. Each topic is shown using a step-
by-step process with lots of exercises provided to give you the opportunity to test
yourself at the end of each chapter.

This edition has been completely updated to the 18th edition of BS 7671 amendment
1: 2011 and the IET On-Site Guide; useful references are made to these documents
throughout.

It does not matter which electrical course you are attending – this book along with
the advanced calculations book will be invaluable.
Use of Calculators 1

Throughout the ‘Basic’ and ‘Advanced’ books the use of a calculator is encouraged.
Your calculator is a tool, and like any tool, practice is required to perfect their use.
A scientific calculator will be required, and although they differ in the way the func-
tions are carried out, the end result is the same.

The examples are given using a Casio scientific calculator.

The figure printed on the button is the function performed when the button is
pressed.

To use the function in small letters above any button the shift button must be used.

Practice is important.

A syntax error will appear when the figures are entered in the wrong order.

x2 will multiply a number by itself, i.e. 6 × 6 = 36. On the calculator this would be
6 x2 = 36.

When a number is multiplied by itself it is said to be squared.

x3 will multiply a number by itself and then the total by itself again.

For example, when we enter 4 on calculator x3 = 64. When a number is multiplied in

this way it is said to be cubed.

: will give you the number which achieves your total by being multiplied by itself,
i.e. 36 = 6. This is said to be the square root of a number, and is the opposite of
squared.
3 will give you the number which when multiplied by itself three times will be your
total, i.e. 3 × 3 × 3 = 27. This is said to be the cube root.
1
X –1 will divide 1 by a number, i.e. = 0.25. This is the reciprocal button and is useful
4
in this book for finding the resistance of resistors in parallel and capacitors in series.

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USE OF CALCULATORS

EXP is for the powers of 10 function, i.e. 25 × 1000 = 25 × 103 = 25000.

Enter into calculator 25 EXP 3 = 25000. (Do not enter the X or the number 10.)

If a calculation shows 10–3 i.e.: 25 × 10–3 enter 25 EXP − 3 = (0.025). (When using
EXP if a minus is required use the button (-).)

Brackets should be used to carry out a calculation within a calculation.

EXAMPLE
32
Calculation: = 65.46
(0.8 × 0.65 × 0.94)
Enter into calculator 32 ÷ (0.8 × 0.65 × 0.94) =

Remember Practice makes Perfect.

2
Simple Transposition of 2
Formulae

To find an unknown value:

nn The subject must be on the top line and must be on its own.

nn The answer will always be on the top line.

nn To get the subject on its own values must be moved.

nn Any value that moves across the = sign must move from above the line to below
line or from below the line to above the line.

EXAMPLE 1

3×4 = 2×6
3×4 = 2×?
3× 4
Transpose to find? =6
2

EXAMPLE 2

2×6
=4
?
Step 1: 2 × 6 = 4 × ?
2×6
Step 2: =?
4
2×6
Answer: =3
4

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SIMPLE TRANSPOSITION OF FORMULAE

EXAMPLE 3
5 × 8 × 6 = 3 × 20 × ?

Step 1: move 3 × 20 away from unknown value; as the known values move across
5×8 ×4
the = sign they must move to bottom of equation =?
3 × 20

Step 2: carry out the calculation

5 × 8 × 6 240
= =4
3 × 20 60

5 × 8 × 6 = 240
Therefore or 5 × 8 × 6 = 3 × 20 × 4
3 × 20 × 4 = 240

4
SI Units 3

In Europe and the United Kingdom, the units for measuring different properties are
known as SI units.

SI stands for Système Internationale.

All units are derived from seven base units.

Base quantity Base unit Symbol

Time second s

Electrical current ampere A

Length metre m

Mass kilogram kg

Temperature kelvin K

Luminous intensity candela cd

Amount of substance mole mol

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SI UNITS

SI DERIVED UNITS (USED IN BOOK 1 & 2)

Derived quantity Name Symbol

Frequency hertz Hz

Force newton N

Energy, work, quantity of heat joule J

Electric charge, quantity of electricity coulomb C

Power watt W

Potential difference, electromotive force volt V or U

Capacitance farad F

Electrical resistance ohm Ω

Magnetic flux weber Wb

Magnetic flux density tesla T

Inductance henry H

Luminous flux lumen lm

Area square metre m2

Volume cubic metre m3

Velocity, speed metre per second m/s

Mass, density kilogram per cubic metre kg/m3

Luminance candela per square metre cd/m2

6
 SI UNITS

SI UNIT PREFIXES

Name Multiplier Prefix Power of 10

Tera 1000 000 000 000 T 1 × 1012

Giga 1000 000 000 G 1×109

Mega 1000 000 M 1×106

Kilo 1000 k 1×103

Unit 1

milli 0.001 m 1×10–3

micro 0.000 001 μ 1×10–6

nano 0.000 000 001 η 1×10–9

pico 0.000 000 000 001 ρ 1×10–12

EXAMPLES

mA milliamp = one thousandth of an ampere

km kilometre = one thousand metres
μv microvolt = one millionth of a volt
GW Gigawatt = one thousand million watts
kW kilowatt = one thousand watts

CALCULATOR EXAMPLE

1 kilometre is 1 metre × 103.

Enter into calculator 1 EXP 3 = (1000) metres

1000 metres is 1 kilometre × 10–3

Enter into calculator 1000 EXP -3 = (1) kilometre

1 microvolt is 1 volt × 10–6

Enter into calculator 1EXP –6 =(1–06 or 0.000001) volts. (Note 6th decimal place.)

7
Conductor Colour 4
Identification

Three phase a.c. systems, although known as three phase, each phase is now iden-
tified as a line.

Old reference Old colour New colour New reference

Phase 1 Red Brown L1

Phase 2 Yellow Black L2

Phase 3 Blue Grey L3

Neutral Black Blue N

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Circuit Calculations 5

OHM’S LAW

Ohm’s law is the first calculation which needs to be learnt and it is probably the one
which is used most frequently.

The most common method of remembering to begin with is to use what is known as
the Ohm’s law triangle.

Figure 1  Ohm’s law triangle

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CIRCUIT CALCULATIONS

U Voltage can be thought of as the pressure in the circuit

I Current is the flow of electrons

R (Ω) Resistance is anything which resists the flow of current i.e. cable resistance,
load resistance or a specific value of resistance added to the circuit for any reason.

As you can see, the symbol used for voltage is U. This will be used throughout the
book although other publications may use V; of course V can be used when carrying
out calculations if it is preferred.

Using the triangle in Figure 2, to find the resistance of a circuit block out the R, this
will indicate to you the formula to find out the resistance.

In a d.c. circuit the current is directly proportional to the applied voltage and in-
versely proportional to the resistance.

To put this simply, if the voltage is increased then the current will increase and if the
resistance is increased the current will reduce.

Figure 2a, 2b, 2c Ways to calculate current voltage and resistance using the Ohm’s
law triangle

12
 CIRCUIT CALCULATIONS

Figure 3 shows an example if a voltage of 20 volts is applied to a 5Ω resistor.

U 20
=I = 4 amperes
R 5
If the resistance in the circuit is now increased to 10Ω it can be seen that the current
20
flow is halved. =2 amperes
10
To put it another way, double the resistance and the current will be halved.

13
CIRCUIT CALCULATIONS

Figure 3 20 volts applied to a 5Ω resistor

Where the resistance of a circuit is unknown, Ohm’s law can be used to calculate it.

Where the measured voltage is 20V and the measured current is 4 amperes the
calculation is:

U 20
=R =5
I 4

Where the voltage is unknown and the measured resistance is 5Ω and the measured
current is 4 amperes, Ohm’s law can be used as follows:
R × I =U 5 × 4 = 20V

RESISTORS IN SERIES

When a number of resistors are connected in series and the total value of resistance
is required, the values of the resistors are added together, as the total resistance is
equal to the sum of all of the resistance values.

So in Figure 4:

R1 + R 2 + R 3 = R
1.2 + 0.23 + 1.6 = 3.03

Figure 4 Resistors connected in a series

14
 CIRCUIT CALCULATIONS

EXAMPLES

Ohm’s law can be used to calculate values in series circuits.

Using the circuit in Figure 4 with an applied voltage of 20 volts, the total current
can be calculated:

U 20
=I = 6.6A
R 3.03

This calculation shows that each resistance in a circuit will cause a reduction in the
voltage (pressure). Ohm’s law can be used to find the voltage at different parts of the
circuit. In a series circuit the current will be the same wherever it is measured, it is
the voltage which will change.

The calculation I × R can be used to calculate the voltage drop across each resistance.

Using values from Figure 4, the current in the circuit is 6.6A and the volt drop will
be as shown in Figure 5.

Figure 5 Calculating the volt drop

Voltage drop across:

R1 6.6A × 1.2 = 7.92V

R2 6.6A × 0.23 = 1.518V
R3 6.6A × 1.6 = 10.56V

It can be seen that the sum of the voltage drop across all resistors is equal to the
total voltage in the circuit and that the voltage after the last resistance is zero volts.

EXERCISE 1

15
CIRCUIT CALCULATIONS

(c) 19.65, 4.35

(d) 0.085, 1.12, 0.76
(e) 27.94, 18.7, 108.3
(f) 256.5, 89.7
(g) 1400, 57.9kΩ
(h) 1.5MΩ, 790 000
(i) 0.0047, 0.095
(j) 0.0568, 0.000 625 (give answers in microhms)

(a) 92Ω to produce 114Ω

(b) 12.65Ω to produce 15Ω
(c) 1.5Ω to produce 3.25Ω
(d) 4.89Ω to produce 7.6Ω
(e) 0.9Ω to produce 2.56Ω
(f) 7.58Ω to produce 21Ω
(g) 3.47Ω to produce 10Ω
(h) 195Ω to produce 2000Ω
(i) 365µΩ to produce 0.5Ω (answer in microhms)
(j) 189 000Ω to produce 0.25MΩ (answer in megohms)

16
 CIRCUIT CALCULATIONS

10 Two resistors connected in series have a combined resistance of 159Ω. One

resistor has a value of 84Ω. The value of the other is:

(a) 133.56Ω
(b) 1.89Ω
(c) 243Ω
(d) 75Ω

RESISTORS IN PARALLEL

When resistances are connected in parallel, the voltage is common across each
resistance (remember in series it was the current that was common).

17
CIRCUIT CALCULATIONS

Each resistance that is connected to a circuit in parallel will reduce the resistance of
the circuit and will therefore increase the current flowing in the circuit.

Figure 6 shows a resistance of 6Ω connected to a voltage of 10V. Using Ohm’s law

the current in the circuit can be calculated:
U 10
=I = = 1.66A
R 6

When another resistance of 3Ω is connected to the circuit in parallel as Figure 7

shows, the total resistance can be calculated, again by using Ohm’s law as follows.

Figure 6 Calculating resistance and voltage in parallel

18
 CIRCUIT CALCULATIONS

Figure 7  Adding another 3Ω to the circuit

The voltage across each resistance is 10 volts.

10
Therefore the current flowing through R1 is =1.66A
6
10
The current flowing through R2 is =3.33A
3
The total current in the circuit is the sum of the current flowing in R1 & R2: 1.66 +
3.33 = 4.99 amperes

But what happens if another resistance of 4Ω is connected in parallel to this circuit,

as shown in Figure 8?

Current flowing in R1 is 1.66A and R2 is 3.33A.

10
Using Ohm’s law, current in R3 is =2.5A
4
(Note higher resistance results in less current flow.)

Total current in circuit is 1.66 + 3.33 + 2.5 = 7.49A

This can also be used to calculate the total resistance of the circuit.

19
CIRCUIT CALCULATIONS

Figure 8 Adding another 4Ω to the circuit

Using Ohm’s law, the voltage is 10 volts, current is 7.49A, the calculation is:

U
=R
I
10
= 1.33
7.49

Clearly this method can only be used if the voltage is known.

CALCULATION OF TOTAL RESISTANCE OF RESISTORS

IN PARALLEL

If only the resistances are known the total resistance can be calculated by using the
following method with a calculator:

1 1 1 1
+ + =
R1 R2 R3 R

Using values from Figure 8:

1 1 1 1
+ + = = 1.33Ω
6 3 4 0.75

On calculator enter:
6 x −1 + 3x −1 + 4 x −1 = x −1 = (1.33Ω Answer)

20
 CIRCUIT CALCULATIONS

This can be proven to be correct by using Ohm’s law again:

U 10
=I = 7.5A
R 1.33

The current will be the same as when the current passing through all of the individ-
ual resistances in Figure 8 are added together, i.e.

2.5 + 3.33 + 1.66 = 7.49 amperes (This is 0.01A different because I only used 2
decimal places.)

RESISTANCES IN PARALLEL USING PRODUCT OVER

SUM METHOD

Another method of calculating the total resistance of resistances in parallel is by

using the product over sum method.

If the resistances from Figure 8 are used, the total resistance can be found.

The resistances were 6Ω, 3Ω and 4Ω.

6 × 3
Step 1: =2
6+3
2× 4
= 1.33
Step 2: 2 + 4

This method can be used for any number of resistances connected in parallel.

The calculation must be carried out using two resistances, then using the result of
the calculation with the next resistance, then the next until all of the resistances
are used.

EXERCISE 2

21
CIRCUIT CALCULATIONS

(d) 4, 6, 9
(e) 7, 5, 10
(f) 14, 70
(g) 12, 12
(h) 15, 15, 15
(i) 40, 40, 40, 40

Question Given resistance (Ω) Resistance required (Ω)

(a) 48 12

(b) 20 5

(c) 9 4

(d) 6 3

(e) 7 6

(f) 500 400

3
(g) 0.6×10 200

(h) 75 25

(i) 38 19

(j) 52 13

22
 CIRCUIT CALCULATIONS

(a) the voltage drop along the cables

(b) the actual current carried by each cable.

12 Four resistance coils – A, B, C and D – of values 4Ω, 5Ω, 6Ω and 7Ω respectively

are joined to form a closed circuit in the form of a square. A direct-current supply
at 40V is connected across the ends of coil C. Calculate:

(a) the current flowing in each resistor

(b) the total current from the supply
(c) the potential difference across each coil
(d) the total current from the supply if a further resistance coil R of 8Ω is
connected in parallel with coil A.

23
CIRCUIT CALCULATIONS

13 Resistors of 3Ω, 5Ω and 8Ω are connected in parallel. Their combined resistance is

(a) 1.6Ω
(b) 0.658Ω
(c) 16.0Ω
(d) 1.52Ω

14 Two resistors are connected in parallel to give a combined resistance of 3.5Ω. The
value of one resistor is 6Ω. The value of the other is

(a) 8.4Ω
(b) 0.12Ω
(c) 1.2Ω
(d) 2.5Ω

15 The resistance of a cable carrying 43A is 0.17Ω. Calculate the resistance of a

second cable which, if connected in parallel, would reduce the voltage drop to 5V.
16 A cable of resistance 1.92Ω carries a current of 12.5A. Find the voltage drop. If a
second cable of 2.04Ω resistance is connected in parallel, what voltage drop will
occur for the same value of load current?
17 Three cables, having resistances 0.0685Ω, 0.0217Ω and 0.1213Ω, are connected
in parallel. Find

(a) the resistance of the combination

(b) the total current which could be carried by the cables for a voltage drop
of 5.8V.

18 A load current of 250A is carried by two cables in parallel. If their resistances are
0.0354Ω and 0.046Ω, how much current flows in each cable?
19 Two cables in parallel between them carry a current of 87.4A. One of them has a
resistance of 0.089Ω and carries 53A. What is the resistance of the other?
20 Resistors of 34.7Ω and 43.9Ω are connected in parallel. Determine the value of a
third resistor which will reduce the combined resistance to 19Ω.
21 Three pvc-insulated cables are connected in parallel, and their resistances are
0.012Ω, 0.015Ω and 0.008Ω, respectively, With a total current of 500A flowing
on a 240V supply,

24
 CIRCUIT CALCULATIONS

(a) calculate the current in each cable

(b) calculate the combined voltage drop over the three cables in parallel
(c) calculate the individual voltage drop over each cable in the paralleled
circuit.

22 Tests on a 300m length of single-core mineral-insulated cable produced the

following results: conductor resistance 2.4Ω, insulation resistance 40MΩ. What
will be the anticipated conductor and insulation resistance values of a 120m
length of the cable?

(a) 16Ω, 0.96MΩ

(b) 0.96Ω, 100MΩ
(c) 0.96Ω, 40MΩ
(d) 16Ω, 16MΩ

23 A 250m reel of twin mineral-insulated cables is to be cut to provide two equal

lengths. Before cutting the cable one core is tested and the insulation resistance
is found to be 23MΩ and the conductor resistance found to be 2.9Ω. What will
be the anticipated conductor and insulation resistance values of each of the two
lengths?

(a) 46Ω, 1.45MΩ

(b) 1.45Ω, 46MΩ
(c) 0.145Ω, 11.5MΩ
(d) 11.5Ω, 46MΩ

SERIES AND PARALLEL RESISTORS

EXAMPLE

Resistors of 4Ω and 5Ω are connected in parallel and a 6Ω resistor is connected

in series with the group. The combination is connected to a 100 volt supply (see
Figure 9). Calculate the total resistance, voltage drop and current in each resistor.

25
CIRCUIT CALCULATIONS

Figure 9 Series and parallel resistors in a circuit

To find a resistance for the parallel group,

1 1 1
+ = = 2.22
4 5 0.45

Calculator method:
4 x −1 + 5 x −1 = x −1 = 2.22

This circuit may now be shown as Figure 10.

