Mechanical Engineering Series

Frederick F. Ling
Series Editor

Springer
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Mechanical Engineering Series

J. Angeles, Fundamentals of Robotic Mechanical Systems: Theory, Methods, and Algorithms P. Basu, C. Kefa, and L. Jestin, Boilers and Burners: Design and Theory J.M. Berthelot, Composite Materials: Mechanical Behavior and Structural Analysis
I.J. Busch-Vishniac, Electromechanical Sensors and Actuators

J. Chakrabarty, Applied Plasticity G. Chryssolouris, Laser Machining: Theory and Practice V.N. Constantinescu, Laminar Viscous Flow G.A. Costello, Theory of Wire Rope, 2nd ed. K. Czolczynski, Rotordynamics of Gas-Lubricated Journal Bearing Systems M.S. Darlow, Balancing of High-Speed Machinery J.F. Doyle, Nonlinear Analysis of Thin-Walled Structures: Statics, Dynamics, and Stability

IF. Doyle, Wave Propagation in Structures:

Spectral Analysis Using Fast Discrete Fourier Transforms, 2nd ed. P.A. Engel, Structural Analysis of Printed Circuit Board Systems A.C. Fischer-Cripps, Introduction to Contact Mechanics J. Garcia de Jal6n and E. Bayo, Kinematic and Dynamic Simulation of Multibody Systems: The Real-Time Challenge W.K. Gawronski, Dynamics and Control of Structures: A Modal Approach K.C. Gupta, Mechanics and Control of Robots J. Ida and J.P .A. Bastos, Electromagnetics and Calculations of Fields M. Kaviany, Principles of Convective Heat Transfer, 2nd ed. M. Kaviany, Principles of Heat Transfer in Porous Media, 2nd ed. E.N. Kuznetsov, Underconstrained Structural Systems P. Ladeveze, Nonlinear Computational Structural Mechanics: New Approaches and Non-Incremental Methods of Calculation
(continued after index)

Anthony Lawrence

Modern Inertial Technology

Navigation, Guidance, and Control
Second Edition

With 201 Figures

Springer

Anthony Lawrence 32 Sunny Hill Road Lunenburg, MA 01462 USA

Series Editor Frederick F. Ling Ernest F. GJoyna Regents Chair in Engineering Department of Mechanical Engineering The University of Texas at Austin Austin, TX 78712-1063 USA and William Howard Hart Professor Emeritus Department of Mechanical Engineering, Aeronautical Engineering and Mechanics Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Troy, NY 12180-3590 USA

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Lawrence, Anthony, 1935Modem inertial technology: navigation, guidance, and control / Anthony Lawrence - 2nd ed. p. cm. - (Mechanical engineering series) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-387-98507-7 (hardcover: alk. paper) 1. Inertial navigation (Aeronautics) 1. Title. II. Series: Mechanical engineering series (Berlin, Germany) TL588.5.L38 1998 629. 132'51---dc21 98-13047 Printed on acid-free paper.
1998, 1993 Springer-Verlag New York, Inc. All rights reserved. This work may not be translated or copied in whole or in part without the written permission of the publisher (Springer-Verlag New York, Inc., 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10010, USA), except for brief excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis. Use in connection with any form of information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed is forbidden. The use of general descriptive names, trade names, trademarks, etc., in this publication, even if the former are not especially identified, is not to be taken as a sign that such names, as understood by the Trade Marks and Merchandise Marks Act, may accordingly be used freely by anyone.

Production managed by Anthony K. Guardiola; manufacturing supervised by Jeffrey Taub. Camera-ready copy prepared from the author's WordPerfect files.

