WAVE

Wave is a method of transfer of energy and momentum from one point of a medium
to another without the actual flow of matter as a whole. For the propagation of wave,
medium must have inertia and elasticity. These two properties of medium decide the
speed of wave.
Types of Waves
Waves are of three main types:
1. Mechanical waves. These waves require material medium for their propagation.
They are governed by Newton’s laws of motion. Examples are sound waves, waves in
stretched string, waves on water surface etc. Mechanical waves cannot propagate
through vacuum.
2. Electromagnetic waves. These waves do not require any material medium for their
propagation. There are seven electromagnetic waves: RMI LUX G
R - Radio waves
M - Microwaves
I - Infra-red Radiations
L - Visible light
U - ultraviolet Radiations
X - X-Rays
G - Gamma rays
In vacuum all the electromagnetic waves have the same speed of c = 3 × 108 ms−1 .
3. Matter waves. They are the waves associated with material particles. Electrons,
protons, neutrons, atoms and molecules have wave like motion. Wave nature is
negligible for massive bodies like a cricket ball.
MECHANICAL WAVES
Mechanical waves can be divided into Transverse waves and Longitudinal waves. The
motion of mechanical waves is by the oscillations (or vibrations) of particles of the
medium.
(a) Transverse waves: If the direction of vibration of the particles of the medium and
direction of propagation of the wave are perpendicular, then the wave is called a
transverse wave. Example: Harmonic wave travelling along a stretched string, waves
on the water surface. Transverse wave can travel only in solids and surface of liquids
and propagate in the form of crests and troughs.

1
 Figure 1: Transverse Wave
All electromagnetic waves are transverse in nature. A crest is the highest point of a
transverse wave while a trough is the lowest point of the transverse wave.
(b) Longitudinal waves: If the direction of the vibration of the particle and direction
of the propagation of the wave are parallel, then the wave is called a longitudinal
wave. Sound waves in air are longitudinal. These waves can travel in solids, liquids
and gases.

Figure 2: Longitudinal Wave

Longitudinal waves propagate through medium with the help of compressions and
rarefactions. Compressions are regions where particles are close together and are
hence under high pressure. Rare factions are regions where particles are further apart
and are hence under low pressure.
WAVE MOTION (PROGRESSIVE WAVES)
The waves travelling from one part of the medium to another are called travelling or
progressive waves.
Equation of a Harmonic Wave
Harmonic waves are generated by sources that execute simple harmonic motion. A
harmonic wave travelling along the positive direction of x-axis is represented by

2
y = A sin wt − kx
t x
= A sin 2π −
T λ
2π
= A sin vt − x
λ
where,
y = displacement of the particle of the medium at a location x at time t
A = amplitude of the wave
λ = wavelength
T = time period
v = λf, wave velocity in the medium
2π
w = T
, angular frequency
2π
k = λ
, angular wave number or propagation constant.

If the wave is travelling along the negative direction of x-axis then

y = A sin wt + kx
t x
= A sin 2π +
T λ
2π
= A sin vt + x
λ
TERMS USED IN DESCRIBING WAVES
1. Rest position (Mean position): This is a line where particles are stationary or this
is a line where the displacement of a particle is zero
2. Cycle/Oscillation/Vibration: This is one complete to and fro motion about the
mean position.
3. Displacement: This is the distance from the mean position.
4. Amplitude: This is the maximum displacement of a wave particle from the rest
position. Note that amplitude is a measure of the energy of the wave. The bigger
the amplitude, the more the energy of the wave.
5. Phase: This is a state of motion of a particle in terms of Position (displacement)
and direction of vibration. Particles are said to be in phase if they are at equal
displacements in their paths and are moving in the same direction. Particles are in
anti-phase when they are at the same displacement but moving in opposite
directions.
6. Wave length (λ): This is the distance between two successive particles which are
in phase. For a Transverse wave, it is the distance between two successive crests
or troughs. And the distance covered by one complete cycle of a wave. It is also

3
 the distance between two successive compressions or rare factions for a
longitudinal wave.
7. Periodic time or period: This is the time taken by a wave to make one complete
t
cycle (oscillation) i.e. T = n

where n is number of cycles (oscillations).