Total resistance in circuit can now be calculated as two resistances in series.

Total R = 2.22 + 6 = 8.22Ω

Figure 10 Series and parallel resistors in a circuit

26
 CIRCUIT CALCULATIONS

To calculate total current,

U
Using Ohm’s law =I
R
100
=12.17A
8.22
Voltage drop across the 6Ω resistance is calculated I × R = U
12.17 × 6 = 73.02V
Voltage drop across parallel group is 100V − 73.02V = 26.98V
This voltage can now be used to calculate the current through each parallel resist-
ance, again using Ohm’s law.
Current through 4Ω resistor is
U
=I
R
26.98
= 6.745A
4
Current through 5Ω resistor is
26.98
= 5.396A
5

As a check, the sum of the currents through the parallel resistances together should
equal the total current in the circuit, as shown in Figure 11.

6.745A + 5.396A = 12.141A (allowing for only using 3 decimal places)

Figure 11 Checking the sum of the currents through the parallel resistances equals
the total current

27
Voltage Drop 6

CONDUCTOR RESISTANCE AND VOLTAGE DROP

USING OHM’S LAW

Appendix 4 Section 6.4 of BS 7671 states that the maximum voltage drop in any
circuit from the origin of the supply to the terminals of the current-using equipment
should not exceed 3% of the supply voltage in a lighting circuit or 5% of the supply
voltage in all other circuits.

To calculate the percentage as a voltage the calculation is:

Voltage × %
= volt drop
100
Where the supply voltage is 230V:

230 × 3
Lighting circuit = 69V
100
230 × 5
Other circuits = 11.5V
100
Calculator method:

Voltage × % shift = Ans

Lighting = 230 × 3 shift % = 6.9

Other = 230 × 5 shift % = 11.5

As described in the section on series resistances, there will be a voltage drop across
any resistances in series. A conductor will be a resistance in series with the resistance
of a load.

This voltage drop can be calculated using Ohm’s law.

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VOLTAGE DROP

EXAMPLE

A circuit is wired using 70°C thermoplastic flat twin and earth cable with copper
2.5mm2 live conductors and a 1.5mm2 circuit protective conductor. The circuit is
30 metres long and will carry a current of 17 amperes; supply voltage is 230 volts.

From Table I1 in the On-Site Guide it can be seen that a 2.5mm2 copper conductor
has a resistance of 7.41mΩ per metre @ 20°C.

The current flowing in a circuit will be the same in the line and the neutral conduc-
tors (see Figure 12). Therefore the resistance of both live conductors must be taken
into account.

Phase conductor resistance is 7.41mΩ/m

Neutral conductor resistance is 7.41mΩ/m

7.41 + 7.41 = 14.82

The resistance of a twin 2.5mm2 copper cable is 14.82mΩ/m. This can also be found
using Table I1 of the On-Site Guide.

Figure 12 Circuit with 70°C thermoplastic flat twin and earth cable with copper
2.5mm2 live conductors

30
 VOLTAGE DROP

The total resistance of this cable will be mΩ per metre × length.

14.82 × 30 = 444.6mΩ

This value is in milli ohms and should now be converted to ohms:

mΩ
= ohms 
1000

444.6
= 0.444
1000
When conductors are operating at their maximum current rating, they can operate
at 70°C. This will result in the resistance of the conductors increasing; this increased
resistance must be used in the calculation for voltage drop.

To calculate the total resistance of the cables at their operating temperature a factor
from Table I3 in the On-Site Guide should be used. It will be seen that a multiplier of
1.2 should be used for a conductor rated @ 70°C.

To calculate the total resistance of the current carrying conductors:

Ω × multiplier = total resistance of conductors @ 70°C

0.444 × 1.2 = 0.533Ω

These calculations can be carried out in one single calculation:

mΩ × length × multiplier
= totalresistance
1000

14.82 × 30 × 1.2
= 0.533
1000

Voltage drop can now be calculated using Ohm’s law

I×R=U

17 × 0.533 = 9.06 volts

This voltage drop will be acceptable as it is below 11.5 volts.

31
VOLTAGE DROP

VOLTAGE DROP USING TABLES FROM BS 7671

Using the same example:

A circuit is wired using 70°C thermoplastic flat twin and earth cable with copper
2.5mm2 live conductors and a 1.5mm2 circuit protective conductor. The circuit is
30 metres long and will carry a current of 17 amperes; supply voltage is 230 volts.

The voltage drop for this cable can be found using Table 4D5 from Appendix 4 of BS
7671 or Table F6 in the On-Site Guide.

Using either of these tables it will be seen that the voltage drop for 2.5m2 copper ca-
ble is 18mV/A/m (millivolts × amperes × distance in metres). (As value is in millivolts
it must be divided by 1000 to convert to volts.)
18 × 17 × 30
Voltage drop for example circuit is = 9.18
1000
It can be seen that the voltage drop is slightly higher than when Ohm’s law was used
in the previous calculation. This is because the volt drop value used in BS 7671 has
been rounded up for ease of calculation.

When working on installations containing old and new colours, great care must be
taken as the black and blue identification can be confusing. Also all current carrying
conductors are referred to as live conductors.

32
Areas, Perimeters and 7
Volume

CALCULATION OF PERIMETERS

RECTANGLE, SQUARE OR TRIANGLE

Add the length of all of the sides.

For example the perimeter of a rectangle which is 150mm × 185mm would be 150 +
185 + 150 + 185 = 670mm.

For a triangle only add the three sides.

CIRCLE

Circumference = π × d

As an example to calculate the circumference of a circle which has a diameter of

67mm,

π × d = circumference

3.142 × 67 = 210.514mm

Calculator method, enter: shift π × d =

Where the value is required in metres ÷ 1000

210.514
For example, = 0.210m
1000

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AREAS, PERIMETERS AND VOLUME

Figure 13 Radius and diameter of a circle

AREAS AND PERIMETERS

RECTANGLE, SQUARE

To find the area multiply the length by the breadth.

For example, a rectangle which is 150mm × 185mm:

150 × 185 = 27750mm2

Where the answer is required in metres ÷ 1000000

27750
= 0.0277m2
1000000

34
 AREAS, PERIMETERS AND VOLUME

Figure 14 A rectangle

TRIANGLE

Area = half base × height

For example, a triangle which is 167mm wide by 212mm high.

167
Area = = 83.5mm2
2
83.5mm × 212mm = 17702mm2

Calculator method: (base ÷ 2) × height

(167 ÷ 2) × 212 = 17702 mm2

If the answer is required in m2 ÷ 1000000

35
AREAS, PERIMETERS AND VOLUME

Figure 15 A triangle

CIRCLE
π ×d 2
Area: A =
4
A circle with a circumference of 67mm will have an area of:

3.142 × 67 × 67
= 3526.1mm2
4
To convert to m2 ÷ 1000000

Calculator method: enter, shift π × 67 x2 ÷ 4. This would also be the cross-sectional

area (CSA) of a cable

VOLUMES

CUBE

Volume of a cube is width × breadth × height.

For example, a cube which is 500mm wide × 600mm long and 450mm high:

36
 AREAS, PERIMETERS AND VOLUME

500 × 600 × 450 = 135000000 mm3

To convert to metres enter: 135000000 EXP – 9 = answer 0.135m3

Figure 16 Measuring a cube

CYLINDER
1
The volume of a cylinder is π × = (base)2 × height or
2

π ×d 2
π × radius 2 × height or × height
4
For example, a cylinder with a base diameter of 430mm and a height of 568mm
would have a volume of:

3.142 × 2152 × 568 = 82495723mm3

Enter into a calculator: shift π × 215 x2 × 568 =

This calculation can also be carried out using area of base x height:

π × d2
Example: × height = volume
4

37
AREAS, PERIMETERS AND VOLUME

Figure 17 Measuring a cylinder

Enter into calculator: shift π × 430 x2 ÷ 4 × 568 =

To convert from mm3 to m3 enter into calculator mm3 EXP -9 =

In this case 82495723 EXP -9 = ans is 0.082495723m3

EXAMPLE 1

Calculate the cross-sectional area of a trunking with dimensions of 50mm by 150mm.

Area = length × breadth 50 × 150 = 7500mm2

EXAMPLE 2

Calculate the area of a triangular space 6.75 metres wide and 7.6 metres high.

1 1
Area = b × h or × 6.75 × 8.6 = 29.025m2
2 2
Enter on calculator 0.5 × 6.75 × 8.6 = 29.025m2

38
 AREAS, PERIMETERS AND VOLUME

EXAMPLE 3

A cylinder has a diameter of 0.76m and a height of 1.43m. Calculate its volume and
the length of weld around its base.

π × d2
Volume = × height
4

π × 0.762
× 1.43 = 0.317m3
4

Enter on calculator: shift π × 0.76 x2 ÷ (4 × 1.43) = (0.317 m3)

Length of weld = π × d

= 3.142 × 0.76

= 2.38m

EXAMPLE 4

Calculate the volume of a rectangular tank with a base 1.3m long, 650mm wide,
2.18m high.
1.3 × (650mm convert to metres) 0.65 × 2.18 = 1.842m3
Calculate the length of insulation required to wrap around the tank.
1.3 + 0.65 + 1.3 + 0.65 = 3.9 metres

EXERCISE 3

39
AREAS, PERIMETERS AND VOLUME

40
Space Factors 8

Our wiring regulations require that any cables installed into a duct trunking should
not take up more than 45% of the space within the duct or trunking. This can
be ­calculated by using the cross-sectional areas of the space available and the
cross-sectional area of the cable, or the space factor tables from the On-Site Guide
can be used.

CALCULATION

To find a percentage of an area the calculation is:

CSA × %
= the percentage of the area .
100

EXAMPLE

Calculate the area which could be used within a trunking which is 50mm × 100mm.

50mm × 100mm = 5000mm2 (CSA)

5000 × 45
Area available = = 2250mm2
100
Or enter into a calculator 5000 × 45 shift % =

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SPACE FACTORS

Table A Details of single-core thermoplastic (pvc) cables

Nominal conductor size Number and diameter of Nominal overall

(mm2) wires (no. of strands × diameter (mm)
mm2)

1.0 1 × 1.13 2.9

1.5 1 × 1.38 3.1

2.5 1 × 1.78 3.5

2.5 stranded 7.067 3.8

4 7 × 0.85 4.3

6 7 × 1.04 4.9

10 7 × 1.35 6.2

16 7 × 1.70 7.3

25 7 × 2.14 9.0

35 19 × 1.53 10.3

50 19 × 1.78 12.0

Table B Dimensions of trunking (mm × mm)

50 × 37.5

50 × 50

75 × 25

75 × 37.5

75 × 50

75 × 75

100 × 37.5

100 × 50

100 × 75

100 × 100

42
 SPACE FACTORS

To calculate the number of cables that it would be permissible to install into a trunk-
ing the calculation would be:

Usablearea
= number of cables
CSA of cable

EXAMPLE 1

A trunking has a usable area of 1687.5mm2 and we need to calculate how many
2.5mm2 stranded cables we could install in it.

From Table A we can see that the cable has a diameter of 3.8mm. The calculation
would be as follows.

The first step is to calculate the cross-sectional area of the cable:

π ×d2
= CSA
4
3.142 × 38 × 38
= 1134mm2
4
The second step is to calculate the number of cables:
usable area
= number of cables
CSA of cable
1687.5
= 148.8 cables
11.34

EXAMPLE 2

Calculate the maximum number of 10mm2 cables that could be installed in a

50mm × 75mm trunking allowing for space factor.
Find area of trunking 52 × 75 = 3750mm2
Usable area (45%) 3750 × 45% = 1687.50 (calculator)
3750 × 45
or = 1687.50
100
From Table A, the diameter of a 10mm2 cable is 6.2mm.

43
SPACE FACTORS

πd 2
The cross-sectional area of one cable is .
4
3.142×622
= 30.2mm2
4
To calculate the number of cables that it would be permissible to install in the
trunking:
CSA × %
= the percentage of the area.number of cables
100

Therefore 15 cables can be installed.

EXAMPLE 3

The following cables are to be installed in a single run of trunking:

twelve × 1mm2, ten × 1.5mm2, eight × 2.5mm2 stranded, six × 25mm2

Calculate the size of trunking required for this installation.

Step 1: calculate the cross-sectional area of cables using values from Table A.

π × 2.92
CSA of 1mm2 cable including insulation = 6.6mm2
4
Twelve 1mm2 cables : 12× 6.6 = 79.2mm2
π × 3.12
CSA of 1.5mm2 cable including insulation = 7.54mm2
4
Ten 1.5mm2 cables: 10 × 7.54 = 75.4mm2
π × 3.82
CSA of 2.5mm2 cable including insulation 11.34mm2
4
Eight 2.5mm2 cables: 8 × 11.34 = 90.72mm2
π × 92
CSA of 25mm2 cable including insulation = 63.61mm2
4
Six 25mm2 cables: 6 × 63.61 = 381.66mm2

Step 2: add all CSAs of cables together.

79.2 + 75.4 + 90.72 + 381.66 = 629.98mm2

44
 SPACE FACTORS

This is the total area required for the cables and it must be a maximum of 45% of
total area in the trunking.

Step 3: calculate space required

629.98×100
=1399.9mm2 .
45
Calculator method 629.98 × 100 ÷ 45 = 1399.9mm2

A 37.5mm × 50mm trunking has an area of 37.5 × 50 = 1875mm2 .

This will be suitable and will also allow some space for future additions.

The method shown is perfectly acceptable for space factor calculation; however, it
is a bit long winded and most electricians/designers would find it simpler to use the
tables for space factor in trunking which are provided in the On-Site Guide.

Cable factors for trunking (OSG Table E5)

Type of Conductor cross- PVC BS 6004 Thermosetting BS

conductor sectional area in Cable factor 7211 Cable factor
mm2

Solid 1.5 8.0 8.6

2.5 11.9 11.9

1.5 8.6 9.6

Stranded 2.5 12.6 13.9

4 16.6 18.1

6 21.2 22.9

10 35.3 36.3

16 47.8 50.3

25 73.9 75.4

45
SPACE FACTORS

Factors for trunking (OSG Table E6)

Dimensions for Factor Dimensions for Factor
trunking (mm2) trunking (mm2)

50 × 38 767 200 × 100 8572

50 × 50 1037 200 × 150 13001

75 × 25 738 200 × 200 17429

75 × 38 1146 225 × 38 3474

75 × 50 1555 225 × 50 4671

75 × 75 2371 225 × 75 7167

100 × 25 993 225 × 100 9662

100 × 38 1542 225 × 150 14652

100 × 50 2091 225 × 200 19643

100 × 75 3189 225 × 225 22138

100 × 100 4252 300 × 38 4648

150 × 38 2999 300 × 50 6251

150 × 50 3091 300 × 75 9590

150 × 75 4743 300 × 100 12929

150 × 100 6394 300 × 150 19607

150 × 150 9697 300 × 200 26285

200 × 38 3082 300 × 225 29624

200 × 50 4145 300 × 300 39428

200 × 75 6359

46
 SPACE FACTORS

EXAMPLE 1

A trunking is required to contain the following thermoplastic cables (singles):

26 ×1.5mm2 stranded

12 × 2.5mm2 stranded

12 × 6mm2

3 × 10mm2

3 × 25mm2

Calculate the minimum size trunking permissible for the installation of these cables.

From Table E5 of the On-Site Guide each cable has a factor as follows. Once found,
the factors should be multiplied by the number of cables.

1.5mm2 = 8.6 × 26 = 223.6

2.5mm2 = 12.6 ×12 = 151.20

60mm2 = 21.2 × 12 = 254.4

10.0mm2 = 35.3 × 3 = 105.9

25.0mm2 = 73.9 × 3 = 221.7

Add the cable factors together: 956.8.

From Table E6 (factors for trunking) a factor larger than 956 must now be found.

It will be seen from the table that a trunking 100 × 25 has a factor of 993 therefore
this will be suitable, although possibly a better choice would be 50 × 50 which has a
factor of 1037 as this will allow for future additions.

It should be remembered that there are no space factors for conduit; the amount of
cables that can be installed in a conduit is dependent on the length of conduit and
the number of bends between drawing-in points.

Appendix E of the On-Site Guide contains tables for the selection of single-core
insulated cables installed in conduit.