9 8 7 6 5 4 3 (Corrected third printing, 2001) ISBN 0-387-98507-7 SPIN 10843117

Springer-Verlag New York Berlin Heidelberg A member of BertelsmannSpringer Science+Business Media GmbH

Series Preface

Mechanical Engineering, an engineering discipline borne of the needs of the industrial revolution, is once again asked to do its substantial share in the call for industrial renewal. The general call is urgent as we face profound issues of productivity and competitiveness that require engineering solutions, among others. The Mechanical Engineering Series features graduate texts and research monographs intended to address the need for information in contemporary areas of mechanical engineering. The series is conceived as a comprehensive one that covers a broad range of concentrations important to mechanical engineering graduate education and research. We are fortunate to have a distinguished roster of consulting editors on the advisory board, each an expert in one of the areas of concentration. The names of the consulting editors are listed on the next page of this volume. The areas of concentration are applied mechanics, biomechanics, computational mechanics, dynamic systems and control, energetics, mechanics of materials, processing, thermal science, and tribology. I am pleased to present this volume in the Series: Modern Inertial Technology: Navigation, Guidance, and Control, Second Edition, by Anthony Lawrence. The selection of this volume underscores again the interest of the Mechanical Engineering series to provide our readers with topical monographs as well as graduate texts in a wide variety of fields. Austin, Texas Frederick F. Ling

Mechanical Engineering Series

Frederick F. Ling Series Editor

Advisory Board

Applied Mechanics

F.A. Leckie
University of California, Santa Barbara

Biomechanics Computational Mechanics

V.C.Mow Columbia University H.T. Yang University of California, Santa Barbara K.M. Marshek University of Texas, Austin J.R. Welty University of Oregon, Eugene

Dynamical Systems and Control Energetics Mechanics of Materials Processing Production Systems Thermal Science Trihology

I. Finnie University of California, Berkeley

K.K. Wang Cornell University G.A. Klutke Texas A&M University A.E. Bergles Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute W.O. Winer Georgia Institute of Technology

Preface

Since 1993, when the first edition of this book was published, inertial technology has changed in two ways. First, the maturing of the Global Positioning System (GPS) has encouraged electronics manufacturers to produce simple, inexpensive ($100) position indicators for the general public. Also, silicon micromachined gyroscopes and accelerometers have come of age and are now mass-produced. Together, these developments have impacted the low-cost, low-accuracy inertial system market. Secondly, the Interferometric Fiber Optic Gyroscope (IFOG) has become a reliable and accurate sensor and has found a market in heading and attitude reference systems. Different IFOG technologies have converged to a fairly standard instrument. In this second edition, we have generally updated each chapter and expanded the text and references relating to the micromachined sensors and the IFOG. While we cannot describe some proprietary design features, there is enough public literature available so that the reader can understand recent technological advances. We decided not to remove descriptions of some of the older technology (floated gyros, for example), as these may well be in the inventory for years to come. Also, the Pendulous Integrating Gyroscope Accelerometer (PIGA), based on this technology, has not yet been bettered as a precise accelerometer, although engineers are still attempting to make a "modem," solid-state, less expensive, and more reliable replacement. There were a few errors in the first edition that have been corrected. Our thanks to those who took the time to point them out. Whitman, MA Anthony Lawrence

Contents

Series Preface Preface Introduction 1. An Outline of Inertial Navigation Navigation's Beginnings Inertial Navigation Maps and Reference Frames The Inertial Navigation Process Inertial Platforms Heading and Attitude Reference Systems Schuler Tuning Gimbal Lock Strapdown Systems System Alignment Gyrocompassing Transfer Alignment Advantages and Disadvantages of Platform Systems Advantages Disadvantages Advantages and Disadvantages of Strapdown Systems Advantages Disadvantages Aiding Inertial Navigators The Global Positioning System Applications of Inertial Navigation Conclusions References

vii

1
4 4
6

6 8 9
11

12 12
13 15
16

20
22

17 17 17 17 18 18 18 19

22
23

x Contents

2. Gyro and Accelerometer Errors and Their Consequences

Effect of System Heading Error Scale Factor Nonlinearity and Composite Error System Error from Gyro Scale Factor Asymmetry Bias System Error from Accelerometer Bias Tilt Misalignment System Error from Accelerometer Scale Factor Error System Error from Gyro Bias Random Drift Random Walk Dead Band, Threshold, and Resolution Hysteresis Day-to-Day Uncertainty Gyro Acceleration Sensitivities g-Sensitivity Anisoelasticity Rotation-Induced Errors Angular Acceleration Sensitivity Anisoinertia Angular Accelerometers Angular Accelerometer Threshold Error The Statistics of Instrument Performance Typical Instrument Specifications References