T = periodic time or period.
t = time for n oscillations.
8. Frequency: This is the number of cycles (oscillations) a wave completes in one
n
second i.e. f = t

S.I. unit = Hertz (Hz)

9. A hertz is defined as one oscillation per second.
10. Wave front: Is any line or section taken through an advancing wave in which all
the particles are in the same phase or A wave front is an imaginary line which
joins a set of particles which are in phase in a wave motion.
Relation between wave velocity and particle velocity
The equation of a plane progressive wave is
y = A sin wt − kx (1)
The particle velocity Vp is
dy
Vp = dt
= Aw cos wt − kx (2)

Slope of displacement curve or strain

dy
dx
= − Ak cos wt − kx (3)

Dividing equation (2) by (3), we get

dy dt w
dy dx
= − k
(4)

But wave velocity (V) is given as

w
V = k
dy
Vp = − V dx (5)

That is, particle velocity is the product of negative wave velocity and strain. Particle
velocity changes with time but the wave velocity is constant in a medium.
Relation between phase difference, path difference and time difference
Phase difference of 2π radian is equivalent to a path difference λ and a time difference
of period T.
2π
Phase difference = × path difference
λ

4
 2πx
φ =
λ
λφ
⟹x =
2π
2π
Phase difference = × time difference
T
2πt
φ =
T
Tφ
⟹t =
2π
T
Time difference = × path difference
λ
Tx
t =
λ
λt
⟹x =
T
Speed of Transverse Waves
(i) The speed of transverse waves in solid is given by

η
V =
ρ

where η is the modulus of rigidity of the solid and ρ is the density of material.
(ii) The speed of transverse waves on stretched string is given by

T
V =
μ

where T is the tension in the string and μ is the mass per unit length of the string.
Speed of Longitudinal Waves
The speed of longitudinal waves in a medium of elasticity E and density ρ is given by

E
V =
ρ

For solids, E is replaced by Young's modulus (Y)

Y
Vsolid =
ρ

For liquids and gases, E is replaced by bulk modulus of elasticity (B)

B
Vliquids/gases =
ρ

5
The density of a solid is much larger than that of a gas but the elasticity is larger by a
greater factor.
Vsolid > Vliquid > Vgas

Speed of Sound in a Gas

According to Newton the propagation of sound through a gas is an isothermal process.
Newton's formula.

P
V =
ρ

where P is the atmospheric pressure and ρ is the density of air at STP.

When we calculate the velocity of sound in air at STP using the above formula. the
obtained value is 280 m/s, which is about 15% smaller as compared to the
experimental value.
But Laplace pointed out that the propagation of sound through a gas is not isothermal
but it is au adiabatic process because the variation of pressure in the propagation of
sound is very fast.
Laplace's correction

γP
V =
ρ

where γ is the ratio of two specific heats CP and CV . the formula is known as Newton-
Laplace formula. Using the formula, the velocity of sound in air at STP is obtained as
331.3 m/s which is very close to the experimental value.
Power and Intensity of Wave Motion
If a wave is travelling in a stretched string, energy is transmitted along the string.
Power of the wave is given by
1 2 2
P = μw A V
2
Intensity is flow of energy per unit area of cross section of the string per unit time.
1 2 2
I = ρw A V
2
Principle of Superposition of Waves
If two or more waves arrive at a point simultaneously then the net displacement at that
point is the algebraic sum of the displacement due to individual waves.
y = y1 + y2 + . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . + yn

6
where y1, y2 .......... yn are the displacement due to individual waves and y is the
resultant displacement.
INTERFERENCE OF WAVES
When two waves of equal frequency and nearly equal amplitude travelling in same
direction having same state of polarisation in medium superimpose, then intensity is
different at different points. At some points intensity is large, whereas at other points
it is nearly zero.
Consider two waves
y1 = A1 sin wt − kx and
y2 = A1 sin wt − kx + φ
By principle of superposition
y = y1 + y2 = A sin wt − kx + δ
A2 = A21 + A22 + 2A1 A2 cos φ
A2 sin φ
and tan δ =
A1 + A2 cos φ
As intensity I ∝ A2
So, resultant intensity I = I1 + I2 + 2 I1 I2 cos φ
For constructive interference (maximum intensity) :
Phase difference, φ = 2nπ
and path difference = nλ.
where n = 0, 1,2, 3, …
⟹ Amax = A1 + A2 and
2
Imax = I1 + I2 + 2 I1 I2 = I1 + I2
For destructive interference (minimum intensity) :
Phase difference, φ = (2n + 1)π
λ
and path difference = 2n − 1
2
where n = 0, 1,2, 3, …
⟹ Amax = A1 − A2 and
2
Imax = I1 + I2 − 2 I1 I2 = I1 − I2
Results :
(1) The ratio of maximum and minimum intensities in any interference wave form.
2 2
Imax I1 + I2 A1 + A2
= =
Imin I1 − I2 A1 − A2