EXERCISE 4

47
SPACE FACTORS

Length (m) 6 12 8

Breadth (m) 2 2

Perimeter (m) 10 24 32
2
Area (m ) 84 48

Base (m) 0.5 4 1.5 0.3

Height (m) 0.25 2.2 3.2 0.12

2
Area (m ) 9 18

Area (m2) 0.015 0.00029 0.0016

2
Area (mm ) 250 7500

Diameter 0.5m 4mm

Circumference 1.0m
2 2
Area (m /mm ) 0.5m2 6mm2

48
 SPACE FACTORS

10 A square ventilation duct is to be fabricated on site from steel sheet. To avoid

difficulty in bending, the corners are to be formed by 37.5mm × 37.5mm steel
angle and ‘pop’ riveting. Its dimensions are to be 259mm × 220mm × 660mm
length. Establish the area of sheet steel, length of steel angle and the approximate
number of rivets required, assuming rivets at 60mm spacing.
11 A coil of wire contains 25 turns and is 0.25m in diameter. Calculate the length of
wire in the coil.
12 Complete the table below, which refers to circular conductors:

Number and diameter of wires 1/1.13 7/0.85

(mm)

Nominal cross-sectional area of 2.5 10 25

conductor (mm2)

13 Complete the table below, which refers to circular cables:

Nominal overall 2.9 3.8 6.2 7.3 12.0

diameter of cable (mm)

Nominal overall cross-

sectional area (mm2)

14 Calculate the cross-sectional areas of the bores of the following heavy-gauge

steel conduits, assuming that the wall thickness is 1.5 mm:

(a) 16mm
(b) 25mm
(c) 32mm

15 Complete the following table, using a space factor of 45% in each case:

Permitted number of pvc cables in trunking of size (mm)

Cable size 50×37.5 75×50 75×75

2
16mm

25mm2

50mm2

49
SPACE FACTORS

16 The following pvc cables are to be installed in a single run of trunking: twelve
16mm2, six 35mm2, twenty-four 2.5mm2, and eight 1.5mm2. Determine the size
of trunking required, assuming a space factor of 45%.
17
Determine the size of square steel trunking required to contain the following pvc
cables: fifteen 50mm2, nine 25mm2, eighteen 10mm2. Take the space factor for
ducts as 35%.
18
The nominal diameter of a cable is 6.2mm. Its cross-sectional area is

(a) 120.8mm2
(b) 19.5mm2
(c) 30.2mm2
(d) 61.2mm2

Allowing a space factor of 45%, the number of 50mm2 cables that may be
19
installed in a 50mm × 37.5mm trunking is

(a) 71
(b) 8
(c) 23
(d) 37

The following cable calculations require the use of data contained in documents
based upon BS 7671, e.g. IET On-Site Guide, etc. In each case assume that the
stated circuit design calculations and environmental considerations have been
carried out to determine the necessary cable current ratings and type of wiring
system.
20 A steel cable trunking is to be installed to carry eighteen 1.5mm2 single-core pvc-
insulated cables to feed nine floodlighting luminaires; a single 4mm2 protective
conductor is to be included in the trunking. Establish the minimum size of
trunking required.
50mm × 38mm pvc trunking is installed along a factory wall to contain low-
21
current control cables. At present there are 25 pairs of single-core 1.5mm2 pvc-
insulated cables installed. How many additional pairs of similar 1.5mm2 control
cables may be installed in the trunking?
22 A pvc conduit is to be installed to contain six 4mm2 single-core pvc cables and
one 2.5mm2 stranded single-core pvc protective conductor. The total length of
run will be 16m and it is anticipated that four right-angle bends will be required

50
 SPACE FACTORS

in the conduit run. Determine the minimum conduit size and state any special
consideration.
3 An electric furnace requires the following wiring:
2

(i) three 6mm2 stranded single-core pvc cables

(ii) four 2.5mm2 stranded single-core pvc cables
(iii) four 1.5mm2 stranded single-core pvc cables.

There is a choice between new steel conduit and using existing 50mm × 38mm
steel trunking which already contains six 25mm2 single-core pvc cables and four
10mm2 single-core pvc cables. Two right-angle bends will exist in the 18m run.

(a) Determine the minimum size of conduit to be used, and

(b) state whether the new cables could be included within the existing
trunking, and if they could be, what considerations must be given before
their inclusion.

2
4 Select two alternative sizes of steel trunking which may be used to accommodate
the following.

(a) (i) ten 16mm2 single-core pvc-insulated cables

(ii) twelve 6mm2 single-core pvc-insulated cables
(iii) sixteen 1.5mm2 single-core pvc-insulated cables
(iv) three multicore pvc-insulated signal cables, assuming a cable factor
of 130.
(b) An extension to the trunking contains ten of the 16mm2 cables and 8 of
the 1.5mm2 cables. Establish the minimum size of conduit, assuming a 5m
run with no bends.
(c) How may the conduit size selected affect the choice of trunking
dimensions (assume that the two sizes of trunking cost the same)?

51
Coulombs and Current 9
Flow

Current is a flow of electrons.

When 6240000000000000000 electrons flow in one second a current of one ampere

is said to flow.

This quantity of electrons is called a coulomb (C) and is the unit used to measure
electrical charge.

1 coulomb = 6.24 × 1018 electrons

Therefore 1 ampere = 1 coulomb per second.

The quantity of electrical charge Q = I × t coulombs

EXAMPLE 1

Calculate the current flow if 7.1 coulombs were transferred in 2.5 seconds.
Q 7.1
I= = = 2.84 A
t 2.5

EXAMPLE 2

If a current of 14A flows for 5.5 minutes calculate the quantity of electricity that is
transferred.
Q=I×t
Q = 14 × (5.5 × 60) 4620 coulombs

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COULOMBS AND CURRENT FLOW

EXERCISE 5

54
Internal Resistance 10

RESISTIVITY

The resistance of a conductor is:

ρ ×L
R=
A

ρ is the resistivity (Ωm)

I is the conductor length (m)

A is the cross-sectional area (m2)

EXAMPLE 1

Determine the resistance of 100m of 120mm2 copper. The resistivity of copper is

1.78 × 10–8Ωm
ρ ×L
R=
A
1.78 × 10 −8 × 100
= 0.0148
120 × 10 −6
(Note 10–6 to convert to sq m on some calculators the EXP button is shown as × 10x

Enter into calculator 1.78 EXP – 8 × 100 ÷ 120 EXP – 6 = 0.0148

DOI: 10.4324/9781003258735-10
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INTERNAL RESISTANCE

EXAMPLE 2

Calculate the length of 2.5mm2 copper conductor that will have a resistance of
1.12Ω.

This requires the use of simple transposition. It is easier to start with the formula
that is known:

ρ ×L
R=
A

Replace the letters with numbers where possible:

1.78 × 10 −8 × L
1.12 =
2.5 × 10 −6
The subject must be on its own, on the top line; this will require moving some of
the values.

Remember when a value moves across the = sign it must move from bottom to top
or top to bottom.

This will give us:

Step 1:

2.5 × 10−6 × 1.12 = 1.78 × 10−8 ×L

Step 2:

2.5 × 10 −6 × 1.12
=L
1.78 ×10 −8
This will leave L on its own and we can now carry out the calculation

Enter into calculator 2.5 EXP – 6 × 1.12 ÷ 1.78 EXP – 8 = 157.30m

EXAMPLE 3

Calculate the cross-sectional area of an aluminium cable 118m long which has a
resistance of 0.209Ω.

The resistivity of aluminium is 2.84 × 10–8Ωm.

56
 INTERNAL RESISTANCE

ρ ×L
R=
A
Convert to values:
2.84 × 10 −8 × 118
0.209 =
A ×10 −6

Transpose:
2.84 × 10 −8 × 118
A × 0.209 =
10 −6
2.84 × 10 −8 × 118
A= = 16mm2
0.209 ×10 −6

Enter into calculator:

2.84 EXP – 8 × 118 ÷ 0.209 × EXP – 6 = 16.03mm2

EXERCISE 6

Figure 18

57
INTERNAL RESISTANCE

Figure 19

58
 INTERNAL RESISTANCE

Figure 20

Figure 21

59
INTERNAL RESISTANCE

Figure 22

Figure 23

60
 INTERNAL RESISTANCE

Figure 24

Figure 25

10 Two 110V lamps are connected in parallel. Their ratings are 150W and 200W.
Determine the value of a resistor which when wired in series with the lamps will
enable them to operate from the 230V mains.

61
INTERNAL RESISTANCE

12 In a certain installation the following items of equipment are operating at the

same time: (i) a 3kW immersion heater, (ii) two 100W lamps, (iii) one 2kW radiator.
All these are rated at 240V.
The nominal supply voltage is stated to be 230V but it is found that the
actual voltage at the origin of the installation is 5V less than this. Calculate:

(a) the total current

(b) the resistance of the supply cables
(c) the actual power absorbed by the immersion heater.

14 Two resistors in parallel, A of 20Ω and B of unknown value, are connected in

series with a third resistor C of 12Ω. The supply to the circuit is direct current.
If the potential difference across the ends of C is 180V and the power in the
complete circuit is 3600W, calculate:

(a) the value of resistor B

(b) the current in each resistor
(c) the circuit voltage.

15 State Ohm’s law in your own words, and express it in symbols. A d.c. supply at
240V is applied to a circuit comprising two resistors A and B in parallel, of 5Ω and
7.5Ω, respectively, in series with a third resistor C of 30Ω. Calculate the value of
a fourth resistor D to be connected in parallel with C so that the total power in
the circuit will be 7.2kW.
16 Three resistors of value 1.5Ω, 4Ω and 12Ω, are connected in parallel. A fourth
resistor, of 6Ω, is connected in series with the parallel group. A d.c. supply of
140V is applied to the circuit.

(a) Calculate the current taken from the supply.

(b) Find the value of a further resistor to be connected in parallel with the 6Ω
resistor so that the potential difference across it will be 84V.
(c) What current will now flow in the circuit?

62
 INTERNAL RESISTANCE

17 An electric bell takes a current of 0.3A from a battery whose e.m.f. is 3V and
internal resistance 0.12Ω. Calculate the terminal voltage of the battery when the
bell is ringing.
18 Determine the voltage at the terminals of a battery of three cells in series, each
cell having an e.m.f. of 1.5V and internal resistance 0.11Ω, when it supplies a
current of 0.75A.
19 A car battery consists of six cells connected in series. Each cell has an e.m.f. of 2V
and internal resistance of 0.008Ω. Calculate the terminal voltage of the battery
when a current of 105A flows.
20 A battery has an open-circuit voltage of 6V. Determine its internal resistance if a
load current of 54A reduces its terminal voltage to 4.35V.
21 Resistors of 5Ω and 7Ω are connected in parallel to the terminals of a battery of
e.m.f. 6V and internal resistance of 0.3Ω. Calculate:

(a) the current in each resistor

(b) the terminal voltage of the battery
(c) the power wasted in internal resistance.

22 A battery is connected to two resistors, of 20Ω and 30Ω, which are wired in
parallel. The battery consists of three cells in series, each cell having an e.m.f. of
1.5V and internal resistance 0.12Ω. Calculate:

(a) the terminal voltage of the battery

(b) the power in each resistor.

63
INTERNAL RESISTANCE

26 A 12V battery needs charging and the only supply available is one of 24V. The
battery has six cells, each of e.m.f. 1.8V and internal resistance 0.009Ω. Determine
the value of a series resistor which will limit the current to 5A.
27 A circuit consists of a 7.2Ω resistor in parallel with one of unknown value. This
combination is connected in series with a 4.5Ω resistor to a supply of direct
current. The current flowing is 2.2A and the total power taken by the circuit is
35W. Calculate:

(a) the value of the unknown resistor

(b) the supply voltage
(c) the value of a resistor which if connected in parallel with the 4.5Ω resistor
will cause a current of 4A to flow.

(Assume that the source of supply has negligible internal resistance.)

28 The combined resistance of the circuit in Figure 26 is:

(a) 0.333Ω
(b) 12.5Ω
(c) 30.0Ω
(d) 7.7Ω

Figure 26

64
 INTERNAL RESISTANCE

Figure 27

29 The combined resistance of the circuit in Figure 27 is 91.7Ω. The value of resistor
R is

(a) 33.3Ω
(b) 250Ω
(c) 0.04Ω
(d) 25Ω

30 The current flowing in the 0.4Ω resistor in Figure 28 is

(a) 8.57A
(b) 11.43A
(c) 0.24A
(d) 0.73A

65
INTERNAL RESISTANCE

Figure 28

66
Power in a d.c. and Purely 11
Resistive a.c. Circuit

METHOD 1

Power (watts) = voltage (volts) × current (amperes)

P = U ×I

EXAMPLE 1

The current in a circuit is 4.8A when the voltage is 240V. Calculate the power.
P =U ×I
= 240 × 4.8
1152W

EXAMPLE 2

Calculate the current flowing when a 2kW heater is connected to a 230V supply.
P =U ×I
2000 = 230 × l
2000
∴I =
230
= 8.7A

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POWER IN A D.C. AND PURELY RESISTIVE A.C. CIRCUIT

EXAMPLE 3

The current in a certain resistor is 15A and the power absorbed is 200W. Find the
voltage drop across the resistor.

P =U ×I
2000 = U × 15
200
∴U =
15
= 13.3V

EXERCISE 7

P (watts) 1440 1600 1000 1000 1080

I (amperes) 12 6.67 5.45 5.1

U (volts) 240 250 6.67 460 240

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 POWER IN A D.C. AND PURELY RESISTIVE A.C. CIRCUIT

(h) 2kW radiator

(i) 750W water heater
(j) 15W lamp.

14 A generator delivers a current of 28.5A through cables having a total resistance

of 0.103Ω. The voltage at the generator terminals is 225V. Calculate:

(a) the power generated

(b) the power wasted in the cables
(c) the voltage at the load.

15 Calculate the value of resistance which when connected in series with a 0.3W,
2.5V lamp will enable it to work from a 6V supply.

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POWER IN A D.C. AND PURELY RESISTIVE A.C. CIRCUIT

16 A motor takes a current of 15.5A at a terminal voltage of 455V. It is supplied

through cables of total resistance 0.32Ω. Calculate:

(a) the voltage at the supply end

(b) the power input to the motor
(c) the power wasted in the cables.

17 Two coils, having resistances of 35Ω and 40Ω, are connected to a 100V d.c.
supply (a) in series, (b) in parallel. For each case, calculate the power dissipated in
each coil.
18 Two cables, having resistances of 0.036Ω and 0.052Ω, are connected in parallel
to carry a total current of 190A. Determine the power loss in each cable.
19 If the power loss in a resistor is 750W and the current flowing is 18.5A, calculate
the voltage drop across the resistor. Determine also the value of an additional
series resistor which will increase the voltage drop to 55V when the same value of
current is flowing. How much power will now be wasted in the original resistor?
20 A d.c. motor takes a current of 36A from the mains some distance away. The
voltage at the supply point is 440V and the cables have a total resistance of
0.167Ω. Calculate:

(a) the voltage at the motor terminals

(b) the power taken by the motor
(c) the power wasted in the cables
(d) the voltage at the motor terminals if the current increases to 42A.

21 The voltage applied to a circuit is 240V and the current is 3.8A. The power is:

(a) 632W
(b) 63.2W
(c) 912W
(d) 0.016W

22 The power absorbed by a heating element is 590W at a p.d. of 235V. The current
is:

(a) 13 865A
(b) 2.51A

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 POWER IN A D.C. AND PURELY RESISTIVE A.C. CIRCUIT

(c) 0.34A
(d) 25.1A

23 A faulty cable joint carries a current of 12.5A, and a voltage drop of 7.5V appears
across the joint. The power wasted at the joint is:

(a) 1.67W
(b) 0.6W
(c) 93.8W
(d) 60W

24 A heating element absorbs 2.5kW of power and the current is 10.5A. The applied
voltage is:

(a) 238V
(b) 26.3V
(c) 2.38V
(d) 4.2V

METHOD 2

Power = current2 × resistance

P = I 2R

EXAMPLE 1

Calculate the power absorbed in a resistor of 8Ω when a current of 6A flows.

P = I 2R
= 62 × 8
= 36 × 8
288W

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POWER IN A D.C. AND PURELY RESISTIVE A.C. CIRCUIT

EXAMPLE 2

A current of 12A passes through a resistor of such value that the power absorbed is
50W. What is the value of this resistor?

P = I 2R
50 = 122 × R
∴R = 50 × 12 × 12
= 0.347Ω

EXAMPLE 3

Determine the value of current which when flowing in a resistor of 400Ω causes a
power loss of 1600W.

P = I 2R
1600 = I 2 × 400
1600
∴I 2 = =4
400
∴I = 4 = 2A

EXERCISE 8

1 Complete the following table:

Power (W) 200 1440 1000 2640 100

Current (A) 10 5 15 4.2 0.42 1.3

Resistance (Ω) 15 8 10 20 25

2 A current of 20A flows in cable of resistance 0.325Ω. Calculate the power loss.
3 Determine the power loss in a cable having a resistance of 0.14Ω when passing a
current of 14.5A.

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 POWER IN A D.C. AND PURELY RESISTIVE A.C. CIRCUIT

METHOD 3
voltage2 U2
Power = or
resistance R

EXAMPLE 1

Calculate the power absorbed by a 60Ω resistor when connected to a 230V d.c.
supply.

U2
P=
R
230 × 230
= = 881.86W
60

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POWER IN A D.C. AND PURELY RESISTIVE A.C. CIRCUIT

EXAMPLE 2

Determine the resistance of a heater which absorbs 3kW from a 230V d.c. supply.

U2
P=
R
2302
3000 =
R
Transposed

2302
R=
3000
230 × 230
R= = 17.63
3000

EXAMPLE 3

Determine the voltage which must be applied to a 10.7Ω resistor to produce 500W
of power.

U2
P=
R
U2
500 =
10.7

Transposed

U 2 = 10.7 × 500
= 5350

U = 5350
= 73.14

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 POWER IN A D.C. AND PURELY RESISTIVE A.C. CIRCUIT

EXERCISE 9

75
POWER IN A D.C. AND PURELY RESISTIVE A.C. CIRCUIT

(h) 1500W kettle

(i) 750W water heater
(j) 4 kW immersion heater.

12 Calculate the voltage drop in a resistor of 12.5Ω when it is absorbing 500W.

13 The power dissipated in a 57Ω resistor is 1000W. Determine the current.
14 Two lamps are connected in series to a 200V supply. The lamps are rated at 150W,
240V and 60W, 240V. Calculate:

(a) the current taken from the supply

(b) the total power.