25 26 27 27 28 28 28 30 30 30 31 32 32 33 33 34 34 35 36 37 37 38 39 39 42 43 43 47 48 48 48 50 50 50 51 51 53 53 54 54 55
44
40

25

3. The Principles of Accelerometers

The Parts of an Accelerometer The Spring-Mass System QFactor Bandwidth Open-Loop Pendulous Sensors Cross-Coupling and Vibropendulous Errors Pickoff Linearity Closed-Loop Accelerometers Open-Loop Versus Closed-Loop Sensors Sensor Rebalance Servos Binary Feedback Ternary Feedback Pulse Feedback and Sensors The Voltage Reference Problem Novel Accelerometer Principles Surface Acoustic Wave Accelerometer

Contents xi Fiber-Optic Accelerometers References

55 56

4. The Pendulous Accelerometer

A Generic Pendulous Accelerometer Mass and Pendulum Length Scale Factor The Hinge The Pickoff The Forcer and Servo The IEEE Model Equations The "Q-Flex" Accelerometer The Capacitive Pickoff The Forcer Other Electromagnetic Pendulous Accelerometers Moving Magnet Forcers Electrostatic Forcers The Silicon Accelerometer References

57 57 57 58 59 59 60 60 61 62 63 66 66 66 67 70
72 72

5. Vibrating Beam Accelerometers

The Vibration Equation The Resolution of a Vibrating Element Accelerometer The Quartz Resonator VBAs in General The Accelerex Design Accelerex Signal Processing The Kearfott Design Silicon Micromachined VBAs Comparison of Free and Constrained Accelerometers General Comparison of the SPA and VBA Comparison of Performance Ranges Conclusion References

74 75 76 77 78 79 81 82 82 83 83 84

6. The Principles of Mechanical Gyroscopes

Angular Momentum The Law of Gyroscopics Parasitic Torque Level The Advantage of Angular Momentum The Spinning Top-Nutation Equations of Spinning Body Motion Coriolis Acceleration

85 85 86 87 87 88 89 90

xii Contents The Ice Skater Gyroscopes with One and Two Degrees of Freedom Conclusion References

92 92 93 94
95

7. Single-Degree-of-Freedom Gyroscopes
The Rate Gyro The Scale Factor The Spin Motor The Ball Bearings Damping The Pickoff The Torsion Bar Flexleads Rate Gyro Dynamics The Rate-Integrating Gyro The Torquer The Output Axis Bearing The Principle of Flotation Damping Flotation Fluids Structural Materials The Externally Pressurized Gas Bearing Suspension A Magnetic Suspension Self-Acting Gas Bearings Anisoelasticity in the SDFG Anisoinertia in the SDFG Vibration Rectification The SDFG Model Equation A Digression into Accelerometers The Pendulous-Integrating Gyro Accelerometer Conclusion References

95 96 97 98 98 99 100 100 100 102 102 104 105 106 107 109 110 110 111 114 115 117 118 118 119 120
122
113

8. Two-Degree-of-Freedom Gyroscopes
The Two-Degree-of-Freedom (Free) Gyro The External Gimbal Type Two-Axis Floated Gyros Spherical Free Rotor Gyros The Electrically Suspended Gyro The Gas Bearing Free Rotor Gyro References

122 123 124 125 126 128 130

Contents xiii 9. The Dynamically Tuned Gyroscope The DTG Tuning Effect The Tuning Equations DTG Nutation Figure of Merit Damping and Time Constant Biases Due to Damping and Mistuning Quadrature Mass Unbalance Synchronous Vibration Rectification Errors Axial Vibration at IN Angular Vibration at 2N Wide Band Vibration Rectification Errors Anisoelasticity Anisoinertia Pseudoconing The Pickoff and Torquer for a DTG The DTG Model Equation Conclusion References 131 131 132 136 136 137 137 139 140 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 149 150 151