7
(2) Average intensity of interference in wave form:
Imax + Imin
Iav =
2
Put the value of Imax and Imin
Iav = I1 + I2
If A = A1 = A2 and I1 = I2 = 1
then, Imax = 4I, Imin = 0 and Iav = 2I
(3) Condition of maximum contrast in interference wave form
A1 = A2 and I1 = I2
then, Imax = 4I, and Imin = 0
For perfect destructive interference we have a maximum contrast in interference wave
form.
Reflection of Waves
Mechanical wave is reflected and refracted at a boundary separating two media
according to the usual laws of reflection and refraction. When sound wave is reflected
from a rigid boundary or denser medium,the wave suffers a phase reversal of π but the
nature does not change i.e., on reflection, the compression is reflected back as rare-
fraction and rare-fraction as compression.
Energy Transported by a Harmonic Wave Along a String
Kinetic energy of a small element of length dx is
2
1 �� 1
dK = μ dx = μw2A2cos2 kx − wt dx
2 �� 2
Where μ is mass per unit length
1 2 2
K = μA w λ
4
And the potential energy stored is
2
1 �� 1
dU = μ dx = μw2 A2 cos2 kx − wt dx
2 �� 2
Where μ is mass per unit length
1 2 2
U = μA w λ
4
Total energy stored is given by
1 2 2
E = K + U = μA w λ
2

8
Example 1: The displacement y (cm) produced by a simple harmonic wave is given
10 πx
by y = π
sin 2000πt −
17
. What will be the periodic time and maximum

velocity of the particles in the medium?

Solution
10 πx 10 x
y = π
sin 2000πt −
17
=
π
sin2π 1000t −
34
(1)

But the harmonic equation is given by

t x
y = A sin2π T
− λ
(2)

Comparing (1) and (2),

1
T = = 1 × 10−3 secs
1000
�� 10 xπ
Particle velocity �� = ��
= π
× 2000π cos 2000πt − 17

���� = �� = 20000 ��/� = 200 �/�

BEATS
When two wave trains slightly differing in frequencies travel along the same straight
line in the same direction, then the resultant amplitude is alternately maximum and
minimum at a point in the medium. This phenomenon of waxing and waning of sound
is called beats.
STATIONARY OR STANDING WAVES
When two progressive waves having the same amplitude, velocity and time period but
travelling in opposite directions superimpose or overlap, then stationary wave is
produced.
Let two waves of same amplitude and frequency travel in opposite direction at same
speed, then
y1 = A sin wt − kx
y2 = A sin wt + kx
By principle of superposition
y = y1 + y2 = 2A cos kx sinwt
y = AS sin wt
It is clear that amplitude of stationary wave As vary with position
π 3π
(a) As = 0, when cos kx = 0 i.e., kx = 2
, 2
, ........
λ 3λ 2π
i. e. , x = , , ....... k =
4 4 λ

9
These points are called nodes (a point of zero amplitude or these are points that are
permanently at rest no disturbance occurs at these points) and spacing between two
�
nodes is 2.

(b) As is maximum, when cos kx is max

λ λ
i. e. kx = 0, π, 2π, 3π, . . . . . . x = 0, 2 , λ, 3 , . . . . . . . .