15 Two 1000W, 230V heater elements are connected to a 230V d.c. supply (a) in
series, (b) in parallel. Calculate:

(a) the combined resistance in each case

(b) the power absorbed in each case.

16 Cables of resistance 0.35Ω and 0.082Ω are connected in parallel and they share
a load of 100A. Determine the current and power loss in each.
17 The element of an immersion heater has a total resistance of 76.8Ω and is centre-
tapped. Calculate the power absorbed from a 240V supply when the element
sections are (a) in series (b) in parallel.
18 Complete the following table and then plot a graph of power (vertically) against
current (horizontally). Try to make the axes of the graph of equal length, and join
the points with a smooth curve.
Power (W) 250 400 600

Current (A) 0.8 3.15

Resistance (Ω) 40 40 40

From the graph, state

(a) what power would be dissipated in a 40Ω resistor by a current of 3.7A

(b) how much current is flowing when the power is 770W?

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 POWER IN A D.C. AND PURELY RESISTIVE A.C. CIRCUIT

19 Complete the following table and plot a graph of power against voltage. Join the
points with a smooth curve.
Power (W) 2000 750 180

Voltage (V) 240 89.6

Resistance (Ω) 19.2 19.1 19.2

(a) Read off the graph the voltage when the power is 1500W.
(b) Extend the graph carefully and find from it the power when the voltage is
250V.

20 The voltage applied to the field circuit of a motor can be varied from 250V down
to 180V by means of a shunt field regulator. The resistance of the field coils is
360Ω. Plot a graph showing the relationship between the power and the applied
voltage.
21 A cable of resistance 0.07Ω carries a current which varies between 0 and 90A.
Plot a graph showing the power loss in the cable against the load current.
22 A current of 4.8A flows in a resistor of 10.5Ω. The power absorbed is

(a) 529.2W
(b) 24192W
(c) 2420W
(d) 242W

23 The power developed in a resistor of 24Ω is 225W. The current flowing is

(a) 9.68A
(b) 3.06A
(c) 0.327A
(d) 30.6A

24 The resistance of a 110V, 100W lamp is

(a) 1210Ω
(b) 0.011Ω
(c) 8.26Ω
(d) 121Ω

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POWER IN A D.C. AND PURELY RESISTIVE A.C. CIRCUIT

25 The voltage to be applied to a resistor of 55Ω in order to develop 50 watts of

power is

(a) 0.95V
(b) 166V
(c) 52.4V
(d) 1.05V

MECHANICS

MOMENT OF FORCE

A force F newtons applied at right angles to a rod of length L metres pivoted at P

(Figure 29) produces a turning moment M, where

M = F × L newton metres (Nm)

(Note that this turning moment is produced whether or not the bar actually free to
turn.)

EXAMPLE 1

Figure 29 A force being applied to a rod

A horizontal bar 0.5m long is arranged as in Figure 29. Calculate the force required
in order to produce a moment of 250Nm.

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 POWER IN A D.C. AND PURELY RESISTIVE A.C. CIRCUIT

M = F ×L
∴ 250Nm = F × 0.5m
250Nm
∴F =
0.5m
= 500N

EXAMPLE 2

A horizontal bar 0.75m long is pivoted at a point 0.5m from one end, and a down-
ward force of 100N is applied at right angles to this end of the bar. Calculate the
downward force which must be applied at right angles to the other end in order to
maintain the bar in a horizontal position. Neglect the weight of the bar.
The principle of moments applies; that is, for equilibrium (see Figure 30):
total clockwise moment = total anticlockwise moment

F × 0.25 = 100 × 0.5

100 × 0.5
∴
0.25
= 200N

(The principle of levers is twice the distance, half the force.)

Figure 30 Calculate the downward force

79
POWER IN A D.C. AND PURELY RESISTIVE A.C. CIRCUIT

FORCE RATIO

If the bar of example 2 is considered as a lever, then all effort of 100N is capable of
exerting a force of 200N on an object. The force F is then in fact the load.

By the principle of moments:

Load × distance from pivot = effort × distance from pivot

load
The force ratio is
effort
load distance from effort to pivot
Or force ratio = =
effort distance from load to pivot

In the case of example 2:

0.5m
Force ratio = =2
0.25m
Note that force ratio is often also referred to as ‘mechanical advantage’.

MASS, FORCE AND WEIGHT

Very often the load is an object which has to be raised to a higher level against the
force of gravity.

The force due to gravity acting on a mass of 1kg is 9.81N.

The force to raise a mass of 1kg against the influence of gravity is therefore 9.81N,
and this is called the weight of the 1kg mass.

Although the newton is the correct scientific unit of force and weight, for industrial
and commercial purposes it is usual to regard a mass of 1kg as having a weight of 1
kilogram force (kgf), therefore

1kgf = 9.81N

The kilogram force is the ‘gravitational’ unit of weight and is often abbreviated to
‘kilogram’, or even ‘kilo’, in common usage.

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 POWER IN A D.C. AND PURELY RESISTIVE A.C. CIRCUIT

EXAMPLE

A crowbar is arranged as shown in Figure 31 and for practical purposes the formula
for force ratio may be applied to find the effort required to raise its load of 65kgf:

Load distance from effort to pivot

=
Effort distance from load to pivot
65 1m
=
E 0.125m
E 0.125
=
65 1
E = 65 × 0.125
= 8.125kgf

(or quite simply one eighth of the force)

Figure 31 Crowbar lifting a load

WORK

When a force F newtons produces displacement of a body by an amount D metres in

the direction of the force, the work done is

W = F × D newton metres or joules (J)

Work = force × distance

This is also the energy expended in displacing the body.

EXAMPLE 1

A force of 220N is required to move an object through a distance of 4.5m. Calculate

the energy expended.

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POWER IN A D.C. AND PURELY RESISTIVE A.C. CIRCUIT

W = F ×D
= 220N × 4.5m
= 990Nm or 990J

EXAMPLE 2

Calculate the energy required to raise a mass of 6kg through a vertical distance of
14.5m.
We have seen above that the force required to raise a mass of 1kg against the influ-
ence of gravity is 9.81N; therefore the force required to raise a mass of 6kg is:

F = 6×9.81N

And the energy required is

W = 6 × 9.81N×14.5m
= 853.47Nm or 853.47J

THE INCLINED PLANE

Figure 32 illustrates a method of raising a load G through a vertical distance h by

forcing it up a sloping plane of length L using an effort E.

Ignoring the effects of friction (which can be reduced by using rollers under the
load),

Figure 32 The inclined plane method

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 POWER IN A D.C. AND PURELY RESISTIVE A.C. CIRCUIT

Energy expended by the effort = energy absorbed by the load, that is,

effort × (distance through which the effort is exerted)

= load × (vertical distance through which the load is raised)

E ×L =G × h
load G L
Force ratio = = =
effort E h

EXAMPLE
A motor weighing 100kgf is to be raised through a vertical distance of 2m by pushing
it up a sloping ramp 5m long. Ignoring the effects of friction, determine the effort
required.

G L
=
E h
100 5
=
E 2
E 2
=
100 5
2
E = 100 ×
5
= 40kgf

THE SCREWJACK

A simplified arrangement of a screw type of lifting jack is shown in cross-section in

Figure 33. A horizontal effort E is applied to the arm of radius r and this raises the
load G by the action of the screw thread T.

If the effort is taken through a complete revolution, it acts through a distance equal
to 2π × r (or π × d 2 ÷ 4) and the load rises through a vertical distance equal to the
pitch of the screw thread, which is the distance between successive turns of the
thread.

If p is the pitch of the thread, and ignoring friction,

(energy expended by the effort) = (energy absorbed by the load in rising through a
distance p)

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POWER IN A D.C. AND PURELY RESISTIVE A.C. CIRCUIT

E × 2πr = G × p
E × 2πr
=G
p
The force ratio is
load G 2πr
= =
effort E p

Figure 33 The screwjack method

EXAMPLE

If the pitch of the thread of a screwjack is 1cm and the length of the radius arm is
0.5m, find the load which can he raised by applying a force of 20kg.

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 POWER IN A D.C. AND PURELY RESISTIVE A.C. CIRCUIT

G 2πr
=
E p
G 2π × 0.5
= (Conversion from cm to m)
20 1/100m
20 × 2π × 0.5
G= = 6283kgf
0.01
(This gives an enormous advantage but would be very slow.)

THE WHEEL-AND-AXLE PRINCIPLE

Figure 34 shows a simplified version of a common arrangement by means of which

a load G is raised by applying an effort E.

By the principle of moments,

E ×R =G ×r
load G R
Force ratio = = =
effort E r

Figure 34 The wheel and axle principle

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POWER IN A D.C. AND PURELY RESISTIVE A.C. CIRCUIT

EXAMPLE

Calculate the effort required to raise a load of 250kgf using the arrangement shown
in Figure 34 if the radius of the large wheel is 20cm and the radius of the axle is 8cm.

G R
=
E r
250 20cm
=
E 8cm
E 8
=
250 20
8
E = 250 ×
20
=100kgf

THE BLOCK AND TACKLE

When a system of forces is in equilibrium, the sum of all forces acting downwards is
equal to the sum of all forces acting upwards.

Figures 35(a), (b), (c) and (d) illustrate various arrangements of lifting tackle (rope
falls) raising a load G by exerting an effort E. In each case the effort is transmitted
throughout the lifting rope, giving rise to increasing values of force ratio. (The ef-
fects of friction are ignored.)

EXAMPLE

Determine the load which (ignoring friction) could be raised by exerting an effort of
60kgf using each of the arrangements illustrated in Figure 35. Look at the number of
strings used to carry the load
For (a), 1 string
G=E
= 60kgf

86
 POWER IN A D.C. AND PURELY RESISTIVE A.C. CIRCUIT

Figure 35a Various arrangements of lifting tackle

(a)

87
POWER IN A D.C. AND PURELY RESISTIVE A.C. CIRCUIT

Figure 35b Various arrangements of lifting tackle

(b)

88
 POWER IN A D.C. AND PURELY RESISTIVE A.C. CIRCUIT

Figure 35c Various arrangements of lifting tackle

(c)

89
POWER IN A D.C. AND PURELY RESISTIVE A.C. CIRCUIT

Figure 35d Various arrangements of lifting tackle

(d)

90
 POWER IN A D.C. AND PURELY RESISTIVE A.C. CIRCUIT

For (b), 2 strings

G = 2E
= 2 × 60
=120kgf

For (c), 3 strings

G = 3E
= 3 × 60
= 180kgf

For (d), 4 strings

G = 4E
4 × 60 = 240kgf

POWER

Power is the rate of doing work

work done (force × distance )
Power = or work done in one second
time taken (time in seconds )

EXAMPLE 1

The force required to raise a certain load through a vertical distance of 18m is 60N
and the operation takes 30s. Calculate the power required.

work done
Power = 1 watt =1 joule of work per second
time taken
18 × 60
=
30
1080
=
30
= 36W

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POWER IN A D.C. AND PURELY RESISTIVE A.C. CIRCUIT

EXAMPLE 2

Calculate the power required to raise a mass of 12kg through a vertical distance of
27m in a time of 25 secs.

Convert mass to weight 1kg = 9.81N (This is the force of gravity on 1kg.)

12 × 9.81 = 117.72N

Work done (J) = force × distance 117.72 × 27 = 3178.44

3178.44
Power = = 127.13watts
25
12 × 9.81 × 27
Or as one calculation = = 127.13
25

EXAMPLE 3

Calculate the power required to raise 0.18m3 of water per minute through a vertical
distance of 35m. (1 litre of water has a mass of 1kg)
The mass of 1m3 (1000 litres) of water is 103kg.
The force required to raise this mass of water is
F = 0.18 × 103 × 9.81N
force × distance work
The power required = =
time in seconds time

0.18 × 103 × 9.81N × 35

As one calculation = Nm or J = 1030W
60s
=1.03kW
Enter into calculator 0.18 × EXP 3 (or × 10 × 3) × 9.81 × 35 ÷ 60 = (ans)

EFFICIENCY

If the pump performing the operation of the last example has an efficiency of 83%,
the power required to drive the pump is then
1.03kW ×100
P= = 1.24kW
83
Enter into calculator 1.03 × 100 ÷ 83 =

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 POWER IN A D.C. AND PURELY RESISTIVE A.C. CIRCUIT

EXAMPLE 1

A d.c. motor has a full load output of 5.4kW. The input to the motor is 230V and a
current of 26A is drawn from the supply.

Calculate the efficiency.

output power
Efficiency η = ×100
input power
Output power = 5400W

Input power = volts × amperes 230 × 26 = 5980W

5400 ×100
Efficiency = = 90.3%
5980

EXAMPLE 2

Calculate the current taken by a 10kW 460V d.c. motor with an efficiency of 78%.
Output power = 10kW. For the calculation this should be converted to watts i.e.:
10000W.

The input power will always be greater than the output power.

1000 ×100
Input power =12820W
78
To find current drawn from the supply
P 1280
I= or = 27.86A
U 460
A simpler method would be:
P ×100 10000 ×100
I= or = 27.86A
U ×% 460 × 78

EXERCISE 10

93
POWER IN A D.C. AND PURELY RESISTIVE A.C. CIRCUIT

F (newtons) 85 0.25 6.5

L (metres) 0.35 1.2 0.125 2.75

M (Newton 50 0.15 500

metres)

Figure 36

94
 POWER IN A D.C. AND PURELY RESISTIVE A.C. CIRCUIT

12 Complete the following table, which refers to Figure 31, page 81

Distance between 1 1.5 1.25 1.8

effort and pivot (m)

Distance between load 0.125 0.3 0.15 0.1 0.2

and pivot (m)

Load (kgf) 200 390 225

Effort (kgf) 20 50 650

Force ratio 5

13 Complete the following table, which refers to Figure 32, page 82

Load to be raised (kgf) 250 320 420 500

Distance between load and 0.125 0.3 0.15 0.1 0.2

pivot (m)

Effort required (kgf) 150 75 80

Vertical height (m) 3 4 2.4 1.8

Length of inclined plane (m) 6 5 5.4 4.2

14 A screwjack as illustrated in Figure 33, page 84, has a thread of pitch 8mm and a
radius arm of length 0.5m. Determine

(a) the effort required to raise a load of 1000 kgf

(b) the load which an effort of 5.5 kgf will raise.
(c) What length of radius arm would be required to raise a load of 2500 kgf
using an effort of 7.5 kgf?

15 Complete the following table, which refers to the wheel and axle illustrated in
Figure 34, page 85:

Radius of wheel R (cm) 25 16 17.5 30

Radius of axle r (cm) 8 6.5 6 8.5

Load G (kgf) 200 255 150 175

Effort E (kgf) 75 76.5 72.9

95
POWER IN A D.C. AND PURELY RESISTIVE A.C. CIRCUIT

16 A pump raises 0.15m3 of water per minute from a well 7.5m deep. Calculate

(a) the power output of the pump

(b) the power required to drive the pump, assuming an efficiency of 75%
(c) the energy supplied to the pump in one hour.

1
7 A test on a d.c. motor produced the following results:

Input 230V and 15A

Output 3200W

Calculate the efficiency.

18 Calculate the full-load current of the d.c. motors to which the following
particulars refer:

Supply e.m.f. (V) Output power (kW) Efficiency (%)

(a) 240 1 68

(b) 480 15 85

(c) 200 2 74

(d) 250 4 75

(e) 220 10 78

19 A pump which raises 0.12m3 of water per minute through a vertical distance of
8.5m is driven by a 240V d.c. motor. Assuming that the efficiency of the pump is
72% and that of the motor is 78%, calculate the current taken by the motor.
20
A motor-generator set used for charging batteries delivers 24A at 50V. The motor
operates from a 220V supply and its efficiency is 70%. The generator is 68%
efficient. Calculate the cost of running the set per hour at full load if the electrical
energy costs 4.79p per unit.
21 A pumping set delivers 0.6m3 of water per minute from a well 5m deep. The pump
efficiency is 62%, that of the motor is 74%, and the terminal voltage is 234V.
Calculate

(a) the motor current

(b) the cost of pumping 100m3 of water with energy at 5.18p per unit

96
 POWER IN A D.C. AND PURELY RESISTIVE A.C. CIRCUIT

(c) the cross-sectional area of the copper cable which will supply the set from
a point 50m away with a voltage drop of not more than 6V. (The resistivity
of copper is 1.78 × 10–8Ωm.)

22 A d.c. motor at 460V is required to drive a hoist. The load to be raised is 4000kg
at a speed of 0.2m/s. Calculate the minimum power of motor needed to do this
work and also the current it would take, assuming the respective efficiencies of
hoist gearing and motor to be 85% and 70%. State the type of motor to be used,
and give reasons for the choice.
23 A 50m length of two-core cable of cross-section 70mm2 supplies a 240V, 30kW
d.c. motor working at full load at 85% efficiency.

(a) Calculate the voltage drop in the cable.

(b) What steps would you take to reduce the voltage drop to half the above
value, with the same load?

The resistivity of copper may be taken as 1.78 x 10 –8Ωm.