10. Vibrating Gyroscopes The Vibrating String Gyro The Tuning Fork Gyro The Micromachined Silicon Tuning Fork Gyro Vibrating Shell Gyros The Hemispherical Resonator Gyro Scale Factor Asymmetric Damping Error The Vibrating Cylinder (START) Gyro The Advantages of Vibrating Shell Gyros The Mu1tisensor Principle and Its Error Sources Conclusion References

152 153 154 156 158 159 160 160 162 163 164 167 167

11. The Principles of Optical Rotation Sensing The Inertial Property of Light The Sagnac Effect Sagnac Sensitivity-The Need for Bias The Shot Noise Fundamental Limit The Optical Resonator The Fabry-Perot Resonator Resonator Finesse The Sagnac Effect in a Resonator Active and Passive Resonators

169 169 170 172 173 175 176 179 179 180

xiv Contents Resonator Figure of Merit Optical Fibers Refraction and Critical Angle Multimode and Single-Mode Fibers Polarization Birefringent Fiber for a Sagnac Gyro The Coherence of an Oscillator Types of Optical Gyro Conclusion References

181 181 182 183 183 185 185 185 186 186
188

12. The Interferometric Fiber-Optic Gyro The History of the Fiber-Optic Gyro The Basic Open-Loop IFOG Biasing the IFOG Nonreciprocal Phase Shifting The Light Source Reciprocity and the "Minimum Configuration" Closing the Loop-Phase-Nulling Acousto-Optic Frequency Shifters Integrated Optics Serrodyne Frequency Shifting Fiber-to-Chip Attachment-The JPL IFOG Drift Due to Coil Temperature Gradients The Effect of Polarization on Gyro Drift The Kerr Electro-Optic Effect The Fundamental Limit of IFOG Performance IFOG Shot Noise Relative Intensity Noise (RIN) Conclusions References

188 189 190 190 192 193 194 195 195 197 198 199 200 201 202 202 203 204 205

13. The Ring Laser Gyro The Laser Stimulated Emission The Semiconductor Laser The Ring Laser Lock-In Mechanical Dither The Magnetic Mirror The Multioscillator Shared-Mirror RLG Assemblies The Quantum Fundamental Limit Quantization Noise

208

208 208 211 212 213 213 215 217 219 220 222

Contents xv Conclusion References

222 223 225 225 227 227 231 233 235 235 237 237 239 239 240 241 242 243 243
246

14. Passive Resonant Gyros

The Discrete Component Passive Ring Resonator The PARR Fundamental Limit The Resonant Fiber-Optic Gyro The Micro-Optic Gyro The MOG Fundamental Limit IFOG, RFOG, and MOG Size Limits Fundamental Limits for RFOG, IFOG, and RLG Conclusion References

15. Testing Inertial Sensors

Inertial Sensor Test Labs Performance Test Gear Environmental Test Gear Qualification, Acceptance, and Reliability Tests Accelerometer Testing The Accelerometer Acceptance Test Procedure Centrifuge Tests Gyroscope Testing Testing the SDF Rate Gyro Testing SDF Rate-Integrating Gyros Tombstone Tests The Six-Position Test The Polar-Axis (Equatorial Tumble) Test The Servo Table Scale Factor Test Vibration Tests Testing the Dynamically Tuned Gyro The Eight-Position Test DTG Rate Testing Testing Optical Gyros The Sigma Plot Conclusion References

247 247 248 249 249 251 252 252 253 254 256 256 256 258 258 260 261 261 262 262

16. Design Choices for Inertial Instruments

A Platform or a Strapdown System? Aiding the IMU Choice of Sensor Type Differential Design

xvi Contents Using Resonance Mechanical or Optical Gyros? Inertial Memory Lifetime Reliability Redundancy Sensor Design Check Lists Conclusions Reference

262 263 263 263 264 264 265 266 267

268

Index