It is clear that antinode is a region of maximum amplitude (where As is maximum)

�
are also equally spaced with spacing 2.
�
(b) The distance between node and antinode is 4

Definition
1. Fundamental frequency (f0) is the lowest frequency of a standing wave that has
the fewest number of nodes and antinodes.
2. Harmonic: A standing wave that is a positive integer multiple of the fundamental
frequency.
V
3. The fundamental frequency is called first harmonic, and is given by f0 = 2L

4. If the fundamental frequency be �0 then 2�0 , 3�0 , 4�0 , …… are respectively called
second, third, fourth ... harmonics respectively.
5. If an instrument produces notes of frequencies f1 , f2 , f3 , f4 , …….…….…. where
f1 < f2 < f3 < f4 ……….. then f2 is called first overtone, f2 is second overtone
while f3 is called third overtone and so on.
6. Harmonics are the integral multiples of the fundamental frequency. If f0 be the
fundamental frequency, then nf0 is the frequency of nth harmonic.
7. Overtones are the notes of frequency higher than the fundamental frequency
actually produced by the instrument.
8. In the strings all harmonics are produced.

10
Stationary Waves in an Organ Pipe
In the open organ pipe all the harmonics are produced and the fundamental frequency
V
or first harmonic is f0 = 2L
, where v is velocity of sound and L is the length of air

column (Fig a)

V
Similarly the frequency of second harmonic or first overtone is (Fig b), f1 = L
3V
Similarly the frequency of third harmonic and second overtone is (Fig c) f2 = 2L
2V 5V
Similarly f3 = L
, f4 = 2L
, ……………………….

In the closed organ pipe only the odd harmonics are produced and the fundamental
V
frequency (or first harmonic) is (Fig. a) f0 = 4L

11
Similarly the frequency of third harmonic or first overtone (2nd harmonic absent) is
3V
(Fig. b) f2 = 4L
3V 3V
Similarly, f3 = 4L
, f4 = 4L
, ……………..

End Correction
It is observed that the antinode actually occurs a little above the open end. A
correction is applied for this which is known as end correction and is denoted by e.
(i) For closed organ pipe : L is replaced by L + e where e = 0.3D, D is the diameter of
the tube.
(ii) For open organ pipe: L is replaced by L + 2e where e = 0.3D
In resonance tube, the velocity of sound in air given by
V = 2f L2 − L1
where f = frequency of tuning fork, L1 = 1st resonating length, l2 = 2nd resonating
length.
Resonance Tube
It is used to determine velocity of sound in air with the help of a tuning fork of known
frequency.

Let L1 and L2 are lengths of first and second resonances then

λ
L1 + e =
4
3λ
L2 + e =
4
λ
⟹ L2 − L1 =
2
⟹ λ = 2(L2 − L1)

12
 Speed of sound in air is
V = 2f(L2 − L1 )
Comparison of Progressive (or travelling) and Stationary (or standing) Wave
S/N Progressive Wave Stationary Wave
1 The wave advances with a constant The wave does not advance but remains confined
speed in a particular region.
2 The amplitude is the same for all the The amplitude varies according to position, being
particles in the path of the wave zero at the nodes and maximum at the antinodes.
3 All particles within one wavelength Phase of all particles between two adjacent nodes
have different phases. is the same. Particles in adjacent segments of
length π/2 have opposite phase.
4 Energy is transmitted in the direction of Energy is associated with the wave, but there is
propagation of the wave no transfer of energy across any section of the
medium.

Comparative Study of Interference, Beats and Stationary Wave

Interference Beats Stationary wave
Superposition of two waves of Superposition of two waves of Superposition of two waves of
nearly same amplitude or same same amplitude having zero same amplitude having a
amplitude having a constant phase difference moving in constant phase difference (or no
phase difference (or no phase the same direction having phase difference) moving in
difference) travelling in the small difference in frequency opposite direction having same
same direction and with the (less than 10 Hz) show the frequency give rise to stationary
same wavelength show the phenomenon of beats. waves.
phenomenon of interference.
Maxima and minima are fixed at Maxima and minima vary Maxima and minima are fixed at
their locations. periodically with time at their locations
every location.

CHARACTERISTICS OF SOUND
1. A musical sound consists of quick, regular and periodic succession of
compressions and rarefactions without a sudden change in amplitude.
2. A noise consists of slow, irregular and a periodic succession of compressions and
rarefactions, that may have sudden changes in amplitude.
3. (i) Pitch, (ii) loudness and (iii) quality are the characteristics of musical sound.