24 A conveyor moves 400kg upwards through a vertical distance of 14m in 50s. The
efficiency of the gear is 38%. Calculate the power output of the driving motor.
The motor is 78% efficient. Calculate the current it takes from a 250V d.c. supply.
25 The bar in Figure 37 is in equilibrium. The force F is

(a) 4.8N
(b) 2083N

(c) 208.3N
(d) 75N

Figure 37

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POWER IN A D.C. AND PURELY RESISTIVE A.C. CIRCUIT

26 A machine weighing 150kgf is raised through a vertical distance of 1.5m by

forcing it up a sloping ramp 2.5m long. Neglecting friction, the effort required is

(a) 37.5kgf
(b) 90kgf
(c) 250kgf
(d) 562.5kgf

27 With reference to Figure 34, page 85, if the radius of the large wheel is 25cm and
that of the axle is 8.5cm, the load which could be raised by exerting an effort of
95kgf is

(a) 2794kgf
(b) 279kgf
(c) 32.3kgf
(d) 323kgf

98
Power Factor 12

kVA, kVAr AND kW

In a purely resistive a.c. circuit the power drawn from the supply is generally the
same as the energy produced at the load.

For example a 1kW electric fire will draw 1kW of power from the supply and produce
1kW of heat from the fire. This is because the current and voltage are in phase with
each other (working together).

If we introduce inductance (magnetic effect) into the circuit, as we would in an

electric motor, the voltage and current would be out of phase with each other, as the
inductance would hold back the current.

Figure 38  A circuit with the current and voltage in phase with each other

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POWER FACTOR

Figure 39 A lagging circuit

This would be known as a ‘leading circuit’.

If we introduced capacitance (electrostatic effect) into the circuit, the voltage and
current would be out of phase, it would have the opposite effect to inductance and
the voltage would be held back.

This would be known as a ‘lagging circuit’.

This happens because inductance or capacitance introduces reactance into the cir-
cuit. This is referred to as kVAr (reactive volt amperes).

The effect of reactance on the circuit is that more power is drawn from the supply
than is required. This is referred to as kVA (input power).

We already know that output power is referred to in kW (output power).

The power factor is the ratio between the kVA and the kW
kW Real power (what we get )
= pf =
kVA Apparent power (what we are taking from the supply )

100
 POWER FACTOR

Figure 40 A leading circuit

EXAMPLE 1

A single phase induction motor has an input power of 14.6 kVA and an output power
of 13kW. Calculate the power factor

kW 13
pf = or = 0.89
kVA 14.6
Power factor does not have a unit, it is just a number and will always be less than 1.

A purely resistive circuit has no power factor and is known as unity 1.

101
Transformers 13

TRANSFORMER CALCULATIONS

Transformer calculations can be carried out using the ratio method or by transposition.
Up Np Is
The formula is = =
Us Ns Ip
(The connection to supply is always made on the primary side.)

Up is the voltage on the primary winding

Ip is the current at the primary winding

Np is the number of primary turns

Us is the voltage at the secondary winding

Is is the current at the secondary winding

Ns is the number of secondary turns

A step-up transformer is one which has more windings on the secondary side than
on the primary side and therefore increases the voltage.

A step-down transformer is one which has less windings on the secondary side that
on the primary side and therefore reduces the voltage.

The type of transformer can be shown as a ratio.

(Note we always refer to what happens to the voltage in using the terms step up and
step down; this is because the current does the opposite.)

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TRANSFORMERS

EXAMPLE 1

A transformer that has 1000 primary turns and 10000 secondary turns.
Ns 10000
The ratio is found = = 10. As it has more secondary turns than primary it
Np 1000
must be a step-up transformer and the ratio is shown to be 1:10.

If the transformer had 10000 primary turns and 1000 secondary turns the calcula-
tion would be the same. But because it has less secondary turns than it has primary
turns it is a step-down transformer and would be shown as having a ratio of 10:1.
(Note ratio. Primary first: Secondary last.)

EXAMPLE 2

A transformer has 27000 turns on the primary winding and 900 turns on the second-
ary. If a voltage of 230V was applied to the primary side, calculate

(a) the transformer ratio

(b) the secondary voltage.

Up 27000
a) The ratio is or = 30. As the secondary turns are less than the primary
Us 900
it must be a step-down transformer with a ratio of 30:1.

b) As the transformer is a step down with a ratio of 30:1 the secondary voltage will
be 30 times less than the primary voltage.

230
= 7.66 V
30

EXAMPLE 3

A transformer has a step-up ratio of 1:16; it has 32000 turns on the secondary
winding.

Calculate

a) the number of turns on the primary winding

b) the secondary voltage if 50V is supplied to the primary winding.

Ns 32000
a) = = 2000 Turns
16 16
b) Using the ratio 50 × 16 = 800 volts

104
 TRANSFORMERS

TRANSFORMER CURRENT

The ratio of the transformer is the same for current although when carrying out
transformer calculations it must be remembered:

If the voltage is stepped up the current is stepped down.

If the voltage is stepped down the current is stepped up.

Up Is
=
Us Ip
Using the values from example 3, if the current supplied from its secondary side is 5A
50 5
=
800 Ip
Using the ratio, if it is a step-up voltage transformer the current will step down by
the same ratio.

If the secondary current is 5A the primary current is

secondary current × ratio = primary current

5 × 16 = 80A

If transposition is used, Ip must be on its own on the top line.

105
Electromagnetic Effect 14

MAGNETIC FLUX AND FLUX DENSITY

The unit of magnetic flux is the weber (Wb). A magnetic field has a value of 1Wb if
a conductor moving through it in one second has an e.m.f. of 1 volt induced in it.

Convenient units used are milliweber (mWb).

1Wb = 103mWb

and the microweber (µWb)

1Wb = 106µWb

The symbol for magnetic flux is Φ.

The flux density in tesla (symbol B) is calculated by dividing the total flux by the CSA
of the magnetic field.
Φ
B=
A

Φ is the total magnetic flux (Wb)

A is the CSA of the magnetic field (m2)

B is the flux density (Wb/m2 or tesla T)

EXAMPLE 1

The total flux in the air gap of an instrument is 0.15mWb and the CSA of the gap is
500mm2.
Calculate the flux density (tesla).

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ELECTROMAGNETIC EFFECT

Φ in the calculation is in webers, we must convert milliwebers to webers by dividing

by 1000. or multiply by (10–3).

A is the CSA of the field in m2. We must convert mm2 to m2, as there are one million
mm2 in 1m2 we must divide by 1000000 or multiply by (10–6).

This can be carried out most simply in one calculation:

Φ
B=
A
0.15
= 0.3tesla
1000 × 500 × 10 −6
Enter in calculator 0.15 ÷ (1000 × 500 × EXP-6) =

Note use of brackets.

EXAMPLE 2

The air gap in a contactor is 12mm by 12mm, the flux density is 1.2T.
Calculate the total flux.

Total area = 12 × 12 = 144mm2

This requires simple transposition

Φ Φ
B= or 1.2 =
A 144 ×10 −6
Transposed = 144 × 10–6 × 1.2 = Φ

(1.72 × 10–4 webers or 0.000172 webers which is 0.17mWb)

FORCE ON A CURRENT CARRYING CONDUCTOR

WITHIN A MAGNETIC FIELD

When a current carrying conductor is placed at right angles to a magnetic field, the
force can be calculated by:

F = BLI (Note it is taken for granted each letter has a multiplication sign between it
and next letter.)

where F is the force in newtons (N)

B is the flux density (T)

108
 ELECTROMAGNETIC EFFECT

L is the effective conductor length (m)

I is the current (A).

EXAMPLE 1

A conductor 300mm long is placed in and at right angles to a magnetic field with a
flux density of 0.5 tesla. Calculate the force exerted on the conductor when a current
of 36A is passed through it.
F = B ×L ×I
F = 0.5 × 0.3 × 0.36 (note conversion from mm to m) = 5.4N

EXAMPLE 2

A conductor 200mm long is placed in and at right angles to a magnetic field with a
flux density of 0.35 tesla. Calculate the current required in the conductor to create a
force of 5N on the conductor.
F = B ×L ×I
5 = 0.35 × 0.2 × I

Transpose for I
5
I= = 71.42A (noteuse of brackets)
(0.35 × 0.2)
Enter in calculator 5 ÷ (0.35 × 0.2) =

109
Induced e.m.f. 15

When a conductor is moved through a magnetic field at right angles to it an e.m.f.

is induced in the conductor.

e = BIV volts e = BIV (answer in volts )

where B is the flux density (T)

I is the length of conductor within the magnetic field (m)

V is the velocity of the conductor (metres per second, m/s).

EXAMPLE 1

Calculate the induced e.m.f. in a conductor with an effective length of 0.25m moving
at right angles, at a velocity of 5m/s through a magnetic field with a flux density of
1.6 tesla.

e = B ×I ×V

e = 1.6 × 0.25 × 5 = 2 volts

EXAMPLE 2

The e.m.f. in a conductor of effective length 0.25m moving at right angles through
a magnetic field at a velocity of 5m/s is 1.375V. Calculate the magnetic flux density.

e = BIV (note e is volts in this equation not V )

1.375 = B × 0.25 × 5

Transpose
1.375
B= = 1.1 tesla
(0.25 × 5)

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Self-Inductance 16

If the self-inductance of a magnetic system is L henrys and the current changes from
l1 at time t1 to l2 at time t2, the induced e.m.f. is
e = L × rate of change of current
l −l
= L × 2 1 volts
t 2 − t1

where the current is in amperes and the time in seconds.

EXAMPLE 1

A coil has self-inductance 3H, and the current through it changes from 0.5A to 0.1A
in 0.01s. Calculate the e.m.f. induced.
e = L × rate of change of current
0.5 − 0.1
=3×
0.01
= 120V
The self-inductance of a magnetic circuit is given by
change in flux linkage
Self-inductance =
corresponding change in current
Φ 2 − Φ1
L =N × henrys
l2 − l1
where N is the number of turns on the magnetizing coil and Φ2, l2; Φ1, l1 are corre-
sponding values of flux and current

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SELF-INDUCTANCE

EXAMPLE 2

The four field coils of a d.c. machine each have 1250 turns and are connected in
series. The change in flux produced by a change in current of 0.25A is 0.0035Wb.

Calculate the self-inductance of the system.

Φ 2 − Φ1
L =N × henrys
l2 − l1
0.0035
= 4 × 1250 ×
0.25
= 70H

114
Mutual Inductance 17

If two coils A and B have mutual inductance M henrys, the e.m.f. in coil A due to
current change in coil B is

eA = M × rate of change of current in coil B

Thus, if the current in coil B has values I1 and I2 at instants of time t1 and t2,
I2 − I1
e =M × volts
t 2 − t1

EXAMPLE 1

Two coils have mutual inductance 3H. If the current through one coil changes from
0.1A to 0.4A in 0.15s, calculate the e.m.f. induced in the other coil.

0.4 × 0.1
e =3× (t 2 − t1 = 0.15)
0.15
= 6V
The mutual inductance between two coils is given by

Φ 2 − Φ1
M = NA × henrys
IB1 − IB 2
where NA is the number of turns on coil A and Φ2 and Φ1 are the values of flux
­linking coil A due to the two values of current in coil B, IB2 and IB1, respectively.

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MUTUAL INDUCTANCE

EXAMPLE 2

The secondary winding of a transformer has 200 turns. When the primary current
is 1A the total flux is 0.05Wb, and when it is 2A the total flux is 0.095Wb. Assuming
that all the flux links both windings, calculate the mutual inductance between the
primary and secondary.

Φ 2 − Φ1
M = NA ×
IB1 − IB 2
0.0095 − 0.05
= 200 ×
2 −1
= 9H

EXERCISE 11

116
 MUTUAL INDUCTANCE

Flux density (T) 0.95 0.296 1.2 0.56

Conductor length (m) 0.035 0.3 0.071 0.5

Current (A) 4.5 0.5 85

Force (N) 0.05 0.16 12 30

12 If the conductor of question 11 is to experience a constant induced e.m.f. of 3V

with values of flux density varying from 0.5T to 1.0T, choose six values of flux
density, calculate in each case the velocity required, and plot a graph of velocity
against flux density.
13 A conductor of effective length 0.2m moves through a uniform magnetic field
of density 0.8T with a velocity of 0.5m/s. Calculate the e.m.f. induced in the
conductor.
14 Calculate the velocity with which a conductor 0.3m long must pass at right
angles through a magnetic field of flux density 0.65T in order that the induced
e.m.f. shall be 0.5V.
15 Calculate the e.m.f. induced in a coil of 1200 turns when the flux linking with it
changes from 0.03Wb to 0.045Wb in 0.1s.
16 The magnetic flux in a coil of 850 turns is 0.015Wb. Calculate the e.m.f. induced
when this flux is reversed in 0.25s.
17 A coil has self-inductance 0.65H. Calculate the e.m.f. induced in the coil when the
current through it changes at the rate of 10A/s.
18 A current of 5A through a certain coil is reversed in 0.1s, and the induced e.m.f. is
15V. Calculate the self-inductance of the coil.

117
MUTUAL INDUCTANCE

19 A coil has 2000 turns. When the current through the coil is 0.5A the flux is 0.03Wb;
when the current is 0.8A the flux is 0.045Wb. Calculate the self-inductance of the
coil.
20 An air-cored coil has 250 turns. The flux produced by a current of 5A is 0.035Wb.
Calculate the self-inductance of the coil. (Hint: in an air-cored coil, current and
magnetic flux are directly proportional. When there is no current, there is no
flux.)
21 Two coils have mutual inductance 2H. Calculate the e.m.f. induced in one coil
when the current through the other changes at the rate of 25A/s.
22 Two coils have mutual inductance 0.15H. At what rate must the current through
one change in order to induce an e.m.f. of 10V in the other?
23 Two coils are arranged so that the same flux links both. One coil has 1200 turns.
When the current through the other coil is 1.5A, the flux is 0.045Wb; when the
current is 2.5A the flux is 0.07Wb. Calculate the mutual inductance between the
coils.
24 Calculate the e.m.f. induced in one of the coils of question 23 if a current of 0.2A
in the other coil is reversed in 0.15s.
25 The total magnetic flux in an air gap is given as 200µW. In milliwebers this is

(a) 0.2
(b) 20
(c) 0.02
(d) 2

26 The total flux in a magnetic circuit is 0.375mWb and the cross-sectional area is
5cm2. The flux density is

(a) 1.333T
(b) 0.075T
(c) 0.75T
(d) 7.5T

118
 MUTUAL INDUCTANCE

27 A force of 0.16N is experienced by a conductor 500mm long carrying a current of

0.375A and resting at right angles to a uniform magnetic field. The magnetic flux
density is

(a) 0.117T
(b) 0.85T
(c) 8.5T
(d) 0.085T

28 The e.m.f. induced in a conductor of length 0.15m moving at right angles to a

magnetic field with a velocity of 7.5m/s is 22.5mV. The magnetic flux density is

(a) 20T
(b) 25.3T
(c) 0.02T
(d) 0.0253T

29
The magnetic flux linking a coil of 150 turns changes from 0.05Wb to 0.075Wb in
5ms. The e.m.f. induced is

(a) 750V
(b) 0.75V
(c) 37.5V
(d) 37500V

30 When the current through a coil changes from 0.15A to 0.7A in 0.015s, the e.m.f.
induced is 100V. The self-inductance of the coil is

(a) 367H
(b) 0.367H
(c) 2.73H
(d) 1.76H

119
MUTUAL INDUCTANCE

31 Two coils have mutual inductance 0.12H. The current through one coil changes at
the rate of 150A/s. The e.m.f. induced in the other is

(a) 1250V
(b) 0.0008V
(c) 180V
(d) 18V

120
Cable Selection 18

When a current is passed through a conductor it causes it to rise in temperature.

Heat in cables is the electrician’s worst nightmare.

When installing circuits it is important that the correct size current carrying conduc-
tor is selected to carry the current required without causing the cable to overheat
and that the voltage drop caused by the resistance of the cable is not greater than
is permissible.

The following calculations are designed to compensate for conductor temperature

rise.

nn We must first calculate the design current that the circuit will have to carry (lb).
P
nn Calculation is = l (l being design current).
U
nn A protective device must now be selected (ln); this must be equal to or greater
than lb.

nn If the cable is to be installed in areas where environmental conditions will not

allow the cable to cool, rating factors will be need to be used. This will ensure that
the cable size selected will be suitable for installation and will not be adversely
affected by the additional temperatures likely to be encountered.

nn Ca is a rating factor to be used where ambient temperature is above or below 30

deg C. This factor can be found in Table 4B1 Appendix 4 of BS7671.

nn Cg is a rating factor to be used where the cable is grouped or bunched (touching)

with other cables. This factor can be found in Table 4C1 Appendix 4 of BS7671.

nn Ci is a factor for use where a conductor is surrounded by thermal insulation and

can be found in Table 52.2 part 5 of BS7671.

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CABLE SELECTION

n Cf is a factor for rewirable fuses and is always 0.725. This factor must always
be used when rewirable fuses protect a circuit. The reason for the factor will be
explained at end of the chapter.

n These factors should be multiplied together and then divided into ln.
ln
n Therefore the calculation is lt ≥ .
Ca × C g ×Ci × Cf
n lt is the value given in the current carrying tables in appendix 4 of BS 7671.

n The current carrying capacity of the cable must be equal to or greater than the
result of this calculation.

n It should be remembered that all of the correction factors which affect the cable
at the same section should be used.

EXAMPLE

A circuit is to be installed using 2.5mm2–1.5mm2 twin and earth 70°C thermoplastic

cables; it is 32 metres long and protected by a BS 88 fuse. The load to be supplied
is a 4.2kW kiln, the circuit is to be installed in mini trunking containing one other
circuit at an ambient temperature of 35°C. Maximum permissible voltage drop is 7
volts. Supply is a TN-C-S system with a Ze of 0.35Ω. Calculate the minimum cable
that may be used.

