PHYSICS NOTES

Mechanics

Motion
Definitions
1. Instantaneous velocity is the gradient of the displacement-time graph at that
particular instant.
2. Terminal velocity is when an object reaches constant velocity because the force of
drag is equal to the force due to gravity.

Forces
Definitions
1. Translational equilibrium occurs when an object has no resultant force acting on it.
2. Newton’s first law states that an object will remain at rest or in uniform motion
unless a resultant force acts on it.
3. Newton's second law states the acceleration of an object is directly proportional to
the net force and inversely proportional to its mass.
4. Newton’s third law states that whenever one body exerts a force on another body, the
second body would exert the same force on the first body but in the opposite
direction.

Work, energy, power

Definitions
1. The principle of conservation of energy states that energy cannot be created or
destroyed but can only be converted from one form another.
2. Linear momentum is mass multiplied by velocity.
3. Impulse is defined as the product of force and the time for which the force acts.
4. Elastic collision occurs when the kinetic energy is conserved.
5. Inelastic collision occurs when the kinetic energy is not conserved.
Waves

Oscillations
Properties of oscillations
For simple harmonic motion to occur there must be a restoring force (for a pendulum
gravity), but at equilibrium there should be no resultant force.

For a SHM object these can be measured:

1. Displacement which is the distance from the equilibrium point. (𝑥 in meters)
2. Amplitude which is the maximum displacement. (𝑥0 in meters)
3. The period is the time it takes for one complete oscillation. (𝑇 in seconds)
4. The frequency is defined as the number of oscillations per unit time usually per
1
second which can be found by 𝑇 = 𝑓
. (𝑓 in Hz)
5. The wavelength is the length of one complete oscillation. (λ)
Phase Difference
If two oscillations have the same frequency one can be in front or behind which can be
measured in wavelengths, radians or degrees.
Simple harmonic oscillations
For SHM to occur the displacement must be proportional but in the opposite direction to the
acceleration hence:
𝑎∝ − 𝑥
Travelling Waves
Properties of travelling waves
These are waves that transfer energy away from a source. Note that energy is transferred not
matter is not. The properties of a wave are the following:

1. Displacement which is the distance of a point on the wave from its equilibrium.
2. Wavelength which is the length of one complete oscillation measured from the same
points on two waves.
3. Amplitude is the maximum displacement.
4. Period is the time taken for a fixed point on the wave to undergo one complete
oscillation.
5. Frequency is the amount of oscillations per second.
6. The wave speed is the distance travelled by the wave per second. Which is the product
of the frequency and the wavelength.

Transverse Waves
In a transverse wave each part of the medium oscillates perpendicularly to the direction of the
transverse of energy. Hence having crests and troughs. To see in which direction the wave is
moving, you can imagine the wave a little later as shown in the figure below, where the red
waves represent the position of the wave a short time later.
However note that these waves do not need particles to propagate, hence they can travel
through a vacuum.

Longitudinal Waves
Each part of the medium oscillates parallel to the direction of energy transfer. As these waves
propagate compressions and rarefactions occur, which are areas of high pressure and low
pressure respectively.

These require particles hence cannot travel through a vacuum.

Movement of particles
From the displacement-distance graph the movement of particles can be deduced.
● In a displacement-distance graph:
○ Positive displacement particles move up
○ Negative displacement particles move down
● In a displacement-time graph
○ Positive displacement particles move right
○ Negative displacement particles move left
For longitudinal waves the movement of particles would be towards the closest compression.
As shown in the figure below.

Wave Characteristics
Wave Fronts
When a wave is observed from the top some lines would be seen, which represent the crests
of the wave, these are called wave fronts, and are perpendicular to the rays which show the
direction of motion. The distance between two wavefronts is called the wavelength.
Amplitude & Intensity
The amount of energy a wave can transfer is given by its wavelength, higher the amplitude
higher the energy. This can be considered intensity, which is the wave power passing per unit
area hence:
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝐼 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎

As a general rule the intensity is proportional to the amplitude :

2
𝐼∝𝐴

However the intensity does decrease over distance due to the inverse square law hence:

1
𝐼∝ 2
𝑟

This is because the area is considered to be spherical when emitted by a point source, where
2
the formula for area is 4π𝑟 .

Superposition
This occurs when two or more waves meet and their resultant displacement is the vector sum
of the three individual displacements. These therefore interfere.

● Constructive interference occurs when the waves have the same displacement in the
same directions. Therefore they are in phase.
 ● Destructive interference occurs when they have the same displacement but in the
opposite direction. Therefore they are completely out of phase.

Wave Behaviour
Reflection
Occurs when a wave hits a boundary between two media and does not pass through.
There will also be a π phase change when a pulse hits a fixed boundary as shown in the
figure below.

Rarefaction
This occurs when a wave changes speed when changing to a different medium. Consider the
formula: 𝑐 = 𝑓λ. If the speed decreases either the wavelength or the frequency must
decrease. By definition the frequency stays the same, therefore the wavelength must decrease,
hence the wavefronts get closer together.
However this would not be the same if the light entered the medium at an angle, which in the
case before was 0 because the ray is normal to the boundary.

When travelling from a faster medium to a slower one the ray would bend towards the
normal, and vice versa when travelling from a slower medium to a faster one.

For total internal reflection to occur the Θ2 angle must be at least 90.
Standing Waves
Occurs when two waves pass through each other, this is because they superpose. There are a
few differences between the travelling waves and the standing waves:

The nodes are when the displacement is always 0. While anti-nodes are in between nodes and
the displacement is maximum.
Electricity and magnetism

Electric Fields
−19
● Charge of electron is: − 1. 6 × 10 .
−19
● Charge of a proton is: 1. 6 × 10
1 18
● 1 coulomb of negative charge is −19 = 6. 25 × 10
−1.6×10
 ● Charge of an element is given by the amount of protons and electrons, which sum up
(taking into account the sign too). For this reason there are only multiples of
−19
− 1. 6 × 10 of charge possible for an element, hence charge is quantized.

● The law of conservation of charge states that the total charge of an isolated system
remains constant.

● The forces between charges, meaning opposite charges attract and same repel are
called electric forces.

● An electric field is formed in a region of space due to an electric charge. The electric
𝐹
field strength is given by the force per unit charge or 𝐸 = 𝑞
.

𝑘𝑄𝑞
● While the force that two charges act on each other is given by: 𝐹 = 2 where k is a
𝑟
1
constant (in free space): 𝑘 = 4πε
.

Electricity
● When electrons flow they are able to transfer useful energy. This can be done through
metals which have large amounts of delocalised electrons.
● However as temperature increases the ions and molecules start vibrating hence getting
in the middle of electrons, which reduces its conductivity.
● While the voltage is the work done to move a charge from point A to point B.

Circuits
● In series means that the components are connected one after the other without any
alternative pathway.
● In parallel means that the current divides because it can take two or more different
paths.
● Kirchoffs first law states that the current entering the junction must be equal to the
one leaving, because of the conservation of current.
● Kirchoffs second law states that