13
4. Pitch depends on frequency, loudness depends on intensity and, quality depends on
the number and intensity of overtones.
5. The ratio of the frequencies of the two notes is called the interval between them.
For example interval between two notes of frequencies 512 Hz and 1024 Hz is 1 : 2
(or 1/2).
6. Two notes are said to be in unison if their frequencies are equal, i.e., if the interval
between them is 1 : 1.
Some other common intervals, found useful in producing musical sound are the
following: Octave (1 : 2), majortone (8 : 9), minortone (9 : 10) and semitone (15 : 16)
7. Major diatonic scale : It consists of eight notes. The consecutive notes have either
of the following three intervals. They are 8 : 9 ; 9 : 10 and 15 : 16.

Acoustics: The branch of physics that deals with the process of generation, reception
and propagation of sound is called acoustics.
Acoustics may be studied under the following three subtitles.
(a) Electro acoustics. This branch deals with electrical sound production with music.
(b) Musical acoustics. This branch deals with the relationship of sound with music.
(c) Architectural acoustics. This branch deals with the design and construction of
buildings.
REVERBERATION
Multiple reflections which are responsible for a series of waves falling on listener’s
ears, giving the impression of a persistence or prolongation of the sound are called
reverberations. The time gap between the initial direct note and the reflected note up
to the minimum audibility level is called reverberation time.
Shock waves: The waves produced by a body moving with a speed greater than the
speed of sound are called shock waves. These waves carry huge amount of energy. It
is due to the shock wave that we have a sudden violent sound called sonic boom when
a supersonic plane passes by.
The rate of speed of the source to that of the speed of sound is called mach number.
Intensity of sound: The sound intensities that we can hear range from 10–12 Wm–2 to
103 Wm–2. The intensity level β, measured in terms of decibel (dB) is defined as
I
β = 10 log
I0
I = measured intensity
I0 = 10−12 Wm−1

14
At the threshold, β = 0
1
At the maximum, β = 10 log = 120dB
10−12

Lissajous Figures: when two simple harmonic waves having vibrations in mutually
perpendicular directions superimpose on each other, then the resultant motion of the
particle is along a closed path, called the Lissajous figures. These figures can be of
many shapes depending on
(i) ratio of frequencies or time periods of two waves
(ii) ratio of amplitude of two waves
(iii) phase difference between two waves.
Example 2:
πx
The equation of stationary wave in stretched string is given by y = 5 sin 3
cos 40πt

where x and y are in cm and t in second. Find the separation between two adjacent
nodes.
Example 3:
For a certain organ pipe, three successive resonance frequencies are observed at 425,
595 and 765 Hz, respectively. Taking the speed of sound in the air to be 340 metre per
second, (i) explain whether the pipe is closed at one end or open at both the ends and
(ii) determine the fundamental frequency and the length of the pipe.
Example 4:
The fundamental frequency of an open organ pipe is 300 Hz. The first overtone of this
pipe has same frequency as first overtone of a closed organ pipe. If speed of sound is
330 m/s, then find the length of closed organ pipe.
Example 5:
String wires of same material of length L and 2L vibrate with frequencies 100 and
150 respectively. Determine the ratio of their tensions.

15
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
This is a family of waves which are made up of electric and magnetic vibrations of
very high frequency. An electromagnetic wave such as light from the sun travels most
places of its journey through a vacuum before it reaches the earth. This implies that,
an electromagnetic wave does not need a material medium for its transmission.
ELECTROMANGETIC SPECTRUM
Electromagnetic spectrum diagram and entire chart represent the number of radiation
spectra (frequency, wavelength, and energy) formed by the electrical field and
magnetic field in quantum physics or chemistry.
Each type of electromagnetic emission spectrum such as radio waves, ultraviolet
visible (uv vis), infrared (IR), and microwaves travel at the speed of light in a vacuum
with a definite range of frequencies, wavelengths, and energy. Electromagnetic
radiation or rays can describe the two characteristics,
1. Particle properties (mass and momentum).
2. Wave properties (energy, frequency, and wavelength).
The various portions in electromagnetic radiation contain different names according
to behaviour and applications of spectra like emission, transmission, and absorption.
The table below shows the whole range of an electromagnetic wave. Any
electromagnetic range of wave length is referred to as a band.