Design current:
P
lb =
U
42×1000
=1826A
230
Protective device ln (≥ 18.26) nearest BS 88 is 20 amperes.

In the example the cable is installed in plastic trunking.

From BS 7671 Table 4A2 we must now select an installation method to use when we
use the current carrying capacity table for selecting the cable size.

Number 6/7 method b matches the example used

The cable is installed in a trunking which will contain one other circuit.

The ambient temperature is 35°C. A correction factor for ambient temperature

(Ca) from Table 4B1 must be used. For thermoplastic cable @ 35°C the factor is 0.94.

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 CABLE SELECTION

Correction factor for grouping (Cg) is required from BS 7671 Table 4C1; it can be seen
that for two circuits in one enclosure a factor of 0.8 must be used.

Using these factors it is now possible to calculate the minimum size conductors
required for this circuit.
ln
lt ≥
(
Ca × C g )
20
lt ≥ = 26.59A
(0.8 × 0.94)
Calculator method 20 ÷ (0.8 × 0.94) = 26.59

This is the minimum value of current that the cable must be able to carry to enable it
to be installed in the environmental conditions affecting the cable.

From Table 4D5 columns 1 and 4 it can be seen that a 4mm2 cable has an lt (current
carrying capacity) of 30 amperes.

A cable with 4mm2 live conductors will carry the current in these conditions without
overheating, but will it comply with the voltage drop requirements?

From Table 4D5 column 8 it can be seen that 4mm2 cable has a voltage drop of 11
(mV/A/m) or millivolts x load current x length of circuit. As the value is in millivolts it
must be converted to volts by dividing by 1000.

The circuit length is 32 metres and the load current is 18.26 amperes.
mV / A / m 11× 18.26 × 32
Calculation = = 6.42 volts
1000 1000
The voltage drop in this cable will be 6.42 volts which is acceptable as the maximum
permissible for the circuit is 7 volts.

The calculations which have been carried out up to this point have been to select
a cable to comply with the current and voltage drop requirements for the circuit.

This is only part of the calculation. It is now important that a calculation is carried
out to prove that the protective device will operate within the time required if an
earth fault were to occur on the circuit.

As the load is less than 32A the disconnection time must be 0.4 second (reg 411.3.2.2
and Table 41.1).

The resistance of the cable must now be calculated.

A 4mm2 twin and earth cable will have a C.P.0 of 1.5mm2.

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CABLE SELECTION

From Table 11 in the On-Site Guide it can be seen that this cable will have a resistance
of 16.71 milli ohms per metre @ 20°C.

As the cable could operate at 70°C the multiplier from Table 13 in the On-Site Guide
must be used to adjust the resistance value from 20°C to 70°C.

CALCULATION

mΩ × length × multiplier 1.2 ÷ 1000 (to convert to ohms)

16.71× 32 × 1.2
= 0.64Ω
1000
The resistance of the cable at operating temperature of 70°C is 0.64Ω.

Zs (earth loop impedance) must now be calculated.

Z s = Z e + R1 + R2

From the information given in the example, Ze (external earth loop impedance) is
0.35Ω.

Therefore Zs = 0.35 + 0.64 Zs = 0.99Ω

This value must now be checked against the value for maximum permissible Zs.

This is in BS 7671 Table 41.2 for a 0.4 second disconnection.

It can be seen that the maximum Zs for a 20A BS 88–2 fuse is 1.77Ω.

As the circuit a has a calculated Zs of 0.99 it will be satisfactory.

EXERCISE 12

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 CABLE SELECTION

DISCONNECTION TIMES FOR FUSES

BS 7671 requirements part 4 chapter 41 give maximum disconnection times for cir-
cuits under earth fault conditions.

Regulation 411.3.2.2 shows us the maximum disconnection times to be applied to

final circuits up to and including 32A must be as shown in table 41.1.

Maximum disconnection time for final circuits not exceeding 32A

System 50V < U0 ≤ 120V < U0 ≤ 230V < U0 ≤ U0 > 400V

120V seconds 230V seconds 400V seconds seconds

a.c. d.c. a.c. d.c. a.c. d.c. a.c. d.c.

TN 0.8 Note 0.4 1 0.2 0.4 0.1 0.1

TT 0.3 Note 0.2 0.4 0.07 0.2 0.04 0.1

Note: Disconnection time is not required for protection against electric shock but
may be required for other reasons.

Maximum disconnection times for 230V final circuits supplied by a TN system must
not exceed 0.4 seconds unless the circuit is a distribution circuit, then a 5 second
disconnection time is permitted.

Final circuits supplied by a TT system must not exceed 0.2 seconds unless the circuit
is a distribution circuit, then a disconnection time of 1 second is permitted.

Table 41.2 provides the maximum Zs values required to achieve a 0.4 second
disconnection time for fuses, and table 41.3 provides the maximum values for circuit

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CABLE SELECTION

breakers. RCDs will usually be required to achieve a 0.2 second disconnection time
for circuits supplied by TT systems.

The maximum disconnection time for final circuits rated at more than 32A is
5 seconds and the maximum Zs values for these circuits can be found in table 41.4.

DISCONNECTION TIMES FOR CIRCUIT BREAKERS

Where circuit breakers are used, it is very important that the correct maximum Zs
values are used. These are to be found in table 41.3 and use of these values will
achieve compliance with BS 7671. Circuit breakers are manufactured to disconnect
within 0.1 seconds providing that the correct value of maximum Zs is used.

Part 4 of BS 7671 shows us the maximum disconnection times for circuits under
earth fault conditions.

Circuit breakers to BS EN 60898 are available as 3 types, B, C and D, and it is impor-

tant that the correct type is used.

Type B are designed to operate within 0.1s when a current of 5 times its rating passes
through it.

Type C are designed to operate within 0.1s when a current of 10 times its rating is
passed through it.

Type D is slightly different, and it is designed to operate within 0.4s when a current
of 20 times it rated current passes through it and within 5s when a current of 10
times its rated current passes through it.

To allow this amount of current to flow, the resistance of the circuit line and cpc
(R1 + R2) added to the supply earth fault loop resistance must be low enough. For
circuit breakers the maximum Zs can be calculated if required by using ohms law.

But first we must take into account a value known as Cmin. This is a value which has
been introduced to compensate for voltage fluctuations which could possibly affect
the current which would flow under fault conditions. Cmin requires that we only use
95% of the nominal voltage.

Lets look at a 20A type B BS EN 60898 circuit breaker.

EXAMPLE

To calculate the maximum Zs value we need to know the current which will operate
it in the required time, which we know is 5 times its rating: 5 × 20 = 100

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 CABLE SELECTION

230 × 0.95
Using Cmin the calculation is: = 2.185Ω we can round this up to 2.19Ω
100
which is the tabulated Zs shown is BS 7671 table 41.3.
230
We can of course carry out the calculation like this: × 0.95 = 2.185
100
For a 20A type C circuit breaker we can use the same calculation, but the current
value would be 10 × the rated current, and for a type D circuit breaker we can use
either 10 or 20 × the current rating depending on the operating time required.

This calculation can be used to calculate the Zs for any BS EN 60898 circuit breaker.

The overload characteristics for these devices is the same for each type. They must
not trip within 1 hour when overloaded to 1.3 times their rated current. They must
trip within 1 hour when overloaded at 1.45 times the rated current and they must
trip between 1 and 120 seconds when overloaded by 2.55 times the rated current.

FUSING FACTORS, FAULT CURRENT AND OVERLOAD

FUSE FACTOR (I2)

Regulation 433.1.1 describes the characteristics required of them to comply with

BS 7671.

The current causing effective operation for overload (l2) of a protective device must
not be greater than 1.45 times the current carrying capacity of the conductor that
it is protecting.

Apart from BS 3036 semi-enclosed fuses, all other protective devices are manufac-
tured to comply with Regulation 433.1.1.

A BS 3036 semi-enclosed fuse will not operate on overload until the current passing
through it reaches approximately 2 times its rating.

A fusing factor of 0.725 must be used when using BS 3036 fuses (Regulation
433.1.101).

EXAMPLE

A circuit is required to carry a load of 14 amperes.

The protective device must be ≥ 14A; the nearest rating BS 3036 fuse is 15A.
The cable selected for this circuit must be calculated using the following calculation.
15
Cable rating must be a minimum of = 20.69A
0.725

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CABLE SELECTION

The BS 3036 fuse will operate at 15 × 2 = 30

A cable with a minimum rating of 20.69A × 1.45 = 30A, this will satisfy Regulation
433.1.101.
This factor is to be used on all circuits using BS 3036 for overload protection and
must be used with any other correction factors for circuits as described in the chap-
ter for cable selection.

SHORT CIRCUIT CURRENT

This is a current which will flow in a circuit of negligible impedance between live
conductors.

Figure 41 shows the supply phase and neutral each having a resistance of 0.02Ω and
the final circuit phase and neutral each having a resistance of 0.23Ω.̱

The total resistance of the supply and final circuit will be:

0.02 + 0.02 + 0.11 + 0.11 = 0.26Ω

To calculate the short circuit current the open circuit current Uoc of the supply trans-
former is used. For a single phase supply this is taken to be 230V.
230
= 923A
0.26

Figure 41 Short circuit current

128
Earth Fault Loop 19
Impedance

EARTH FAULT LOOP IMPEDANCE Ze

Ze is the external earth fault loop impedance (resistance) line conductor and earthing
arrangement of the supply, see Figure 42.

Impedance of line conductor 0.02Ω

Impedance of earth path 0.78Ω

Figure 42  Earth fault loop impedance

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EARTH FAULT LOOP IMPEDANCE

Total external earth loop impedance Ze = 0.02 + 0.78 = 0.8Ω

Earth fault current if measured at the ends of the supply cable (origin) can be
calculated:
230
= 300A
0.8

EXAMPLE

The 100A high breaking current service fuse (BS 88-3) at the origin of an installation
has a fusing factor of 1.4, the nominal voltage to earth U0 is 230V, and the tested
value of Ze at the origin of the installation is 0.38Ω.

(a) Calculate the minimum current required to blow the fuse.

(b) How much current will flow if the line conductor comes into contact with the
earthed sheath of the supply cable at the origin of the installation?
(c) Using Appendix 3 from BS 7671 state approximately the current which would be
required to operate the protective device in the required time under conditions
described in (b).

(a) Minimum fusing current (I2) = 100 × 1.4 = 140A

U
(b) Earth fault current (lf ) = 0
Ze
230
= 631.6A
0.38
(c) Using the table attached to Figure 3.A1 from BS 7671 it can be seen that for a 5
second disconnection time a minimum current of 580A is required to operate the
fuse.

EARTH FAULT LOOP IMPEDANCE ZS

Zs is the total earth fault loop impedance of the supply and the resistance of the final
circuit cables, line conductor (R1) and circuit protective conductor (R2).
Z s = Z e + R1+ R 2

If the loop impedance of a system (Zs) is high, the fault current will be low and the
device protecting the circuit may not operate within the required time. This will
result in the extraneous and exposed conductive parts within the circuit rising in
potential and becoming a serious shock risk.

130
 EARTH FAULT LOOP IMPEDANCE

EXAMPLE

A circuit is to be wired in 70°C thermoplastic cable with copper 2.5mm2 line and
1.5mm2 circuit protective conductors. The circuit is 30 metres long and the Ze for the
circuit is measured at 0.35Ω.

(a) Calculate Zs.

(b) Calculate earth fault current.

From Table I1 in the On-Site Guide, it can be found that a 2.5/1.5mm2 cable with
copper conductors will have (R1. R2) value of 19.41mΩ/m.

The multiplier of 1.2 from Table I3 of the On-Site Guide must be used to correct
operating resistance from 20°C to 70°C (operating temperature).

19.41× 30 × 1.2
(a) Total resistance of final circuit cables = 0.698Ω
1000
Z s = Z e + R1 + R 2
Z s = 0.35 + 0.698
Z s = 1.04
230
(b) Earth fault current = 221.15
1.04

EXERCISE 13

1 Complete the following table.

U (volts) 10 20 40

I (amperes) 1 3 4 5

R (ohms) 10 10 10

2 Calculate the voltage when a current of 15.65A is flowing in a circuit with a

resistance of 2.3Ω.
3 Complete the following table.

131
EARTH FAULT LOOP IMPEDANCE

U (volts) 240 240

I (amperes) 12 6 4 3 2.4

R (ohms) 20 60 100

132
 EARTH FAULT LOOP IMPEDANCE

12 Assuming a fusing factor of 1.4, complete the following table, which refers to
various sizes of fuse.

Nominal current (A) 5 15 30 60 100

Minimum fusing
current (A)

13 Repeat exercise 12 using a fusing factor of 1.2

14 A current of 1.5A flows in a 25Ω resistor. The voltage drop is:

(a) 0.06V
(b) 37.5V
(c) 16.67V
(d) 3.75V

15 If a cable must carry a current of 19.5A with a voltage drop of not more than 6V,
its resistance must not exceed:

(a) 32.5Ω
(b) 117Ω
(c) 0.308Ω
(d) 3.25Ω

16 A fuse rated at 30A has a fusing factor of 1.4. The current required to blow the
fuse is:

(a) 31.4A
(b) 21.4A
(c) 42A
(d) 30A

133
EARTH FAULT LOOP IMPEDANCE

17 A faulty earthing conductor has a resistance of 12.5Ω. and the resistance of

the remainder of the fault path is 1.5Ω. The supply voltage is 230V. The voltage
appearing between metal parts and earth is:

(a) 205.4V
(b) 238.5V
(c) 24.6V
(d) 217.7V

134
Material Costs, Discounts 20
and Value Added Tax

To find the Value Added Tax due on an item

EXAMPLE 1

If a consumer’s unit with a main switch was quoted by the suppliers as costing
£53.85 plus VAT, calculate the cost of the item including VAT.
53.85 × 20
VAT on item = = 10.77
100
Item including VAT £53.85 + £10.77 = £64.62

Or enter on calculator 53.85 x 20% = (10.77) + 53.85 = (£64.62) (Figures in brackets

are the answers that you will get. Do not enter into calculator.)

A difficulty that often occurs is that a value is given including VAT and it is necessary
to calculate the item cost without the VAT.

EXAMPLE 2

Using the values from example 1.

A consumer’s unit costs £64.62 inclusive of VAT. Calculate the VAT content.
64.62 64.62 × 100
= 53.85 or = 53.85
1.2 120
Therefore the VAT content is £64.62 – £53.85 =£10.77.

Or transpose formula from example 1 to find cost of unit without VAT

(53.85) ×1.20 = 64.62

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MATERIAL COSTS, DISCOUNTS AND VALUE ADDED TAX

64.62
Transpose (53.85) = Cost less VAT is £53.85
1.20

EXAMPLE 3

One hundred metres of 4mm2 three-core steel wired armoured cable costs £258.60
per 100 metres.

If a trade discount of 30% was allowed on this cable calculate the cost of 60 metres.
30 × 258.60
30% of 258.60 = =£77.58
100
Trade price of cable per 100 metres £258.60 – £77.58 = £181.02
181.02
Cost of 1 metre of this cable at trade price is = £1.81
100
60 metres would cost £1.81 x 60m = £108.60

A far easier method would be to use a calculator and enter:

258.6 × 30% = (77.58)– = (182.02) ÷ 100 × 60 =(108.60) (Figures in brackets are the
answers that you will get. Do not enter them in to calculator.)

If value added tax was needed to be added (current VAT rate is 20%)
108.6 × 20
= 21.72
100
£21.72 is the VAT on the cable and should be added to the trade cost

£108.6 + £21.72 = £130.32

Calculator method: enter 108.6 × 20 % + (130.32) answer in brackets.

EXERCISE 14

136
MATERIAL COSTS, DISCOUNTS AND VALUE ADDED TAX

137
MATERIAL COSTS, DISCOUNTS AND VALUE ADDED TAX

10 A contractor’s order for conduit and fittings reads as follows:

360m of 20mm BEHG steel conduit at £147 per 90m
50 20mm BE standard circular terminal end boxes at £1.81 each
50 20mm BE standard through boxes at £2.17 each
50 20mm BE standard tee boxes at £2.57 each
50 20mm spacer-bar saddles at £23.20 per 100
50 20mm steel locknuts at £14.90 per 100
50 20mm brass hexagon male bushes at £38 per 100.
All prices are list, the contractor’s discount on all items is 40%, and VAT is
chargeable at 20%. Calculate the invoice total for this order.

Manufacturer’s list prices are as shown:

6 off 500W ‘Teck’ T/H luminaries £14.50 each*

1 off ‘Teck’ PIR sensor/relay unit £24.10 each*

80m 20mm galvanized steel conduit £186 per 100m

6 off 20mm galvanized tee boxes £275 per 100

1 off 20mm galvanized angle box £265 per 100

7 off galvanized box lids and screws £11 per 100

8 off 20mm galvanized couplings £19 per 100

30 off 20mm spacer saddles £17.20 per 100

14 off 20mm brass male bushes £38 per 100

1 off ‘TYLOR’ 20A switch-fuse £24.50 each*

1 off ‘TYLOR’ 10A one-way switch £3.20 each*

2
180m 1.5mm pvc single cable £12.15 per 100m
2
3m 0.75mm three-core pvc flex £26.30 per 100m

9 off 10A three-way porcelain connectors £80 per 100

sundries taken from own stock £15

138
 MATERIAL COSTS, DISCOUNTS AND VALUE ADDED TAX

The wholesaler offers a 25% discount on non-branded items and 10% on

branded * items. Calculate

(a) the basic cost of the materials

(b) the total cost including VAT at 20%.