16
PROPERTIES OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
• Can travel through a vacuum
• Possess energy
• Travel with a speed of 3 × 108 m/s in a vacuum
• Are transverse
• Undergo interference.
• Do not need a material medium for its transmission.
• Carry no charge
• Can be emitted or absorbed by matter.
EFFECTS OF EACH BAND OF THE SPECTRUM ON MATTER
Gamma rays:
• Gamma rays destroy the body tissue especially when the body is exposed to it for a
long time or many times.
• Gamma rays cause rubber solution to harden and lubricating oil to thicken when the
rubber solution and lubricating oil are exposed to it.
X-rays:
• It destroys body tissue especially when they are exposed to it for a long time.

17
 • X-rays may cause certain metals to emit electrons.
Ultra Violet
It causes;
• Certain metals to emit electrons
• Sun burn
• Blindness when too much of it falls into the eye
• Photosynthesis in green plants to take place.
• It can penetrate and kill certain bacteria and it is used in bacteriology.
Visible Spectrum
The visible spectrum;
• May change the apparent colour of an object
• Enable one to see
• May make an object appear bent
Infra-red
• It is produced by all hot bodies such as the sun, red-hot or white-hot metals, furnace,
electric fires and so on…..
• The eye does not respond to this radiation but sense organs in the skin detect it as
heat.
• It can cause the body temperature to rise.
Radio Waves
They are used in radar and in new methods of cooking food right through quickly
VHF (very high frequency). Radio waves are transmitted due to electric and magnetic
fields oscillating perpendicular to direction of the wave propagation. It is sent into
space, and the wave is refracted away from the normal, until the critical angel is
reached, when the wave undergoes total internal refraction, only to be received on the
other side of the earth.

ORIGIN AND SOURCE OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

WAVE – BAND ORIGIN SOURCES
Gamma Radiation Energy changes in nuclei of atoms Radioactive substances
X–Ray Radiation a. High energy changes in electron X-ray tubes
structure of atoms
b. Decelerated electrons
Ultraviolet Radiation Fairly high energy changes in a. Very hot bodies, e.g., electric arc
electron structure of atoms b. Electric discharge through gases,
e.g., mercury vapour
Visible Radiation Energy changes in electron Various lamps, flames and anything at
structure of atoms or above the temperature at which it
begins to emit red light

18
Infrared Radiation Low energy changes in electron All matter over a wide range of
structure of atoms temperature from absolute zero
upwards
Radio Waves a. High-frequency oscillatory Radio transmitting circuits and
electric currents associated aerial equipment
b. Very low energy changes in
electron structure of atoms

APPLICATIONS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATIONS.

TYPES OF RADIATION APPLICATIONS
Gamma rays • In medicine, gamma rays are used in gamma ray therapy i.e. they are
used to destroy cancerous cells in human beings. However, care is
usually taken not to kill healthy human cells.
• The rays are also used in sterilisation of equipment in industries.
• The rays are used in detecting flaws in metal castings.
Note high voltage is required.
X-rays • In medicine, X-rays are used in X-ray photography.
• they are used treatment of cancerous cell and tumours.
• In agriculture, X-rays are used to control pests.
• In industries, they are used in detection of flaws and cracks. In metal
castings. High voltage is required to operate X-ray machine.
Ultra-violet • Ultra-violet radiations are used in burglar alarms, automatic door
openers, counters, detecting forged bank notes, photo finishing in races.
• Ultra-violet from the sun is used by human skin to produce vitamin D.
• Since they cause fluorescence, they are used in advertising signs.
• Excessive ultra-violet is harmful to the eye and skin.
Visible light • Visible light is used by the human eye to enable us to see.
• Plants use visible light to manufacture their food in the process called
photosynthesis.
• Ordinary photography uses visible light.
Infra-red • Infra-red is used in infra-red photography.
• It used in drying of objects and as a source of warmth.
Radiowaves • Used in radio and television communication and also in radar
detection.
Microwaves • They are used in cooking and in radar communication.

19