12 The list prices of certain equipment are as follows:

(a) £570.30 with 25% discount

(b) £886.20 with 40% discount
(c) £1357.40 with 10% discount
(d) £96.73 with 35% discount.

For each of the above establish:

(i) the basic cost price

(ii) the VAT chargeable at 20%.

13 For each of the following VAT inclusive prices (VAT chargeable at 20%), establish
the basic cost price:

(a) £656.25
(b) £735.33
(c) £895.43
(d) £1025.27
(e) £3257.72

14 A certain cable is priced at £19.50 per 100m plus 20% VAT. The cost of 65m is:

(a) £22.91
(b) £15.20
(c) £14.89
(d) £10.46

139
MATERIAL COSTS, DISCOUNTS AND VALUE ADDED TAX

15 A certain item of equipment was invoiced at £326.29 and this included VAT at
20%. The list price of the item was:

(a) £3.84
(b) £21.45
(c) £30.26
(d) £43.25

140
Electrostatics 21

THE PARALLEL PLATE CAPACITOR

When a capacitor is connected to a d.c. supply it becomes charged; the quantity of

charge is in coulombs.
Q = CU
where Q = quantity, C = capacitance in farads and U = voltage.

EXAMPLE 1

A 70μF capacitor is connected to a 150 volt d.c. supply. Calculate the charge stored
in the capacitor.

Q =C ×U
= 70 × 10−6 × 150
= 0.105 coulombs
Enter into calculator 70 × EXP−6 × 150=

Energy stored is in watts or joules.

1
W = CU 2
2

EXAMPLE 2

Calculate the energy stored in a 120μF capacitor when connected to a 110 volt d.c.
supply.

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ELECTROSTATICS

120 × 10 −6 × 1102
W=
2
0.726 joules

Enter into calculator 120 EXP −6 × 110 EXP 2 ÷ 2 =

SERIES ARRANGEMENT OF CAPACITORS

If a number of capacitors are connected in series, the total capacitance can be

calculated.

1 1 1 1 1
+ + = =
C1 C 2 C 3 Ct C
The result will be as equivalent to a single capacitor.

EXAMPLE 1

Calculate the value of capacitance when capacitors of 23, 42 and 36µF are con-
nected in series.
1 1 1 1
+ + = =C
C C C C
1 1 1 1
+ + = = 10.51µF
23 24 36 C

= 10.51µF

Enter on calculator 23X-1 + 42X-2 + 36X-1 = X-1 =

EXAMPLE 2

Calculate the value of a capacitor which when connected in series with another of
20µF will give a resulting capacitance of 12µF
1 1 1
= +
C C C

142
 ELECTROSTATICS

1 1 1
= +
12 20 C

1 1 1
= −
C 12 20

= 30µF

Enter on calculator 12X--20X- = X- =

EXAMPLE 3

Capacitors of 4, 6 and 12µF are connected in series to a 300 volt d.c. supply. Calculate

(a) total capacitance

(b) the charge stored

(c) the energy stored.

(a)
1 1 1 1 1
= + + =
C 4 6 12 0.5
1 1 1 1 1
= + + =
C 4 6 12 0.5
= 2µF

(b) Charge stored

Q = CU
= 2 × 300
= 600µF

(c) Energy stored

1 600 × 10 −6 × 300 −2
W = CU 2 =
2 2

1 600 × 10 −6 × 300 −2
W = CU 2 =
2 2

143
ELECTROSTATICS

or 600 × 10–6 × 3002 × 0.5

= 27 joules

PARALLEL ARRANGEMENT OF CAPACITORS

When a number of capacitors are connected in parallel they are equivalent to a

single capacitor of value C given by:

C = C1 + C 2 + C 3 , etc.

When the arrangement is connected to a d.c. supply voltage, the total charge is the
sum of the charges stored in each capacitor:

Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3

Q1 is the charge on C1, etc. The voltage is common to all capacitors.

EXAMPLE 1

Capacitors of 8 and 10µF are connected in parallel to a 20V supply. Calculate the
charge stored on each and the total energy.

Charge on 8µF capacitor is

Q = 8 × 20
=160µC

Charge on 10µF capacitor is

Q = 10 × 20
=200µC (microcoulombs as C is in µF)

1
Total energy is: W = CU 2
2
1
= × 18 × 202
2
=3600µJ (as C in microcoulombs)

144
 ELECTROSTATICS

EXAMPLE 2

Calculate the value of a single capacitor equivalent to the arrangement of capacitors

of 4µF and 6µF in parallel and a 12µF capacitor in series with them. Capacitance of
parallel group is
C1 + C 2 = C
=4+6
= 10µF

Treated as a single capacitor, this value can now be used with the capacitor in series
to calculate the total capacitance.
1 1 1
= +
C 10 12
= 5.45µF

EXERCISE 15

145
ELECTROSTATICS

146
Formulae 22

U = I ×R Voltage

R
I= Current
U

U
R= Resistance
I
P = U × I Power
P = I 2 R Power loss
R
I= Current
U
P
U= Voltage
I
1 1 1 1
+ + = ∴R Resistors in parallel
R1 R2 R3 R

π ×d2
= CSA Area of a circle (mm2 or m2)
4
π × d =C Circumference of a circle (mm or m)

1
base × height Area of triangle (mm2 or m2)
2
1.78 × 10 −8 × L
= R Resistance of a copper conductor (Ω)
CSA × 10 −6
(where CSA is in mm2)

2.84 × 10 −8 × L
= R Resistance of an aluminium conductor (Ω)
CSA × 10 −6
(where CSA= is in mm2)

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FORMULAE

Transformer calculation

Up Np Ip
= =
Us Ns Is
Transformer efficiency
Power out
= perunit
Power
× 100 for %

Work

W = f × d or Work in N/m = force in Newtons × distance in mm or m

1kg = 9.81 Newtons

W work done (Nm)
P= or = Power in watts
t Time (secs)
J = W × t or Energy (joules) = watts × time in seconds
Input
E= ×100 Efficiency in %
Output
Capacitance

Charge of a capacitor is in coulombs Q = CU

Total charge of more than one capacitor Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 etc. = Qtotal

Q
Or capacitance is farads
U
1 1 1 1
Total capacitance of series connected + + etc. = =C
C1 C 2 C 3 Ct
Total capacitance of parallel connected C1 + C2 + C3 etc. = C total

Energy stored in a capacitive circuit

1
Energy W = CV 2 joules
2
Energy stored in an inductive circuit
1
Energy W = LI 2 joules (where L is in henrys)
2

148
 FORMULAE

Three phase calculations

I p = Phase current
I L = Line current
U L = Line voltage
U P = Phase voltage

In star (Only one current)

Ip = IL
U
Up = I
3
UL + U p 3

P = 3 ×U
P
IL =
3 ×UL
In circuits with power factor

P = 3 × UL × IL × cos φ
P
IL =
3 × UL × cos φ
In Delta (only one voltage)

UL = U p

IL
IP =
3

IL = IP × 3

P = 3 × UL × IL

In circuits with power factor

P = 3 × UL × IL × cos φ
P
IL =
3 × UL × cos φ

149
FORMULAE

True power watts

Power factor cos φ = =
Apparent power volts × amps
Pythagoras type calculations

Z 2 = R 2 + X 2 or Z = R 2 + X 2

R = Z 2 − X 2 or R 2 = Z 2 − X 2

X 2 = Z 2 − R 2 or X = Z 2 − R 2

kVA2 = kW 2 + kVAr 2 or kVA = kW 2 + kVAr 2

kW 2 = kVA2 − kVAr 2 or kW = kVA 2 − kVAr 2

kVAr 2 = kVA2 − kW 2 or kVAr = kVA 2 − kW 2

Capacitive reactance

1 1× 106
Xc = or
2πfC × 10−6 2πfC
1 1× 106
C= or
2πfX × 10−6 2πfX
Inductive reactance

X L = 2µfL
X
L= L
2µfX
Synchronous speed and slip calculations

NS is synchronous speed in revs/sec or × 60 for revs/min

NR is speed of rotor in revs/sec or × 60 for revs/min
f is frequency of supply
P is pairs of poles
Unit slip is shown as a decimal
Percentage slip is shown as %

Synchronous speed
f
N s = in revs per sec or × 60 for rpm
P

150
 FORMULAE

Rotor speed
NS − NR
= unit slip × 100 for %
NS
Calculations associated with cable selection
IN
It ≥
Rating factors
r1 + r2 × length in m
Cable resistance @ 20˚ C. R in ohms =
1000
mV × amperes × length ( in metres )
Voltage drop in cable
1000
Earth fault loop impedance Z S = Z e + R1 + R2

151
Electronic Symbols 23

BS 3939 graphical symbols used in electronics.

Figure 43 shows an a.c. relay

Figure 44 shows the symbol for a battery. The long line represents the positive termi-
nal. Each pair of lines is one cell.

Figure 43  a.c. relay

Figure 44  Symbol for a battery

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ELECTRONIC SYMBOLS

Figure 45 shows a primary cell, which supplies electrical energy.

Figure 46 shows a triac, a three terminal bi-directional device which contains back-
to-back thyristors.

Figure 45 A primary cell

Figure 46 A triac

154
 ELECTRONIC SYMBOLS

Figure 47 shows a polarized capacitor. This must be connected the correct way round
or it will be damaged.

Figure 48 shows a variable capacitor.

Figure 47 A polarized capacitor

Figure 48 A variable capacitor

155
ELECTRONIC SYMBOLS

Figure 49 shows a preset variable capacitor (trimmer).

Figure 50 shows how a d.c. relay can be used for circuit control.

Figure 49 A preset variable capacitor

Figure 50 How to use a d.c. relay for circuit control

156
 ELECTRONIC SYMBOLS

Figure 51 shows a diac, which is a two terminal device which contains back-to-back
thyristors. This device is triggered on both halves of each cycle.

Figure 52 shows a light-sensitive diode.

Figure 51 A diac

Figure 52 A light sensitive diode

157
ELECTRONIC SYMBOLS

Figure 53 shows a light emitting diode (LED). This converts electrical energy to light.

Figure 54 shows a zener diode. This device acts in the same way as a diode, but
will conduct in the reverse direction a predetermined voltage. It is used for voltage
regulation.

Figure 55 shows that a diode will only conduct in one direction.

Figure 56 shows a fuse link.

Figure 57 shows an iron-cored inductor, a coil of wire which creates a magnetic field
when a current is passed through it. It can be used on an a.c. circuit to create a high
voltage when the magnetic field collapses or to restrict the flow of current (choke
in fluorescent fitting).

Figure 53 LED

Figure 54 A zener diode

158
 ELECTRONIC SYMBOLS

Figure 55 A diode

Fiqure 56 A fuse link

Figure 57 An iron-cored inductor

159
ELECTRONIC SYMBOLS

Figure 58 shows an air-cored inductor, which works in the same way as an iron-
cored inductor.

Figure 59 shows an inverter. This changes d.c. to a.c. current. It is useful for motor
control as the frequency can be altered. The waveform is rectangular but fortunately
most a.c. motors and fluorescent lamps can accept these waveforms.

Figure 58 An air-cored inductor

Figure 59 An inverter

160
 ELECTRONIC SYMBOLS

Figure 60 shows a variable resistor. This is a potentiometer, three contact device

which is used to control voltage.

Figure 61 shows a fixed resistor.

Figure 62 shows a variable resistor, rheostat, two terminal device used to control
current.

Figure 60 A variable resistor

Figure 61 A fixed resistor

Figure 62 A rheostat variable resistor

161
ELECTRONIC SYMBOLS

Figure 63 shows a preset resistor.

Figure 64 shows a thermistor. Resistance alters due to heat, a negative coefficient

type reduces resistance as it gets hotter, a positive coefficient type increases resist-
ance as it gets hotter.

Figure 65 shows a rectifier. This converts a.c. to d.c. current.

Figure 66 shows a solenoid valve.

Figure 63 A preset resistor

Figure 64 A thermistor

162
 ELECTRONIC SYMBOLS

Figure 65 A rectifier

Figure 66 A solenoid valve

163
ELECTRONIC SYMBOLS

Figure 67 shows a three phase star supply.

Figure 68 shows a three phase delta supply.

Figure 69 shows an NPN transistor. This amplifies current or can be used with other
electronic components to make a switch circuit.

Figure 70 shows a PNP transistor, which does the same thing as an NPN transistor.

Figure 71 shows a light-sensitive transistor.

Figure 72 shows a transformer.

Figure 67 A three phase star supply

164
 ELECTRONIC SYMBOLS

Figure 68 A three phase delta supply

Figure 69 An NPN transistor

165
ELECTRONIC SYMBOLS

Figure 70 A PNP transistor

Figure 71 A light-sensitive transistor

166
 ELECTRONIC SYMBOLS

Figure 72 A transformer

167
Glossary 24

a.c. Alternating current

Area Extent of a surface

BS 7671 British Standard for electrical wiring regulations

Capacitive reactance The effect on a current flow due to the reactance

of a capacitor

Circle Perfectly round figure

Circuit Assembly of electrical equipment which is

supplied from the same origin and protected
from overcurrent by a protective device

Circuit breaker A device installed into a circuit to automatically

break a circuit in the event of a fault or overload
and which can be reset

Circumference Distance around a circle

Conductor Material used for carrying current

Correction factor A factor used to allow for different

environmental conditions of installed cables

Coulomb Quantity of electrons

CSA Cross-sectional area

Current Flow of electrons

Cycle Passage of an a.c. waveform through 360º

Cylinder Solid or hollow, roller-shaped body

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GLOSSARY

d.c. Direct current

Dimension Measurement

Earth fault The current which flows between a live

conductor to earth

Earth fault loop impedance Resistance of the conductors in which the

current will flow in the event of an earth fault.
This value includes the supply cable, supply
transformer and the circuit cable up to the point
of the fault

Efficiency The ratio of output and input power

e.m.f Electromotive force in volts

Energy The ability to do work

Force Pull of gravity acting on a mass

Frequency Number of complete cycles per second of an

alternating waveform

Fuse A device installed in a circuit which melts to

break the flow of current in a circuit

Hertz Measurement of frequency

Impedance Resistance to the flow of current in an a.c.

circuit

Impedance triangle Drawing used to calculate impedance in an a.c.

circuit

Internal resistance Resistance within a cell or cells

Kilogram Unit of mass

kVA Apparent power (× 1000)

kVAr Reactive power (× 1000)

kW True power (× 1000)

Load Object to be moved

170
 GLOSSARY

Load The current drawn by electrical equipment

connected to an electrical circuit

Magnetic flux Quantity of magnetism measured in webers

Magnetic flux density The density of flux measured in webers per

metre squared or tesla

Mutual induction Effect of the magnetic field around a conductor

on another conductor

Newton Pull of gravity (measurement of force)

Ohm Unit of resistance

On-Site Guide Publication by the IET containing information on

electrical installation

Overload current An overcurrent flowing in a circuit which is

electrically sound

Percentage efficiency The ratio of input and output power multiplied

by 100

Perimeter Outer edge

Phasor Drawing used to calculate electrical values

Potential difference Voltage difference between conductive parts

Power Energy used doing work

Pressure Continuous force

Primary winding Winding of transformer which is connected to a

supply

Prospective fault current The highest current which could flow in a circuit
due to a fault

Prospective short circuit current The maximum current which could flow between
live conductors

Protective device A device inserted into a circuit to protect the

cables from overcurrent or fault currents

Rectangle Four-sided figure with right angles

171
GLOSSARY

Resistance Opposition to the flow of current

Resistivity Property of a material which affects its ability to

conduct

Resistor Component which resists the flow of electricity

Secondary winding Winding of transformer which is connected to a

load

Self-induction Effect of a magnetic field in a conductor

Series Connected end to end

Space factor Amount of usable space in an enclosure

Thermoplastic Cable insulation which becomes soft when

heated and remains flexible when cooled down

Thermosetting Cable insulation which becomes soft when

heated and is rigid when cooled down

Transformer A device which uses electromagnetism to

convert a.c. current from one voltage to another

Transpose Change order to calculate a value

Triangle Three-sided object

Voltage drop Amount of voltage lost due to a resistance

Volume Space occupied by a mass

Watt meter Instrument used to measure true power

Waveform The shape of an electrical signal

Work Energy used moving a load (given in newton

metres or joules)

172
Answers to Exercises 25

EXERCISE 1

1 a) 106Ω b) 12.5Ω c) 24Ω d) 1.965Ω

e) 154.94Ω f) 346.2Ω g) 59.3kΩ h) 2290000Ω
i) 0.0997Ω j) 57425µΩ
2 a) 22Ω b) 2.35Ω c) 1.75Ω d) 2.71Ω
e) 1.66Ω f) 13.42Ω g) 6.53Ω h) 1805Ω
i) 499635µΩ j) 0.061MΩ
3 3.36Ω
4 21.1Ω
5 9
6 533Ω, 19
7 133.6Ω, 30.4Ω
8 2.76Ω
9 c
10 c
11 c

EXERCISE 2

1 a) 1Ω b) 1.58Ω c) 3.94Ω d) 1.89Ω

e) 2.26Ω f) 11.7Ω g) 6Ω h) 5Ω
i) 10Ω
2 a) 16Ω b) 6.67Ω c) 7.2Ω d) 6Ω
e) 42Ω f) 2000Ω g) 300Ω h) 37.5Ω
i) 38Ω j) 17.3Ω

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 ANSWERS TO EXERCISES

EXERCISE 3

174
 ANSWERS TO EXERCISES

EXERCISE 4

175
ANSWERS TO EXERCISES

13
Nominal overall diameter of 2.9 3.8 6.2 7.3 12
cable (mm)

Nominal overall cross-sectional 6.6 11.3 30.2 41.9 113

area (mm2)

14 a) 133mm2 b) 380mm2 c) 660mm2

15
Cable size 50×37.5 75×50 75×75
2
16mm 20 40 60
2
25mm 13 27 40
2
50mm 8 15 22

16 75mm × 50mm or 100mm × 37.5mm

17 8036mm2 (about 90mm × 90mm) use 100 mm × 100mm
18
c
19
d
20 75mm × 75mm trunking
21 19 pairs can be added
22 25mm conduit, draw-in box after second bend
23 a) 32mm conduit
b) adequate room exists but recalculation of new and existing cable rating will be
necessary
24
a) 50mm × 50mm or 75mm × 38mm trunking
b) 32mm conduit
c) difficulty may result when extending from stop end of 75mm × 38mm
trunking

176
 ANSWERS TO EXERCISES

EXERCISE 5

EXERCISE 6

177
 ANSWERS TO EXERCISES

28 b
29 d
30 a

EXERCISE 7

178
 ANSWERS TO EXERCISES

22 b
23 c
24 a

EXERCISE 8

EXERCISE 9

179
ANSWERS TO EXERCISES

5
Power (W) 128 100 60 1800 42.24 36

Voltage (V) 80 240 250 220 3.5 12

Resistance (Ω) 50 576 1042 26.9 0.29 4

6 15V
7 557W
8 52.9Ω
9 170W
10 161Ω
11 a) 28.8Ω b) 19.2Ω c) 16.5Ω d) 128Ω
e) 960Ω f) 8.23Ω g) 576Ω h) 38.4Ω
i) 76.8Ω j) 14.4Ω
12 79.1V
13 4.19A
14 a) 0.149A b) 29.8W
15 a) series – 106Ω, parallel – 26.5Ω
b) series – 499W, parallel – 1996W
16 19A, 126W, 81A, 538W
17 750W, 3000W
18
Power (W) 25.6 250 400 600

Current (A) 0.8 2.5 3.15 3.87

Resistance(Ω) 40 40 40.3 40

a) 550W b) 4.4A

19
Power (W) 2000 750 420 180

Current (A) 240 120 89.6 58.8

Resistance (Ω) 28.8 19.2 19.1 19.2

a) 175V b) 3200W
20 180V = 90W, 190V = 100.27W, 200V = 111.11W, 210V = 122.50W, 220V =
134.44W, 230V = 146.9W, 240V = 160W, 250V = 173W

180
 ANSWERS TO EXERCISES

21 10A = 7W, 20A = 28W, 30A = 63W, 40A = 112W, 50A = 175W, 60A = 252W,
70A = 343W, 80A = 448W, 90A = 567W
22 d
23 b
24 d
25 c

EXERCISE 10

181
ANSWERS TO EXERCISES

13
Load to be raised (kgf) 250 320 420 180 500

Distance between load and pivot (m) 0.125 0.3 0.15 0.1 0.2

Effort required (kgf) 125 150 75 80 214.3

Vertical height (m) 3 4 0.89 2.4 1.8

Length of inclined plane (m) 6 8.53 5 5.4 4.2

14 a) 2.55kgf b) 2160kgf c) 0.424m

15
Radius of wheel R (cm) 25 16 20 17.5 30

Radius of axle r (cm) 8 6.5 6 8.5 8.5

Load G (kgf) 200 185 255 150 175

Effort E (kgf) 64 75 76.5 72.9 49.6

16.
a) 184W b) 245W c) 882 × 103J
17
91%
18
a) 6.1A b) 38.1A c) 13.5A
d) 21.3A e) 58.3A
19 1.19A
20 12.58p
21 a) 4.57A b) 15.35p c) 1.36mm2 (1.5mm2)
22
13.2kW (15kW), 28.7A, a DC shunt wound motor as it can regulate its own speed
under load.
a) 3.74V
23 b) Increase the size of the cable
24 2.892kW, 14.8A
25 c
26 b
27 b

182
 ANSWERS TO EXERCISES

EXERCISE 11

183
ANSWERS TO EXERCISES

22 66.7A/s
23 30H
24 80V
25 a
26 c
27 b
28 c
29 a
30 c
31 d

EXERCISE 12

EXERCISE 13

184
 ANSWERS TO EXERCISES

0 11A
1
11 Section SA 2.916 V, Section AB 4.253 V, Section AC 2.322 V; volts at A = 47.08V,
volts at B = 42.83V, volts at C = 40.51V
12
Rated current (A) 5 15 30 60 100

Minimum fusing current (A) 7 21 42 84 140

13
Rated current (A) 5 15 30 60 100

Minimum fusing current (A) 6 18 36 72 120

185
 ANSWERS TO EXERCISES

14 b
15 c
16 c
17 a

EXERCISE 14

EXERCISE 15

186
 ANSWERS TO EXERCISES

187
Additional Questions and 26
Answers

Answers are on page 207.

1 When working in areas which are very dusty, which of the following would not
give a good level of protection?

A. Breathing apparatus
B. Positive pressure power respirator
C. Dust mask
D. Compressed airline breathing helmet

2 It is the duty of all employees to

A. Organize safety lectures

B. Carry out safe working practices
C. Provide suitable safety equipment
D. Carry out repairs to damaged equipment

3 Under which circumstances may an HSE improvement notice be issued?

A. When required by an architect

B. When legal requirements have not been met
C. When required by the building officer
D. After an accident

DOI: 10.4324/9781003258735-26
XX.XXXX/XXXXXXXXXXXXX-X 189
ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

190
 ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

12 The correct method of checking if a circuit is safe to work on is to

A. Trace the circuit and withdraw the fuse

B. Connect an appliance and test for operation
C. Connect an approved test lamp between each conductor and earth
D. Switch off the main supply to the installation

13 Ladders used for access to scaffolding must be

A. Set at a ratio of 6 up to 1 out

B. Secured to the scaffold
C. Set at an angle of 65°
D. Extend above the scaffold platform by 0.43m

191
ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

14 A safety harness would be worn when working

A. In a confined space
B. With lifting gear
C. Alone
D. Above ground

15 SWL stated on lifting equipment indicates the

A. Specified working load

B. Site working load
C. Safe working load
D. Standard working load

16 It is very important that the working area is left in a tidy and clean condition
because it

A. Provides a safe environment

B. Reduces the costs
C. Saves on material
D. Allows better access

17 An employer must provide personal protective equipment

A. When it is required to control risk or harm

B. If a method statement would require it
C. When the main contractor specifies it
D. Every three months

18 A warning notice must be fixed to all

A. Equipment which is not earthed

B. Electric motors with a rating above 0.37kW
C. Any electrical equipment which has a voltage of above 250 volts where
such voltage would not normally be expected
D. Where the isolator cannot be seen by persons working close by

192
 ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

19 A 13A socket outlet supplying portable equipment outdoors must be protected by

an RCD with a trip current rating of

A. 100mA
B. 500mA
C. 0.3A
D. 0.03A

20 Protection against overcurrent is provided by

A. Fuses or circuit breakers of the correct type and size

B. Protective bonding
C. RCDs
D. Using large cables

21 Care of personal protective equipment (PPE) is the responsibility of the

A. Employer
B. Safety officer
C. Shop steward
D. Employee

22 ‘In’ is a symbol used to denote the

A. Design current
B. Operating current of a fuse
C. Nominal rating of a protective device
D. Current rating of a cable

23 In a purely inductive circuit the current will

A. Lead the voltage by 90°

B. Increase
C. Lag the voltage by 90°
D. lead the voltage

193
ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

24 A wall 3 metres long is to be represented on a drawing scaled at 1:50. What

length will the wall be shown on the drawing?

A. 3.5cm
B. 3.0cm
C. 6.0cm
D. 9.0cm

25 In a d.c. motor a constant, stationary magnetic field will be found in the

conductors connected to the

A. Stator
B. Yoke
C. Armature
D. Spindle

26 The Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974

A. Is for the guidance of employees only

B. Is for the guidance of employers and employees
C. Specifies the duties of employees only
D. Specifies the duties of employers and employees

27 Each set of windings in a three phase generator are set apart by

A. 120°
B. 90°
C. 360°
D. 180°

28 Apparent power is expressed as

A. kVAr
B. kW
C. kVA
D. kWh

194
 ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

29 The design current of a circuit is the

A. Rating of the protective device

B. Minimum current which is to be carried during normal service
C. Current which is intended to be carried during normal service
D. Current carrying capacity of the circuit

30 The main function of a transformer is to

A. Reduce the current

B. Change the voltage
C. Alter the frequency
D. Reduce cost

31 Which of the following is not a statutory document?

A. IEE Wiring Regulations BS 7671: 2001

B. Electricity Supply Regulations 1989
C. Electricity at Work Regulations 1989
D. Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974

32 The sign legally requiring the wearing of personal safety equipment is white text
on a background of

A. Red
B. Blue
C. Green
D. Yellow

33 In a three phase four-wire circuit the neutral conductor will not carry current if
the three load impedances are

A. Different
B. Unbalanced
C. Equal
D. Inductive

195
ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

34 The colour of the cables in a three phase and neutral circuit should be

A. Red/yellow/blue and black

B. Brown/black/blue and grey
C. Black/blue/grey and brown
D. Brown/black/grey and blue

35 Which of the following components is not part of a d.c. motor?

A. Stator
B. Brushes
C. Armature
D. Commutator

36 First aid facilities are denoted by a

A. Red cross on a white background

B. Green cross on a white background
C. White cross on a black background
D. White cross on a green background

37 The IEE wiring regulations require that overload protection is provided for all
motors with a rating of more than

A. 1kW
B. 1.37kW
C. 0.37kW
D. 1.25kW

38 The most suitable type of fire extinguisher for use on an oil fire is

A. Foam
B. Dry powder
C. C02
D. Water

196
 ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

39 The rotation speed of a magnetic field in an electric motor is known as the

A. Rotation speed
B. Synchronous speed
C. Top speed
D. Rotor speed

40 On finding a person in contact with live conductors the FIRST action is to

A. Pull the person away from the source of supply

B. Switch off the supply
C. Apply mouth to mouth resuscitation
D. Send for an ambulance

41 A star-connected motor has a line voltage of 600V, the phase voltage will be

A. 400V
B. 230V
C. 600V
D. 900V

42 During the handling of a battery, sulphuric acid is accidentally spilled onto a

person’s hands. The immediate first aid treatment is to

A. Apply an antiseptic
B. Go to a doctor
C. Wash the hands in running water
D. Apply butter

43 A delta-connected system has a line voltage of 600V. What is the phase voltage?

A. 1039V
B. 577V
C. 346V
D. 200V

197
ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

44 The earth loop impedance of a circuit can be calculated by

A. Zs = R1 + R2 − Ze
B. Zs = Ze + (R1 + R2)
C. Zs = Ze − (R1 + R2)
D. Zs = R1 + R2 + X2

45 An accident occurs, the cause of which is found to be a piece of faulty equipment.

The action to be taken would be to

A. Remove the equipment and undertake the necessary repair

B. Retain the equipment in the original state for inspection by the Health
and Safety Inspectorate
C. Prevent the use of the equipment by dismantling it
D. Return the equipment to the manufacturer for a report

46 When a BS 1361 fuse is replaced by a BS 3036 rewirable fuse it may have the
effect of

A. Reducing the circuit current

B. Causing the cables to be under-protected
C. Increasing the Zs of the circuit
D. Increasing the load current

47 A high earth fault loop impedance may result in the following

A. The short circuit current not operating the protective device

B. The cable being damaged before the protective device operates
C. Having to increase the fault current rating of the protective device
D. The protective device operating faster than is required

48 The main body representing employers in the electrotechnical sector is the

A. JIB
B. NICEIC
C. NAPIT
D. IET

198
 ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

49 Protective bonding will

A. Ensure the correct operation of the protective device

B. Prevent static electricity
C. Reduce the risk of electric shock
D. Reduce disconnection times

50 When using a ladder, which of the following is not part of the equipment check
procedure?

A. Check for damaged stiles

B. Check for missing rungs
C. Look for any defects
D. Check that the ladder is numbered

51 The sequence of control for a large installation can be MOST simply shown by a

A. Wiring diagram
B. Layout diagram
C. Circuit diagram
D. Block diagram

52 A tender to apply to undertake work is normally completed by the

A. Design engineer
B. Estimator
C. Site electrician
D. Supervisor

53 The colour code for a powder type extinguisher is

A. Green
B. Blue
C. Black
D. Cream

199
ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

54 When motor isolators are not adjacent to the motor they must be

A. Numbered
B. Placed 1200mm from the ground
C. Capable of being locked off
D. Painted in a bright colour

55 The maximum permissible working height of a tower scaffold is

A. 3 times the width of the base

B. 2 times the width of the base
C. 3.5 times the width of the base
D. 2.5 times the width of the base

56 Mechanical assistance should be used when intending to lift an object greater

than

A. 35kg
B. 25kg
C. 20kg
D. 15kg

57 The reason for using high voltages for transmission is to

A. Increase the transmission current

B. Reduce the cable resistance
C. Decrease the transmission current
D. Increase the transmission speed

58 In a combined resistive and capacitive circuit the current

A. Leads the voltage between 0 and 90 degrees

B. Lags the voltage between 0 and 90 degrees
C. Leads the voltage by 90 degrees
D. Lags the voltage by 90 degrees

200
 ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

59 A protective device is in a circuit to

A. Indicate when the circuit is off

B. Avoid mechanical damage to appliances
C. Disconnect the circuit under fault conditions
D. Disconnect the circuit gradually

60 The main purpose of ’as fitted’ drawings is to form part of the

A. Costing documentation
B. Network diagrams
C. Work study schedules
D. Records of work

61 Work on a circuit should only proceed when

A. The site foreman gives permission

B. The circuit is isolated and proved dead
C. Insulated tools are available
D. A qualified person gives permission

62 IP codes indicate how an enclosure can protect against

A. Vermin
B. Corrosion
C. Explosions
D. Foreign solid objects and moisture

63 The FIRST action to be taken when dealing with an electrical fire is to

A. Call for help

B. Dial 999
C. Use a fire extinguisher
D. Isolate the electrical supply

201
ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

64 Earthing and bonding together with the correct operation of protective devices
will

A. Eliminate all possible faults

B. Prevent direct contact
C. Significantly reduce the risk of electric shock
D. Stop circuits overloading

65 To check the presence of low voltage, use

A. An approved voltage indicator to GS38

B. A voltstick
C. A light touch with a wet finger
D. A neon screwdriver

66 Before any new wiring is connected to an existing system it must be established

that

A. The electricity company is consulted

B. All of the wiring is less than 10 years old
C. The existing system is safe and can accommodate the new
D. The owners’ consent is obtained

67 A cable connected to the terminals of a ring final socket outlet to a fused

connection unit is known as

A. A fused spur
B. A radial circuit
C. A loop in circuit
D. A non-fused spur

68 A recognized method of storing a lot of technical information in a limited space

for recording purposes is by

A. Filing
B. Electronically
C. Drawings
D. Microfilm
202
 ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

69 The results of an earth loop impedance test will indicate

A. That the sockets are looped together correctly

B. Correct polarity between neutral and earth
C. If the circuit protective devices will operate quick enough
D. Correct connection of equipment

70 Low voltage is in the range of

A. 0V to 50V
B. 50V to 1000V
C. 12V to 50V
D. 1000V to 1500V

71 The core of a transformer is used to provide a

A. Common connection for the transformer windings

B. Reduced magnetic field
C. Magnetic circuit for flux linkage
D. Cooling effect for the windings

72 The role of the contracts manager within a company would normally be within
the

A. Company secretariat
B. Sales department
C. Design department
D. Advertising department

73 Which of the following would be described as an ‘unsafe act’ which could lead to
an accident

A. Poor access to equipment

B. Poor lighting
C. Incorrect use of equipment
D. Equipment not maintained

203
ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

74 The main source of symbols for use in electrical drawings is

A. BS 7671
B. Electricity at Work Regulations
C. Electricity Supply Regulations
D. BS EN 60617

75 A safe system of work is

A. Ensuring high standards of working

B. Ensuring that the work is carried out correctly
C. A risk assessment
D. A considered way of working which takes account of any potential
hazards to employees and others

76 Fitting instructions for a component will normally be found in

A. British Standards
B. Manufacturers’ data
C. Code of Practice
D. BS 7671

77 The main purpose of a circuit diagram is to show how an electrical system

A. Will function
B. Can be priced
C. Should be connected
D. Should be located

78 A location drawing shows a proposed route for a cable, if the scale is 1:50 and the
route length on the drawing is 85mm the length of the cable will be

A. 4.25m
B. 17m
C. 42.5m
D. 58.9m

204
 ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

79 Which one of the following types of information would NOT be required when
compiling a specification?

A. Clients’ needs
B. Locations of equipment
C. Schedule of test results
D. Maximum demand

80 The main purpose of the manufacturer’s data is to provide installation information

and

A. A technical specification
B. The manufacturer’s name
C. A list of other products
D. The date of production

ANSWERS

205
ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

206